Belonging through Materialism: An Investigation into the Influence of Identity and

Self-Esteem in the Relationship between Belonging and Materialism

By

Maria del Ara Trianes Salguero

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

B.A. (Hons) in Psychology

Supervised by Dr. Fiona Nutty

Submitted to Waterford Institute of Technology

2017

i

Declaration by Candidate

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and effort, and that it has not been submitted

anywhere for any reward. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been

acknowledged.

Signature:

Print name:

Date:

ii

Acknowledgements

To Jonathan O’Donoghue, for believing in me and for your boundless support. You have

been my exemplar.

To my grandfather, your strength was a constant source of inspiration.

My thanks to Dr. Fiona Nutty, for your dedication, patience and support. It really has been a

pleasure working with you.

iii

Abbreviations

MVS Materialistic Values/ Scale

NTB Need to Belong

SES Self-esteem

SDiscrepancy Self-Discrepancy

iv

Abstract

Materialism is a widely accepted peculiarity of modern societies. Acquiring a profound

awareness of the entanglement of the underlying determinants is crucial to understand the

phenomenon itself. Whereas previous research has focused on linking materialism with

negative consequences, this study aims to supplement recent and more neutral lines of

research, by establishing the connection between materialism, need to belong, self-esteem and

self-discrepancy. Former studies have shown connections between two or three of these

variables. This project is innovative by examining all four. To do this, quantitative research

and cross sectional design have been employed for the study of the six proposed hypotheses.

The data has been collected from a sample of 82 participants who were invited to complete

four questionnaires, in addition to two demographic questions. Descriptive and inferential

analyses were performed. Multiple tests were employed, nevertheless, most analyses are non-

parametric due to the violation of various assumptions. Mann-Whitney U test indicated that

both males and females reported similar scores for each of the four variables. The results from

performing a Kruskal Wallis test and subsequently a Tukey HSD Post Hoc, highlighted some

differences between belonging needs by age. Spearman’s correlations were performed to study

five of the hypotheses. These analyses confirmed the existence of relationships between

materialism and self-esteem, self-esteem and need to belong, and materialism and need to

belong. The Spearman’s partial rank correlation, which tested the last hypothesis, provided no

significant difference for materialism and need to belong when controlling self-esteem and

self-discrepancy. While some findings were in agreement with previous literature, other results

refuted preceding conclusions. Further analyses were implemented to gain deeper

comprehension of the relationship between these variables. Ordinal regressions reported need

to belong and self-esteem as good predictors of the outcome variable materialism. Multiple

regressions were also carried out for their ability to enhance the insight on the factors

influencing materialism. From the result of this analysis, it became clear that belongingness is

the best predictor for materialism. Lastly, path analysis reported that the proposed model in

which the four variables are interconnected, is the best model. From these findings, it can be

established that low self-esteem plays an important role on having stronger belonging needs,

and subsequently, belonging needs explain materialistic tendencies. Some limitations were

encountered, most notably being the small sample size and the selection of the self-discrepancy

questionnaire. Recommendations for future research include targeting larger sample sizes, and

the re-evaluation of alternative identity questionnaires.

v

Table of contents

Declaration by Candidate ........................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ii

Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................... iii

Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iv

Table of contents ....................................................................................................................... v

List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii

Chapter 1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 2. Literature review ...................................................................................................... 5

Materialism ........................................................................................................................... 5

Identities ............................................................................................................................... 8

Self-esteem ......................................................................................................................... 12

Belongingness ..................................................................................................................... 15

Belongingness & Materialism .......................................................................................... 17

Belongingness, Materialism & Self-esteem ..................................................................... 21

Belongingness, Materialism & Self-discrepancies .......................................................... 22

Chapter 3. Methodology .......................................................................................................... 25

Research design .................................................................................................................. 25

Materials ............................................................................................................................. 27

Participants ......................................................................................................................... 29

Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 30

Ethics .................................................................................................................................. 31

Data analysis: An overview ................................................................................................ 32

Chapter 4. Results.................................................................................................................... 34

Descriptive statistics ........................................................................................................... 34

Inferential Statistics ............................................................................................................ 36

Addressing the Hypotheses ................................................................................................ 43

vi

Further Analyses on the hypotheses ................................................................................... 46

Path analysis ....................................................................................................................... 54

Chapter 5. Discussion .............................................................................................................. 58

Summary of results ............................................................................................................. 58

Findings .............................................................................................................................. 59

Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 71

Future research ................................................................................................................... 71

References ............................................................................................................................... 74

Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 81

Appendix I. Information sheet ............................................................................................ 81

Appendix II. Participant consent form ............................................................................... 82

Appendix III. Material Values scale ................................................................................... 83

Appendix IV. Self-discrepancy questionnaire .................................................................... 84

Appendix V. Rosenberg Self-esteem scale ......................................................................... 85

Appendix VI. Need to Belong scale ................................................................................... 86

Appendix VII. Email to lecturer ......................................................................................... 87

Appendix VIII. Statistical analysis ..................................................................................... 88

vii

List of tables

Table 1. Gender profile of participants ................................................................................... 34

Table 2. Age of participants .................................................................................................... 35

Table 3. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality .................................................................... 35

Table 4. Mann-Whitney U test ................................................................................................ 36

Table 5. Kruskal Wallis test .................................................................................................... 41

Table 6. Tukey HSD Post Hoc test of NTB ............................................................................ 42

Table 7. Spearman’s rho correlation ....................................................................................... 43

Table 8. Spearman’s partial rank correlation in SPSS ............................................................ 46

Table 9. Spearman’s partial rank correlation in R ................................................................... 46

Table 10. Spearman’s partial rank correlations ....................................................................... 47

Table 11. Ordinal regression ................................................................................................... 48

Table 12. Ordinal regression by gender .................................................................................. 50

Table 13. Multiple regressions ................................................................................................ 51

Table 14. Multiple regression for MV, age and NTB ............................................................. 51

Table 15. ANOVA .................................................................................................................. 52

Table 16. Coefficients ............................................................................................................. 53

Table 17. Collinearity Diagnostics .......................................................................................... 54

Table 18. Path analysis ............................................................................................................ 55

1

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Without question, modern societies are excessively fixated on material goods and on

consumption. This is consistently seen with a negative connotation. Research has focused on

the relationships between materialism and the detrimental effects on one’s mental health,

especially in the connection between unhappiness and materialism (Roberts & Clement,

2007). However, an adoration and veneration for goods has been part of civilisations for tens

of thousands of years. Societies have always employed goods, and certain possessions such

as jewellery, were created to signal others by displaying their symbolic meaning (Scott,

2009). Consequently, since humans’ interest for material goods appear intrinsic, and it is so

influential in people’s behaviours and attitudes, approaching the concept of materialism with

an unfavourable inclination can only prompt its association with negative aspects, impairing

a broader and more comprehensive understanding on the underlying factors and its

implications. Therefore, employing an acceptant view must be more constructive.

More recent studies are approaching the understanding of materialism from a more

neutral point of view, viewing materialism as positive or negative, according to the reasons

driving towards the behaviour. Current analyses have been looking at materialism as a

compensatory coping mechanism or as a substitutive of certain needs when these are not

covered (Roberts & Clement, 2007). It is also reported that materialism helps individuals to

deal with negative emotions. Materialists frequently desire goods with specific features for

the purpose of mirroring those characteristics back to others. This effect seems to enhance

relationships, at least on a short term basis. Self-discrepancy theory (1986), which suggests

that individuals often experience a gap between their ideal and their actual selves, has been

proposed as a means to understand materialism, at least in certain circumstances. Thus,

2

having a higher ideal than actual self produces discomfort, which could likely drive the

individual towards materialism, first as a way to compensate for the discrepancy gap, and

second as a course to appear closer to the ideal self (Samper Daza, 2010). This is feasible

because objects are decisive elements for the maintenance or for the construction of one’s

identity, which is accomplished through the object’s symbolic meaning, facilitating self-

expression (Sirgy et al., 2016). However, people might engage in conspicuous consumption

when experiencing poor self-concepts, and a large self-discrepancy. Materialism has also

been linked to feelings of insecurity and low self-esteem (Shrum et al., 2014). People with

low self-esteem desire to portray a positive image of themselves, for which they might

immerse themselves in consumption. Additionally, the fact that the person aims to change the

self through the acquisitions, highlights that the current self is unsatisfactory, and that they

are seeking for a more desired one. Nevertheless, the social pressure model (2016) clarifies

that the person engages in social comparisons in order to construct an identity.

