‘being anglophone is not enough’: language, nationality and group membership in cameroon. dr...
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‘Being Anglophone is not enough’: language, nationality and group membership in Cameroon.
Dr Rebecca A. Mitchell
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THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION IN CENTRAL AFRICA
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CAMEROON
Population c. 20,129,878 Exoglossic language policy French and English are sole official languages No national language No majority language Large urban population (58%) High literacy rate (76%)
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THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONTEXT OF CAMEROON
Region of exceptional ethnolinguistic diversity
248 - 285 local languages; 3 out of 4 of Africa’s linguistic phyla attested (Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofanian).
Dialect-language controversy: A70 languages are mutually partially intelligible but ethnically distinct.
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THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
8 Francophone provinces and 2 Anglophone provinces : 20% Anglophone.
Official exclusion of the local languages from the education system.
Bilingual schools.
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LINGUA FRANCA DISTRIBUTION
Cameroonian Pidgin English
Fulfulde
Beti-Fang
Basaa
Douala
Hausa, Arabic
(supraregional)Kanuri &Wandala
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RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS
109 respondents; SES, gender and ethnic group not previously quantified; average age 21
Focus of questionnaire: self-reported proficiency in the local
languages perception of the relevance of local
languages and culture to the education system
attitudes towards the official language policy perception of the role of language, ethnic
group and race as identity markers
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ETHNOLINGUISTIC VARIABLES OF RESPONDENTS 84% monoethnic 36% born in Douala. 49 different ethnic groups. 50% of respondents are Bamileke (19
different ethnolinguistic variants) All languages are of the Bantoid branch of
Niger-Congo Grassfields, A40 (Bassa), A10 (Bakossi &
Oroko), A20 (Douala & Bakweri), A15 (Mboh), A60 (Yambassa, Manguissa) and A70 (Eton, Ewondo, Beti & Bulu)
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THE BILINGUAL IDEAL
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BILINGUALISM
Role of French and English as identity markers
20% ‘Anglophone’, 74% ‘Francophone’, 5% ‘bilingual’
Bilingualism: characteristic of Cameroon and a desirable societal/personal attribute.
4% of respondents disapprove of official bilingualism.
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COMPARTMENTALISATION
Progressive narrowing-down of the linguistic repertoire in the home.
Child-parent discourse: 23 non-European languages reported. 57% say their parents speak to them in French or English.
Parent-child discourse: 31 non-European languages reported.73% speak to their parents in French or English.
Dialect, langue maternelle, patois, mother tongue, langue camerounaise, langue traditionelle, native language, local language, vernacular.
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LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
25% consider ‘French’ and ‘English’ to be ‘Cameroonian languages’.
10% cannot speak a local language. Linguistic competence is lower in
respondents who do not visit the village Evidence of linguistic and cultural
attrition: rural exodus prevents replenishment of the rural population.
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RURAL LANGUAGES IN CRISIS
Twendi in Sanga village (< 1000 speakers)
Njen in Njen village (1,800 speakers) Tuotomb in Bonek village (1000
speakers) Mbule in Mbola village (100 speakers) Pam (30 speakers)
NB. 2007 estimates
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PROPOSALS FOR A NATIONAL LANGUAGE 56% propose a language other than their
own: suggests high level of linguistic security. Preference for established lingua francas, eg.
Douala (16%): symbolic identiary role Bamileke: geographically predominant,
protective of culture, renowned for business acumen.
‘Bamileke, because it’s similar to English’. 2nd most popular choice: English (16%), cf.
French (6%) . Suggestion of one language per province.
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LANGUAGE AND NATIONAL UNITY 10% believe bilingualism is a prerequisite for
Cameroonian identity. Only 5% equate being Cameroonian with the
mastery of a local language. Linguistic diversity: positive rather than
divisive. ‘to be a Cameroonian one must learn how to
speak the 2 national languages’. ‘being capable of expressing myself in my
mother’s tongue, being bilingual’ ‘to be Cameroonian is to know your country
and all its languages’ ‘it’s to speak a Cameroonian language and
be Francophone/Anglophone’
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IDENTITY MARKERS 3-tier identity system proposed for Gabon:
racial, national, ethnic group [Anglophone/ Francophone]
Resulting order: African, Cameroonian, ethnic, Anglophone/Francophone.
47% placed Anglophone/Francophone last. Challenges existing claims that being
Anglophone/Francophone is central to identity construction
New variables: name, appearance, ethnic group, nationality, language, class, character and race.
Nationality (82%), name (79%), ethnic group (57%) and race (27%).
Ethnic group is a relatively weak identity marker
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ETHNIC GROUP MEMBERSHIP
45% can identify a stranger by his language use.
13% cited competence in an indigenous language as necessary for ethnic group membership
‘I must be able to speak the language’.
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CONCLUSIONS
French and English have been indigenised as ‘Cameroonian languages’.
Ongoing attrition of local languages in domestic discourse
Self-reported competence in the local languages is fairly high
Linguistic security is robust Strong sense of national unity Bilingualism is a salient characteristic of
nationhood but speaker-perceived bilingualism is very low
Risk of cultural and linguistic attrition > ethnolinguistic levelling favouring majority languages.
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SOLUTIONS
Community initiatives. Cameroonian cultural studies in schools: Familiarise students with ethnic groups and
local languages Basic language instruction Introduction to history, music, oral literature
etc. Obviates need for actual standardisation but
absence of written records could be problematic
Role of the sociolinguist or social anthropologist in raising awareness.