Simultaneously, findings reveal that comparing oneself to others is associated with low self-

esteem. Belongingness is a fundamental need in humans, and its fulfilment correlates with

multiple benefits, whereas its failure has detrimental repercussions (Cacioppo, Hawkley, &

Thisted, 2010). A common response after exclusion is a higher desire to affiliate. Whereas

belongingness has traditionally been negatively correlated with materialism, latest

approaches deviate by proclaiming a possible bi-directionality. Evidence reveals that the

employment of goods is a frequent and successful means to facilitate relationships by

signalling to others similarity and conformity (Shrum et al., 2014).

Understanding the reasons behind materialism is crucial to understand materialism

itself, and only by gaining that knowledge, the consequences of adhering to the practice, can

be determined, namely, whether it has a positive or an adverse effect. This awareness will in

turn facilitate the implementations of suitable interventions to tackle conspicuous

3

consumption. This information can also be utilized to raise consciousness among consumers

about certain factors facilitating their engagement on purchasing, empowering individuals to

make rational and voluntary decisions, without being manipulated by the media.

This research aims to investigate materialism and belonging by examining both

factors in conjunction with self-discrepancies and self-esteem, as two influential

determinants. This study aspires to provide insight into the interrelationship between these

four variables. Accordingly, in order to do so, this thesis will look at materialism, identities,

self-esteem and belongingness to understand these variables individually, and will continue

by linking them together and examining the connection between belongingness and

materialism, belongingness, materialism and self-esteem, and belongingness, materialism,

and self-discrepancies. Whereas previous research has been carried out on materialism and

self-esteem, materialism and identity, or materialism and well-being, little research has

examined whether materialism becomes a tool for individuals who present a disparity on

different selves, with the intention of achieving social attachment. Are people who have a

poor self-image more inclined to need stronger social attachments? Are those relationships

established by engaging in materialism and consumption? While belongingness is a crucial

element of humanity, this social connection necessity might be more pronounced in

individuals with low self-esteem. Thus, this study introduces an innovative approach by

linking these factors and by providing a unique proposition on how they interact with one

another. Furthermore, this study will explore the connection between belonging and

materialism, which is an area of research in need of more scientific inquiry.

For the study of materialism, this research will utilise quantitative statistics. The

corresponding data will be obtained from four questionnaires related to each of the four main

variables: materialism, need to belong, self-esteem and self-discrepancy.

4

Conclusion

Due to the relevance of materialism in societies, knowing its causes is important to

understand the phenomenon itself, and its repercussions. Only then, it can be concluded the

need for intervention, and the best procedure. This research proposes the study of

materialism in connection to belongingness needs, self-esteem and self-discrepancy. The

next chapter will construct a deeper insight on this research topic based on previous findings.

Chapter three will describe the methodological approaches utilized and their corresponding

rationale. Chapter four will move into reporting the results obtained from the statistical

analysis, which will be explained and framed around former studies in chapter five.

5

CHAPTER TWO

Literature review

Introduction

Materialism is irrefutably, a feature of modern societies. Whereas initially, most

research studies on the topic were reporting the harmful consequences of acquiring

materialistic tendencies, in recent years more researchers have been holding more neutral

positions about the use of this practice. The key to study materialism is on understanding the

driver of the behaviour. Thus, it has been reported that in certain conditions it aids the

individual, for example to construct their identities. In other occasions, such as when needs

are not met, possessions might be consumed as a coping mechanism. There is significant

agreement across studies on the fact that self-esteem plays an important role in the

employment of goods for their symbolic meaning. At the same time, identity is reported to be

associated to materialism, especially among those individuals whose self-image does not

match their ideal one. Lastly, since we are social animals, and social interactions are critical

determinants for individuals’ wellbeing, the fulfilment of the person’s belongingness needs is

a major factor contributing towards higher levels of materialistic values. This chapter will

provide further depth on the understanding of each variable, and it will move into exploring

the relationship between them.

Materialism

Modern societies are frequently ascribed to be obsessed for material possessions

(Goodwin, Nelson, Ackerman, & Weisskopf, 2008). Researchers have argued that external

factors such as advertisement and television impact and provoke on people an increase of

materialistic tendencies (Hayko, 2010; Kasser & Kasser, 2001). Recurrently, this is seen as

undesirable and even as a harmful feature, yet, goods have played a fundamental part in

society and its members since prehistoric times (Scott, 2009). Archaeological findings

6

corroborate that early civilizations already employed both tools and prestigious goods, such

as jewellery. Evolutionary psychology explains that goods are essential for survival (Scott,

2009). Additionally, it has been suggested that not covering satisfaction material needs can

lead to self-destructive impulses (Scott, 2009). Thus, materialism can be beneficial or

pernicious, depending on the underlying motives (Scott, 2009). The definition of materialism

is changeable and elusive (Shrum et al., 2013). Whereas there have been multiple attempts to

impose a definition for materialism, the most widely adopted interpretation is the one

proposed by Richins and Dawson (1992) (Srikant, 2013), which defines materialism as “a set

of centrally held beliefs about the importance of possessions in one’s life” (p. 308). However,

some theorists have argued that the key of materialism is on the hidden motivations for

purchasing (Donnelly, Ksendzova, Howell, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2016). The admiration or

the rejection of others have been proposed as some of the possible drivers of this conduct

(Elphinstone & Critchley, 2016). Dittmar (2004) proposes that there are three different types

of motivations behind consumption: functional, which refers to the economy, the emotional-

social which is influenced by emotional and social relations, and the identity-related which

involves the self-concept including the ideal self.

Research has established that materialists are merely interested in the instrumentality

of money, therefore, its use for purchasing things (Donnelly et al., 2016), although an

alternative approach has underlined that the end purpose of pursuing goods is the external

connotations of the object, such as power or the projection of a positive image (Elphinstone

& Critchley, 2016). Burroughs and Rindfleisch (1997) state that the instrumental materialism

can indeed collaborate in the formation of healthy social affiliations. Using materialism as an

instrument to promote the development or the enhancement of one’s identity, has also been

reported as one of the positive consequences of materialism (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 1997;

Segev, Shoham, & Gavish, 2015). Consumers have declared to purchase as a way of

fulfilling and accomplishing higher goals and needs, such as self-enhancement (Chaplin &

7

John, 2007), which refers to the decision of the individual to connect with positive identities

(Nguyen, Ngamsiriudom, Pelton, & Dubinsky, 2015). Materialistic behaviours can be

beneficial when pursuing short term aims (Shrum et al., 2014). Moreover, materialistic

tendencies have also been attributed to economic development and to an improvement in

living standards (Noguti & Bokeyar, 2014), and yet most studies have mainly focused on the

negative aspects associated to pursuing materialistic values (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 1997;

Shrum et al., 2013), such as enduring low self-esteem (Shrum et al., 2014), dissatisfaction

with life (Roberts & Clement, 2007; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001) or the perniciousness for

relationships (Chan & Prendergast, 2007), among many others.

A great number of researchers regard materialism as a reaction and a consequence

after experiencing negative emotions (Chan & Prendergast, 2007). It has been confirmed that

purchasing dispensable goods can assist people to cope with inner problems (Donnelly et al.,

2016). This is perceived by some, as objectionable since these individuals do not actively

repair the negative aspect that led them to that situation, the consumption will consequently

be ceaseless (Ang, Mansor, & Tan, 2014). A line of current research highlights that

materialism is proved to be less harmful than previously believed (Dittmar, 2004).

Consumption patterns range across a wide spectrum going from normal to compulsive

(Claesa, Müllerc, & Luyckxa, 2016). The detrimental effect could be seen, however, if the

materialistic values precede any other attitudes (Dittmar, 2004). However, the preconception

of a damaging and hurtful materialistic attitude prevents researchers from discovering an

alternative side to it, maybe even a positive one (Shrum et al., 2013). Research has yet to

comprehend both the antecedents and the precedents for materialism. While it is possible that

materialistic people seek happiness through consumption, and then get disappointed for not

reaching contentment, it is also likely that those distressed would turn to attain joy through

purchasing (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 1997). This effect is described as a “downward spiral”

(Shrum et al., 2014, p. 1869), thusly, without knowing which comes first, the presence of one

8

impacts on the other, which consequently influences back to the first (Shrum et al., 2014). It

is also theorized that whereas materialism could be the driver of well-being, the likelihood of

a confounding variable influencing both, such as self-esteem, should not be discarded

(Shrum et al., 2014). Nevertheless, the predominant procedure among psychologists is to

understand the different attitudes individuals hold towards materialism. This is achieved by

looking into personality traits (Lipovčan, Prizmić-Larsen, & Brkljačić, 2015). Personality

traits are, however, understood as a component of the concept of identity (Oyserman,

Elmore, & Smith, 2012). For this reason, examining identities as a whole might be

advantageous to understand the link with materialism.

Identities

Identities are traits, features, roles and relations, which describe who a person is

(Oyserman, Elmore, & Smith, 2012). The term identity has been used in psychology

interchangeable with self, self-concept or self-identity (Huang, 2009; Oyserman et al., 2012).

There has been much disagreement surrounding the concept of identities (Reed, Forehand,

Puntoni, & Warlop, 2012), however, nowadays, it is generally understood as a

multidimensional construction (Araujo Gil, Leckie, & Johnson, 2016; Markus & Nurius,

1986; Perez, Castaño, & Quintanilla, 2010). Whereas there are numerous hypotheses

defining the self-concept (Araujo Gil et al., 2016), the self-discrepancy theory (1986) is

relevant when studying it in connection to materialism, as it stresses that people have

personal ambitions which they can struggle to reach (Derrick, Gabriel, & Tippin, 2008), thus,

this can explain why possessions become crucial to these individuals. Thus, the actual-self

refers to how the person perceives themselves, and the ideal-self denotes a desired perception

of oneself (Sirgy, 1982). Whereas according to the self-discrepancy theory, individuals

should show consistency across the different selves, when this is not the case, self-

discrepancy can raise discomfort on the individual (Ang et al., 2014; Derrick et al., 2008;

Nguyen et al., 2015). Self-discrepancies are more frequent in individuals with low self-

9

esteem, according to recent findings (Derrick et al., 2008). Research shows that the biggest

actual-ideal discrepancy gap lies on economic happiness, and that the underlying reason is

materialism. The desire for money can lead to permanent discrepancy as it is difficult and

subjective, to define when one possesses enough (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos Arroyo, 2015).

Additionally, recent literature indicates that nowadays, self-identity is frequently being

threatened by crisis, such as the stress from a disrupted family structure, contributing towards

a sense of self-concept uncertainty (Noguti & Bokeyar, 2014). These factors might promote

consuming behaviours (Nguyen et al., 2015), by which the consumer hopes to use goods to

repair the threats to the identity (Min, 2012), to compensate for the deficiencies of the self

(Nguyen et al., 2015) and to narrow the distance between the real-self and the ideal-self

(Dittmar, 2005; Donnelly et al., 2016). Evidence from this is found in UNICEF report (2011)

which states that children from economically deprived families are more inclined to be

engrossed in conspicuous consumption due to a disconnection between ideal and actual self,

and it has been understood as a way to deal with poverty.

James (1890) highlights the power of belongings by stating that an individual is the

sum of his possessions. People develop attachments with their belongings (Norris &

Williams, 2016), and a line of literature considers possessions as a part of oneself (Belk,

2000). Wallendorf and Arnould (1988) demonstrate the impact that objects have on the self

by emphasizing the feelings of violation of the self when an individual loses all their material

goods. Objects can function to remind and confirm a person’s identity (Nguyen et al., 2015;

Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988) but they can also enhance the construction of the self-concept

(Ahuvia, 2005; Belk, 1988; Chaplin & John, 2007; Huang, 2009; Perez et al., 2010;

Piacentini & Mailer, 2004; Shrum et al., 2013; Todd, 2012; Toth, 2014). Findings suggest

that the person imposes their identity on the possessions, and the possessions impose their

identities on the individual (Dalton, 2008; Perez et al., 2010). Goods have symbolic

10

meanings, which allow the individual to express oneself (Sowden & Grimmer, 2009). This

idea is reflected by the theory of materiality and objectification, which accentuate the

relevance of goods within society by stating that just as without ideas, material goods would

not exist, without objects, societies would not be able to express themselves (Felix & Garza,

2012). Possessions are then valued, rather than for their functionality, for the product’s

symbolic value (Noguti & Bokeyar, 2014; Piacentini & Mailer, 2004; Solomon, 1983). Thus,

symbolic purchasing refers to the consumption of goods according to the meaning culturally

given, consequently displaying information about the consumer (Solomon, 1983), this is

especially relevant in the consumption of fashion (Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016; Perez et al.,

2010). Brands are also utilized, on occasions, for their symbolic meaning (Dittmar, 2004;

Huang, 2009), as it has the property of transferring the traits from the object to the owner

(Fennis & Pruyn, 2007). This interpretation contributes to clarify the impetus by which

adolescents engage in brand consumption. Teenage years are characterized by a pursuit for

an identity, and at the same time, it is when that materialism peaks (Donnelly et al., 2016).

Thus, the branded products can facilitate a sense of self (Dittmar, 2004), aiding in that

critical stage through the accumulation of goods (Araujo Gil et al., 2016). There has been

confirmation about a negative interaction between identity confusion and the accumulation of

goods (Claesa et al., 2016). Although the acquisition of certain types of object does not

impact the formation of the self, (Felix & Garza, 2012), eudaimonistic identity theory (2016)

maintains that participating in actions that encourage the expression of the self, such as self-

expressive shopping, improves well-being (Sirgy et al., 2016). Even an ordinary consumption

can be self-expressive (Sowden & Grimmer, 2009).

Products and brands allow people to construct and promote their own desired

identities (Fennis & Pruyn, 2007; Huang, 2009), and thus may serve as self-signals of

particular qualities (e.g. intelligence, taste) that are central to one’s self-identity (Shrum et

11

al., 2014). Thus, people employ different products and brands with the purpose of

highlighting specific aspects of themselves (Dommer, Swaminathan, & Ahluwalia, 2013;

Fennis & Pruyn, 2007). An example can be Mercedes-Benz’s advertising slogan “unlike any

other”, which implies the power and prestige of the owner (Dommer et al., 2013). Research

findings also support the idea that individuals increasingly consume the symbolic meanings

attached to objects to look for a better self (Dittmar, 2005). These symbolic meanings are

often used to value the person’s self-worth (Ferraro, Escalas, & Bettman, 2011). The empty-

self theory (2016) asserts that people with poor self-concepts engage in superfluous

consumption to mitigate and offset those deficits (Claesa et al., 2016). Consumption can

then, also be a compensatory behaviour for deficiencies (Samper Daza, 2010) and weakness

(Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016). Thus, individuals who feel a lack of power have a

predisposition towards luxury goods (Samper Daza, 2010). Findings demonstrate that people

treat more favourably an individual wearing luxury brands than the same individual wearing

identical clothes without the brand (Nelissen & Meijers, 2011). The explanation for this

effect lies on the perception that wealth denotes certain skills, such as intelligence or

ambition, thus demonstrating affluence implies the person has superior abilities (Nelissen &

Meijers, 2011). Whereas using goods for identity signalling can be positive, an excessive

reliance on goods can have negative consequences, such as addictive buying (Dittmar, 2004).

Evidence illustrates the relationship between materialism, low self-concept and compulsive

buying (Claesa et al., 2016). Some disagreements in the area has led many scholars to

advocate the self-image congruence hypothesis (Hosany & Martin, 2012), which clarifies

that individuals prefer products that manifest the same image and personalities than oneself

(Kleine, Kleine, & Kernan, 1993; Maden & Köker, 2013; Toth, 2014). Accordingly,

consumption is performed and consistent with the person’s sense of self (Escalas & Bettman,

2003; Escalas, 2013).

12

However, not every theorist concurs with this vision of the self. An alternative line of

thought has suggested that self-identity does not exist, but that everything is social identity

since one’s sense of self is constructed as a response to social interactions (Huang, 2009).

Indeed, there is some validity to the attempt to stress the role of social elements on the

understanding of the self and on consumption. Dittmar (2004) includes this approach by

accentuating that possessions facilitate the perception of other people’s identities, but it also

indicates to others who one is (Nguyen et al., 2015; Piacentini & Mailer, 2004; Wallendorf &

Arnould, 1988), and who one would like to be. Goods will additionally display one’s

belongingness to a reference group (Sowden & Grimmer, 2009) and at the same time they

become signs by which we connect or differentiate from other individuals or groups in

society. This is often done by socially visible objects (Piacentini & Mailer, 2004), which not

only contribute by signifying their attributes, but also for what they do not embody (Sowden

& Grimmer, 2009). Some theorists however, have argued that the employment of objects to

signal one’s identity is only encountered in individuals with low self-esteem. Thus,

individuals with high self-esteem do not need possessions to gain or to display status, power,

admiration, nor to confirm their identity (Liang et al., 2016). Therefore, the role of self-

esteem might be a feasible factor playing a part on the magnitude to which the social milieu

influences one’s identity.

Self-esteem

Maslow (1943) understands self-esteem as a need common among all people, based

upon real capacity, to have a high evaluation of themselves and to be respected and

appreciated by others. However, one’s self-worth can be threatened on a daily basis as when

experiencing rejection or failure (Dalton, 2008). Extensive evidence maintains that feelings

of insecurity and low confidence levels urge consumption (Segev et al., 2015; Toth, 2014).

Concurrently, it has been documented that materialistic individuals are more inclined to

13

experience negative views of the self, such as self-doubt (Zhou & Gao, 2008), self-blame,

guilt or low self-esteem (Donnelly et al., 2016). Especially self-esteem has consistently been

linked to materialistic attitudes (Shrum et al., 2013). Research affirms that individuals with

high materialistic values score low on self-esteem (Donnelly et al., 2016; Rindfleisch,

Burroughs, & Wong, 2009; Thomas & Wilson, 2016). These findings are additionally

corroborated in studies involving children aged between 8 and 18 years (Araujo Gil et al.,

2016; Donnelly et al., 2016). Enhancing children’s feelings of self-worth has proven to

reduce materialistic tendencies (Dalton, 2008). However, the issue becomes more complex

after discovering that a third of individuals with high self-esteem also score high on

materialistic values (Thomas & Wilson, 2016).

Materialism, in some individuals, can be triggered by experiencing insecurity or

inadequacy (Clark et al., 2010; Thomas & Wilson, 2016). Whereas multiple types of

insecurities, such as economic disadvantage, have additionally been found to be related to

high materialistic values and behaviours (Dittmar, Bond, Hurst, & Kasser, 2014; Hudders &

Pandelaere, 2012; Rindfleisch et al., 2009), other studies declare that the economic

disadvantage is more connected to the feelings of insecurity than to real scarcity (Donnelly et

al., 2016). According to this idea, Kasser and Kasser (2001) report that the dreams of

individuals with high materialistic values reveal their feelings of insecurity, contrary to less

materialistic individuals.

Low self-esteem is at the same time, correlated with a disposition towards feelings of

inadequacy and failure (Donnelly et al., 2016). Results confirm that materialistic people

believe that they are failing to attain societal standards and they worry about being judged

negatively (Donnelly et al., 2016). This concern explains why materialists monitor their

appearances more than non-materialistic individuals (Felix & Garza, 2012), thus

demonstrating the importance they place on enhancing themselves and on impressing others

14

(Donnelly et al., 2016). The reasoning behind this idea is that people who have negative

feelings about their self-worth, desire to portray a positive image of themselves (Dalton,

2008). In order to restore a positive self-image, individuals employ different psychological

processes (Dalton, 2008). Consumption has been reported to be used, in some cases, as a

compensatory coping mechanism (Roberts & Clement, 2007; Shrum et al., 2014; Sivanathan

& Pettit, 2010; Zhou & Gao, 2008), by individuals whose intrinsic needs, such as self-

acceptance or affiliation, are unfulfilled. Thus, materialists compensate for these deficiencies

with external gratifications, such as wealth or image (Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016; Chaplin &

John, 2007; Lipovčan et al., 2015). Further research reveals that consumers proactively

engage in purchasing before a possible threat to the self (Min, 2012). The relevance of

displaying a positive social image leads to the pursuit of a strategic image management

consumption (Donnelly et al., 2016). This is also interpreted as evidence of the feelings of

self-doubts and low self-worth. Additionally, it has been suggested that materialists use

consumption to silence the lack of confidence through the acquisition of goods (Segev et al.,

2015; Thomas & Wilson, 2016), with the expectation that those purchases will provide them

with happiness and an enhanced self-esteem (Shrum et al., 2014; Chaplin & John, 2007;

Lipovčan et al., 2015). From this perspective, possessions are only desired for their external

properties, such as the ability to create a positive image, instead of their instrumentality

(Elphinstone & Critchley, 2016). Thus, while it appears evident that some individuals turn to

materialism as a way to evade negative feelings of self-worth, recent findings indicate that

materialism can also prompt those undesirable emotions (Donnelly et al., 2016),

demonstrating the possibility of a bidirectional relationship.

Most psychologists have consistently stressed the unsuitability of engaging in retail

therapy, which refers to the purchase of goods in order to boost one’s feelings (Dalton,

2008). Belk (2000) supports the idea that possessions can either enhance well-being feelings

or raise emptiness, depending on the internal attitude of the person. Alternative studies have

15

challenged the previous outlook by stating that consumption can, in fact, restore self-worth

(Dalton, 2008). Thus, materialism has been put forward as a self-enhancement strategy to

cope with negative feelings (Zhou & Gao, 2008), which involves acquiring goods to raise

self-esteem (Cisek et al., 2014; Donnelly et al., 2016). An improved self is strived for

because the previous self was unsatisfactory (Donnelly et al., 2016). Nevertheless, whereas

self-threats and fragile self-concepts help clarify materialistic tendencies, they can’t untangle

alone the entire dilemma (Shrum et al., 2014). Due to this inability of self-esteem to fully

account for materialism, an alternative perspective needs to be considered. Thus, the social

pressure model (2016) affirms that materialism nowadays, is not elicited (or not exclusively)

by low self-esteem, but by social factors (Thomas & Wilson, 2016). The theory determines

that the significance of materialistic individuals favouring luxurious and conspicuous

products, lie on its rationale, signalling one’s traits, status or affiliation to others (Perez et al.,

2010; Shrum et al., 2014). Namely, it is suggested that socialization influences and instigates

consumption tendencies. Considering these premises, examining humans’ belongingness

needs might be appropriate to provide a more precise understanding of materialistic trends.

Belongingness

Western societies are experiencing a decrease on the strength and number of social

attachment between the individuals and groups (Putnam, 1995). Despite being connected to

social networks and Wi-Fi for a large part of the day, people are more isolated than before

(Wang, Zhu, & Shiv, 2012), and although data testing the levels of relatedness is not

available, there is a general perception that society is becoming more detached, and

consequently, lonelier (Pieters, 2013). This is meaningful because belongingness is a

universal (Shifron, 2010) and a basic need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Maner, DeWall,

Baumeister, & Schaller, 2007; Norris & Williams, 2016). All healthy individuals long to be

accepted by others (Leary, Kelly, Cottrell, & Schreindorfer, 2013). Humans have an innate

need to belong to social groups and to establish relationships (Mead, Baumeister, Stillman,

16

Rawn, & Vohs, 2011). While belongingness needs are present for most humans, the

magnitude of this desire to belong varies across individuals (Leary et al., 2013). Some can be

satisfied with fewer relations than others. Humans are social in nature (Min, 2012) and

therefore, are driven to establish social connections (Loveland, Smeesters, & Mandel, 2010).

Grief has been said to signify the loss of the bond between two people (Baumeister & Leary,

1995). There is no evidence that a significant affiliation can end without the members

suffering, the clear example is divorce (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Maslow (1943)

understands love and belongingness as the third most important human need, just after

physical and safety needs. It is, therefore, essential that a person feels affiliated (Shifron,

2010). People can be a source of comfort or of sorrow (Zhou & Gao, 2008). In general, a

positive bond is associated with emotional benefits (Wilczyńska, Januszek, & Bargiel-

Matusiewicz, 2015), while the dissolution of the attachment relates with negative effects

(Baumeister & Leary, 1995). There is evidence indicating that a deficiency of belongingness

causes social, health and psychological problems (Cacioppo, Hawkley, & Thisted, 2010;

Wilczyńska et al., 2015) and at the same time it has been seen that mental health improves by

enhancing the person’s belongingness experiences (Shifron, 2010). The need to belong

impacts on the individual’s actions (Loveland et al., 2010), feelings and thoughts

(Wilczyńska et al., 2015). The individual spends a great portion of life promoting and

preserving certain positive relations, and worrying about how one is perceived (Leary et al.,

2013). This is crucial because social exclusion causes social pain (Zhou & Gao, 2008).

Loneliness, which appears when the need to belong is not fulfilled (Baumeister & Leary,

1995), is a weakening psychological state by which the individual feels emptiness, and a

threat to the self (Cacioppo et al., 2010). It is theorized that exclusion triggers stronger

yearnings to reconnect (Lakin, Chartrand, & Arkin, 2008; Loveland et al., 2010; Maner et al.,

2007; Pieters, 2013), which can induce some individuals to take action to restore connections

(Dommer et al., 2013; Min, 2012). Thus, women, after being ostracized, have shown to

17

intensify their endeavour to be accepted in a group (Maner et al., 2007). Contradictorily,

studies reveal that lonely people spent less time interacting with others, which could fill this

need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), yet at the same time, this could also be interpreted as the

motive for their state. To prevent from being rejected, people employ two pathways:

similarity and conformity (Min, 2012). Evidence comes from the discovery that people adapt

their opinions and approaches to become socially accepted (Zhou & Gao, 2008), which

shows conformity and compatibility by agreeing with others. Individuals monitor their

behaviours in social environments in order to determine their inclusion or exclusion to a

group (Loveland et al., 2010). Research provides evidence that those people with higher

belongingness needs are more precise at deciphering other people’s feelings (Leary et al.,

2013; Loveland et al., 2010). Likewise, it has been discovered that people with the need to

belong unfulfilled, deliberately or unawarely, respond to exclusion by mimicking members

of the in-group who can re-establish one’s position in the inside (Lakin et al., 2008; Min,

2012). Mimicry is a successful automatic reaction because it induces affinity, affection and

trust (Lakin et al., 2008). Additionally, it has been found that when the belongingness need

has not been fulfilled, there is a search for substitutes (Maner et al., 2007; Mead et al., 2011).

Evidence comes from a study that supports the idea that some ostracised individuals engage

in a strategic consumption to promote the attachment to a group of friends (Min, 2012).

Consequently, the relationship between belongingness and materialism needs to be looked at

jointly.

Belongingness & Materialism

One potential factor provoking loneliness is materialism (Pieters, 2013). There is a

clear correlation between materialism and loneliness (Ang et al., 2014). Consequently, a

crucial part of consumption is due to social behaviour (Solomon, 1983). It is also

acknowledged that materialistic people value social attachments, such as family and

18

community, as less important than non-materialistic people (Pieters, 2013; Rindfleisch et al.,

2009; Zhou & Gao, 2008), they spent less time with family (Kasser, 2002; Roberts &

Clement, 2007), and they report having unsatisfactory relationships with friends and family

(Donnelly et al., 2016; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). They value possessions more than

interpersonal relationships (Hudders & Pandelaere, 2012). Additionally, materialistic values

can impede quality relationships (Pieters, 2013), which will most likely bring loneliness

(Williams, 2014). Accordingly, materialistic values are related to antisocial and egoistic

tendencies (Roberts & Clement, 2007). An alternative theory suggests, however, that

materialism is a response to fail to accomplish the gratification of higher needs, such as

belongingness (Donnelly et al., 2016; Norris & Williams, 2016; Rindfleisch et al., 2009).

When the need to belong is not fulfilled, insecurity arises, and people can utilize objects to

fill the gap (Donnelly et al., 2016). Possessions have a strong power providing security

(Clark et al., 2010). Thus, materialism can lead to loneliness but it might also help against it

(Araujo Gil et al., 2016). It has recently been announced that there might be a bi-directional

relationship between materialism and belongingness (Rindfleisch et al., 2009). While high

rates of materialistic values are linked to social disengagement, feeling lonely seems to

intensify materialistic attitudes (Pieters, 2013). Consequently, loneliness can precede

materialism (Ang et al., 2014). Current studies also report that consumption is employed

strategically as an attempt to accomplish social acceptance and belongingness (Dittmar,

2005; Mead et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2015; Segev et al., 2015). Materialism can be a

compensatory reaction to a lack of belongingness (Felix & Garza, 2012). Thus, materialism

might increase as an attempt from the individual to endure loneliness (Williams, 2014) and to

fill the gap of belongingness when it is not satisfied (Ang et al., 2014). It is possible that

individuals who feel uncomfortable on social gatherings, will not be accepted in a group,

causing loneliness and unhappiness in the individuals, which in turn could prompt the

persons to engage in materialistic tendencies in order to fill the deficiencies and to silence the

19

emptiness (Shrum et al., 2014). It is also reported that the reliance of individuals on labels

also highlights unmet needs to belong (Dommer et al., 2013). Further evidence announces

that different materialistic responses are seen according to the type of social exclusion, thus,

while rejection can promote prosocial attitudes, being ignored may induce conspicuous

consumption (Dommer et al., 2013). Consistently, social connections are presented as shields

against materialism (Ang et al., 2014; Norris & Williams, 2016; Vries, Trampe, & Fennis,

2011; Williams, 2014).

Purchasing objects can be motivated by an interest in impressing others (Elphinstone

& Critchley, 2016), to create a social image (Perez et al., 2010), or as a coping mechanism to

endure loneliness (Ang et al., 2014), after being rejected by others. Consumption, and brands

(Dommer et al., 2013), can be a substitute or promoter of friendships (Norris & Williams,

2016). Possessions might become, in the eyes of the person, good substitutes as they

compensate immediately for dissatisfied needs and avoid social pain (Pieters, 2013). It is

reported that individuals reminded of situations of personal rejection, experience stronger

bonds to their belongings, presumably as to obtain safety (Donnelly et al., 2016; Pieters,

2013). Goods are a strong course to attain attachments, and thus, consumers manipulate the

use of the object for one’s own benefit in social contexts (Zhou & Gao, 2008). The external

connotations of the possessions are the most fundamental factors, as those have the power of

elevating one’s self-esteem or affiliation with others (Elphinstone & Critchley, 2016). Thus,

people look for acceptance through their purchases (Araujo Gil et al., 2016; Burroughs &

Rindfleisch, 1997; Nelissen & Meijers, 2011; Zhou & Gao, 2008). Likewise, wearing

labelled products facilitates interactions (Nelissen & Meijers, 2011). There is also evidence

that rejected individuals display higher levels of consumption (Shrum et al., 2014), which is

understood as a signal to display one’s interest in connecting with others (Min, 2012).

Consuming and exposing possessions symbolizing the desired group, promotes

inclusion (Shrum et al., 2013). Since symbolic consumption communicates information about

20

oneself, it is suggested that this information is used conjointly to create a good impression on

others (Mead et al., 2011) and to conform to group norms (Hudders & Pandelaere, 2012).

Therefore, the symbolic meanings of the goods are used to express affiliation to a specific

group (Hudders, 2012) by accepting or rejecting the object (Piacentini & Mailer, 2004; Wood

& Hayes, 2012). The need to belong drives individuals to consume brands to which their

reference group associates with (Araujo Gil et al., 2016; Dommer et al., 2013). This

expenditure is directed towards being acknowledged as an equal by significant others, rather

than to stand out (Perez et al., 2010). Brands employed for their identities, can benefit social

connections and feelings of ostracism (Dommer et al., 2013). A study of preteenagers has

clarified that girls consume certain clothes brands in accordance to their affiliative groups

(Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016). Groups share certain characteristics, such as their attire

(Donnelly et al., 2016), therefore certain purchases can make an individual more appealing to

others (Zhou & Gao, 2008). Piacentini & Mailer (2004) report that clothes are a useful tool,

by which people construe an image of the wearer as being like people with similar clothes.

Research demonstrates that at least to the perceiver, one is what one wears (Fennis & Pruyn,

2007). Individuals employ acquisitions to signal that their personality is in coherence with

that of the group, facilitating the affiliation with the desired group (Abdalla & Zambaldi,

2016; Araujo Gil et al., 2016; Dommer et al., 2013). Similarly, rejected people with

unsatisfied belongingness needs engage in consumption to signal similarity and conformity

to the desired group (Shrum et al., 2014) as a mean for inclusion. Conspicuous consumption

is interpreted as a strategic attempt to enlarge social bonds (Shrum et al., 2014) by appearing

alike (Maner et al., 2007). It is reasonable, therefore, that if some people employ goods to fit

in, the self-esteem of these individuals would play a part in the interaction between

belongingness and materialism, which is why these three factors should be looked at

simultaneously.

21

Belongingness, Materialism & Self-esteem

Much has been written about the interrelationship between belongingness,

materialism and self-esteem, as self-esteem seems crucial to explain the relationship between

materialism and belongingness. Goods have the ability to signal membership, status (Norris

& Williams, 2016), identification with certain roles, but also, they facilitate relationships, and

bolster the self (Dittmar, 2004). Being lonely, on certain occasions, has been associated with

feelings of inferiority and insecurity (Ang et al., 2014). Feeling inadequate, rejected,

doubting or blaming oneself motivates consumption towards a status enhancement (Donnelly

et al., 2016). That is to say, while loneliness might be a consequence of self-esteem, material

things can be purchased to restore both the self-concept and friendships. Further evidence

indicates that material possessions have the capacity of restoring the feeling of security for

people (Ang et al., 2014), and of exposing a constructive self-image (Fennis & Pruyn, 2007).

Along these lines, the socialization pathway claims that feelings of insecurity and

socialization are factors leading to materialistic patterns (Thomas & Wilson, 2016).

Concurrently, feelings of rejection can impact negatively on a person’s self-esteem

(Donnelly et al., 2016; Loveland et al., 2010), and low self-esteem people are more inclined

than others to perceive rejection (Min, 2012). This predisposition could promote materialistic

patterns in order to enhance one’s self-worth, as it occurs when individuals experience

negative emotions (Min, 2012). Materialists demonstrate low self-concepts (Norris &

Williams, 2016) and they are highly conscious of social standards, and dread being hostilely

judged (Donnelly et al., 2016). The low levels of self-esteem and their fear of judgment

explain the reaction of materialists to monitor their behaviour (Felix & Garza, 2012).

Monitoring one’s actions enables the promotion of oneself in society, probably as a way to

conform with members (Felix & Garza, 2012). A satisfied need to belong results in an

enhanced development of psychological processes, as well as in higher self-esteem and a

22

better self-concept (Wilczyńska et al., 2015). Nevertheless, although individuals who have

their needs to belong met, display higher levels of self-esteem (Wilczyńska et al., 2015),

social inclusion does not seem to satisfy the belongingness needs of low self-esteem

individuals (Dommer et al., 2013). It has been theorised that this is attributable to the fact

that individuals with low self-esteem amplify the threat of being rejected, which can result in

people distancing themselves from the interactions (Derrick et al., 2008). Hence, self-esteem

correlates with the strength by which people pursue interactions (Min, 2012).

Belongingness, Materialism & Self-discrepancies

Low self-esteem individuals are inclined to have a larger self-discrepancy (Derrick et

al., 2008). People are intrinsically driven to enhance and preserve their identity, and while

there are multiple routes, consumption is a major one (Shrum et al., 2013). Low self-esteem

individuals are motivated to participate in conspicuous consumption to display the goods to

others (Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016), as a compensatory response. The social comparison

theory (2007) emphasises that people instinctively compare oneself to others, subjectively

(Chan & Prendergast, 2007). From this idea, materialism is perceived as a consequence after

comparing oneself with others (Donnelly et al., 2016). Social comparison and consumption

for prestige become tools for the construction of a desired identity (Thomas & Wilson,

2016). If one’s self-worth depends on the acceptance of others, visible acquisitions can

become an important source of signalling (Shrum et al., 2013). Thus, individuals with low

self-concept might rely on purchases to fit in, and on members to enhance their self-identity.

Materialists expect that goods will enhance their appearance and their connections, and that

these will help them to become admired, glamorous, or envied, all of which demonstrate the

person’s disenchantment with their self, and the idea that employing goods will bring them

closer to their ideal self (Donnelly et al., 2016). The materialistic escape cycle claims that

gaps between reality and desired outcomes causes negative emotions in the person (Donnelly

23

et al., 2016). Having a disparity between ideal and actual selves have been proposed to

signify a tendency to suffer high expectations in life, and simultaneously seeing that nothing

reaches the standards (Donnelly et al., 2016; Zhou & Gao, 2008). It is likely that this

disposition will induce feelings of inadequacy and will affect the self-esteem. The

employment of goods to improve one’s image can also be seen as confirmation of the

existence of feelings of inadequacy. This phenomenon can be explained with the escape

theory which explains that feeling incompetent after comparing oneself with others, raises

feelings of disadvantage, which prompts materialism (Donnelly et al., 2016). Peer pressure

and social comparisons are the major factors impacting in materialism (Thomas & Wilson,

2016). Simultaneously, materialistic patterns increase when one considers they have failed to

reach their expectations (Donnelly et al., 2016). This is indicative that an actual-ideal-self

discrepancy can be precipitated in a social context, and elicits materialism, possibly as a

coping mechanism as well as to construct an identity closer to the ideal one. People, and

especially those rejected or lonely, might look at their ideal group for features to complete

their self-concept (Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016), and incorporate them in their purchasing

patterns as mean to construct one’s identity (Araujo Gil et al., 2016; Zhou & Gao, 2008) and

to affiliate with aforementioned group. Thus, consumption of specific goods can facilitate

belongingness, construction of identity (Nelissen & Meijers, 2011) and might increase self-

esteem. Links between self-discrepancies, inclusion and materialism are evident. However,

whether one will employ materialism as a method, will vary according to the person’s

psychological processes and the social circumstances (Zhou & Gao, 2008).

Conclusion

Materialism is undeniably an element of modern societies, although employing goods

for their symbolic meaning have been a prevalent practice in most societies through history.

Materialism has frequently been perceived as having negative consequences, such as

24

unhappiness. Nowadays, studies are taking a more neutral stance, and focusing instead, on the

driver of such behaviour. Accordingly, the display of goods can facilitate the construction of

one’s identity through the object’s symbolic meaning, but possessions can also, in certain

occasions, be employed as a coping mechanism, as a substitute when basic needs are not

covered. Studies have reported this to be the case with individuals with low self-esteem, who

might employ purchasing as a way to exhibit a better self-image. Additionally, individuals who

aim to use possessions to portray an improved positive image are experiencing an actual-ideal

self-discrepancy. This discrepancy causes discomfort, and is often muted through

consumption. Moreover, materialism is additionally linked to belongingness, as those acquired

goods are expressing self-information back to others. The following chapter will detail the

hypotheses of study and the appropriate research methods to investigate the research objectives

of this study.

25

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

Introduction

Materialism has become a prevailing feature of modern societies. Whereas, due to

economic development, there has been an increase of consumption tendencies and a higher

predisposition towards materialistic values on western societies, there has also been a decrease

on the strength and number of social attachments between the individuals and communities.

This research was undertaken in order to examine the connection between materialism, self-

discrepancy, self-esteem and belongingness. More specifically, the aim of the study is to reveal

whether individuals who present an ideal-actual self-discrepancy and low self-esteem, employ

materialism as a tool in order to achieve social attachment. The assumption is that individuals

with a discrepancy between selves will display lower self-esteem and consequently, they will

present stronger needs to belong to a group, by which they will look to become a member or

maintain their position within the community, through materialism. In the current chapter, the

methodology employed will be discussed, and exhaustive details of the sampling method and

procedure will be presented.

Research design

This research was carried out in order to establish the connection between the four

variables: materialistic values, self-discrepancy, self-esteem and belongingness. The research

has utilised a quantitative method, which provides generalisable data. Additionally,

quantitative research was selected in order to facilitate the comparison of the obtained results

with previous research which were predominantly quantitative. In order to tackle the

objectives of the study, both descriptive and cross-sectional research designs were employed.

The later was required to facilitate the study of the presumable cause-effect linkage. The

project looked at within group differences. This research has required a correlational design

26

to explore the relationship between variables. Cross sectional questionnaires have been the

method of inquiry in order to gather information, because it facilitates the collection of data

on a specific date and time and allows for the understanding of certain features of the

population through the assessment of a sample.

To gain better understanding about belonging through materialism, and identity and

self-esteem as influencing factors, six hypotheses were proposed:

H0: Individuals with lower self-esteem will not have significantly different values towards

materialism than individuals with high self-esteem.

H1: Individuals with lower self-esteem will present stronger values towards materialism than

individuals with high self-esteem.

H0: Individuals with low self-esteem will not have significantly different needs to belong to a

group, than individuals with high self-esteem.

H2: Individuals with low self-esteem have stronger needs to belong to a group than

individuals with high self-esteem.

H0: Individuals with higher ideal-self than actual-self will not display significantly different

materialistic values than individuals with congruent selves.

H3: Individuals with higher ideal-self than actual-self will display stronger materialistic

values than individuals with congruent selves.

H0: Individuals with low self-esteem will not display a significant difference on the different

selves.

H4: Individuals with a low self-esteem will display incongruent selves.

H0: Individuals with high materialistic values will not present a high need to belong.

H5: Individuals with high materialistic values will present high need to belong.

H0: Individuals with strong needs to belong, have low self-esteem and a higher ideal-self

than an actual-self, which will not contribute to high materialistic values.

27

H6: Individuals with strong needs to belong, have low self-esteem and a higher ideal-self

than an actual-self, which leads to high materialistic values.

Materials

In order to carry out the proposed study, the following materials were required: an

information sheet (see Appendix I), a consent form (see Appendix II), and three software

programmes for the data analysis: R-project (R) 3.3.2, Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences (SPSS) 20 and IBM SPSS Amos 24. Additionally, in order to measure the

variables materialism, identity, self-esteem and belongingness, four questionnaires have been

employed as the collection instruments.

I. Materialism

To measure materialism, the Material Values Scale (MVS) developed by Richins and

Dawson in 1992 (see Appendix III) was implemented. The authors explain

materialism as a value which impacts the way individuals understand their

environment and lives. Thus, materialism is the relevance given to owning and

purchasing goods towards accomplishing desired goals (Richins, 2004). Whereas

there are 3, 6, 9, 15 and 18- item versions of the MVS, the 15 item questionnaire is

recommended as it has been demonstrated to have the most stable dimensional

structure (Richins, 2004). In order to assess materialism, the 15-item MVS measures

three aspects: the use of possessions as a way to evaluate one’s success and that of

others, the level of importance of possessions in one’s life, and the belief that

possessions and acquisitions prompt happiness (Richins & Dawson, 1992). The

scores are summed as an overall MVS score. The questionnaire is scored on a 5 point

Likert scales. The Cronbach’s alpha in the 15-item MVS has been reported to have a

mean of 0.86, and the overall scale reliability is of 0.85 (Seneca, 2002).

28

II. Identity

To measure the identity, the Self-discrepancy questionnaire was employed. Higgins

(1986), the developer, attempts to explain that there are three domains of self.

Individuals are motivated towards having congruency among the three selves. The

actual-self refers to the person’s perception of features that the person really has. The

ideal-self refers to the characteristics a person would desire on having, and the ought-

self, which involves the attributes that the person thinks one should possess. In order

to measure the congruence between selves, Higgins proposes the Self-discrepancies

questionnaire (see Appendix V), in which subjects list up to ten characteristics related

to each self (Higgins, Bond, Klein, & Strauman, 1986). It is a free-measure method.

The Self-discrepancy questionnaire has demonstrated good inter-rater reliability,

ranging from 0.80 to 0.97 (Ozgul, Heubeck, Ward, & Wilkinson, 2003). However,

the re-test reliability coefficients for actual-ideal self-discrepancy is consistently

lower than 0.70 (Watson, Bryan, & Thrash, 2010). This questionnaire has been

adapted in two ways for the present study. First, the column for ought qualities has

been removed since the research project is interested in the actual-ideal self-

discrepancy and how this connects with other variables, thus, the ought column

would have provided information irrelevant for the current investigation. Second, to

increase the participation rates and the completion of the questionnaire, the

questionnaire required participants to write five adjectives for each actual and ideal

self, instead of the suggested ten qualities for each. These changes may however,

affect the validity noted above.

III. Self-esteem

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (see Appendix V) developed by Rosenberg in 1965, is

composed by 10 items in a four point Likert scale. Rosenberg uses the term self-

concept to refer to the sum of the person’s thoughts and feelings, referring to the self

29

as an object (Rosenberg, 1989). Thus, the author proposes that self-esteem is one of

the elements which form self-concept. Self-esteem is the overall opinion that a person

has towards oneself, being either positive or negative. Thus, this scale evaluates the

indicated personal perception. The Rosenberg Self-esteem scale is one of the most

employed measures to study self-esteem (Gabhainn & Mullan, 2003). The

questionnaire shows high internal consistency ranging from 0.77 to 0.88, a test-retest

reliability over 0.82.

IV. Belongingness

Leary proposes that the need to belong is a central human driver. This need reflects a

strong need and ambition towards establishing social attachments. To assess

affiliation inclinations, Leary developed the Need to Belong Scale (NTBS) (see

Appendix VI) in 2013. NTBS is a 10-item self-report that evaluates the desire of the

individual to be accepted and to belong, by measuring the reactions towards

acceptance and rejection (Leary, Kelly, Cottrell, & Schreindorfer, 2013) through a 5-

point Likert scale. This recent scale is considered the most empirically stable

compared to alternatives (Leary et al., 2013). NTBS displays good inter-item

reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient ranging from 0.78 to 0.87. Analysis of

test-retest reliability conducted shows a 10-week reliability of 0.87 (Leary et al.,

2013).

Participants

The study intended to reveal the relationship between materialism, self-identity, self-

esteem and belongingness in a population of 18 years (and over) Irish residents, who have

fluency on the English language, guaranteeing thus, the full comprehension of the questions.

Despite the research not focusing on possible different patterns according to age groups, age

will be employed as an inclusive/exclusive criteria, avoiding individuals below 18 for ethical

reasons. Furthermore, whereas the gender of the partakers has not been considered a crucial

30

factor for the understanding of the topic during this study, the sample has incorporated both

male and female participants. In order to provide sufficient representation from the

population to allow for generalization of the conclusions and acknowledging the time frame,

the sample of this study was constituted by sixty participants.

Due to the time constraints, a non-probability convenience sample method was

implemented to access the sample. The participants were selected from a group of

undergraduate students from Waterford Institute of Technology. The partakers were recruited

at the beginning of two different lectures, having previously arranged the data collection date

and time with the appropriate lecturer (see Appendix VII). However, only those students who

voluntarily agreed to participate were included.

Procedure

All procedures were carried out in accordance with PSI ethical guidance and WIT

guidelines and policy for ethical approval of research involving human subjects. After

gaining ethical approval and obtaining the confirmation from the gatekeeper, the researcher

met with the lecturer at the time and place agreed upon to execute the research on two

different groups. The data was collected during January 2017. This occurred during working

hours within WIT campus. The students were not informed previous to the class that a

research project was going to be carried out, as to avoid class absence. The researcher

presented herself in front of the audience providing full name, year and degree of study, the

motive whereby the participants were encountered, the aim of the project, the importance of

taking part and the outline of the ethical considerations. Thus, students were fully briefed that

the tests were voluntary and anonymous, and that no type of reward would be offered in

exchange for participation. However, a special emphasis was placed on the participant’s right

to withdraw and/or to abstain to complete the questionnaires. It was also mentioned that the

completion of the questionnaires would not take longer than 15 minutes, and that questions

would be answered at any point. Following the presentation, the researcher distributed to

31

each partaker a consent form, an information sheet and the four questionnaires. Each

participant was requested to submit the consent sheet, and to keep the information form, in

case there was need to contact the researcher. As questionnaires were being completed, the

researcher collected them. The researcher took the opportunity to inform partakers about

their right to withdraw within the following seven days through the researcher’s contact

details, which are provided in the information sheet. Additionally, each participant, as well as

the lecturer, were thanked for their collaboration.

Ethics

The researcher had consulted prior the study the WIT Guidelines and policy for

ethical approval in research involving human subjects as well as the Code of Professional

Ethics by the Psychological Society of Ireland and the Code of Ethics and Conduct by the

British Psychological Society. The researcher has complied with the ethical guidance

standards relating to informed consent by supplying the information sheet to participants, in

which sufficient and clear information about the topic of research, the risks involved, and the

option to withdraw were described. The participant consent form was submitted to be signed

as to indicate that the participant understood and agreed with the procedure. In order to

conform with freedom of consent, the researcher clarified in the information sheet and during

the presentation before distributing the questionnaires, that participation was entirely

voluntary and that, it was the participants’ right to withdraw at any moment, up to seven days

after submitting the surveys. Additionally, participants were notified through the information

sheet, about the employment of the findings for the final year project, and possibly, for future

publications. In compliance with the guidelines, the questionnaires were unsigned, and thus,

the data collection and analysis maintained the anonymity of the participants. To ensure the

anonymity whilst the possibility to withdraw after submission, every participant was asked to

write on the questionnaire a secret key word/ symbol which, if necessary, would have

facilitated the extraction of the particular questionnaire. Additionally, all information has

32

been treated as confidential. The data was stored according to its nature, for soft copies, the

computer files were kept on the researcher’s home, protected by password entry. The hard

copies, however, have been secured in a locked filing cabinet in WIT grounds. Two years

after the completion of the research, the files will be destroyed in accordance with WIT

protocol for confidential documents. To guarantee the maximum discretion, only the

researcher and the supervisor have access to the data. It has been envisioned that the risk of

harm for the participant has been minimal on this study. However, the researcher had

implemented procedures, such as providing the researcher’s contact details.

Data analysis: An overview

Three questionnaires provided Likert-scale results, and consequently, ordinal data.

The fourth questionnaire reported scale data. Descriptive statistics have been employed for

the description of every variable. To describe the central position of the scale data, which

correspond to the identity variable, the mean and the standard deviation were used. In

contrast, the remaining variables utilised the median as the measure of central tendency.

Additionally, inferential statistics were carried out. As a consequence of working mostly with

ordinal data, the analyses were limited to non-parametric tests. In order to explore whether

the relationship between the two variables under study, and whether changes in one variable

would entail similar changes on the other variable, Spearman’s correlations were performed

in SPSS for each of the hypothesis. In correlational research, variables are measured

simultaneously and so no cause-and-effect relationship have been established. In order to

understand the relationship between the four variables, two approaches have been

implemented. The first analysis involved an Ordinal Regression using SPSS, in which

belonging, self-esteem and identity were measured as independent variables and materialism,

as the dependent variable. The second methodology required the use of R, an alternative

statistical programme, in order to perform Spearman partial rank-order correlations. This

procedure has enabled the measure of the correlation between belonging and materialism

33

after controlling for the variables self-esteem and identity. For a deeper understanding on the

relationships of these variables and the causality between them, multiple regressions and a

path analysis were further performed, requiring for the later the employment of the statistical

software SPSS Amos.

Conclusion

This chapter has described the type of research design employed during the study of this

phenomenon, providing as well precise details of the participants and their recruitment

strategy. Moreover, ethical considerations along with preliminary data analysis has been

discussed. The next chapter will present the results obtained from the data analysis.

34

CHAPTER FOUR

Results

Introduction

This chapter will report the most appropriate analyses to deepen the knowledge of

materialism in consonance with the line of enquiries formerly suggested. In order to respond,

therefore, to the proposed hypotheses, both descriptive and inferential statistics have been

carried out. Most analyses are non-parametric due to violation of assumptions. Thus, Mann-

Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests have been performed to see the effect of gender and age

on the four main variables: materialism, need to belong, self-esteem and self-discrepancy.

Additionally, Spearman’s and Spearman’s partial rank correlations were executed to provide

answer to the proposed hypothesis. Ordinal and multiple regressions were run to expand the

understanding of the effects between the variables. To conclude, a path analysis was employed

to examine the causal relationships among the variables, and the fitness of the proposed model.

Descriptive statistics

This study examined the four variables of materialism, self-esteem, need to belong and

self-discrepancy. In addition, two demographic variables were included, these being the age

and gender of the participants. Descriptive statistics are a good method of getting a quick image

of the distribution of the data (Field, 2009). The total sample size was 82 (N=82). Table 1

displays the summary of the distribution of the participants by gender, thus, 24 participants

were male, corresponding to a 29.3% of the totality of the subjects, whereas 58 were female,

equivalent to the remaining 70.7%.

Table 1. Gender profile of participants

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

male 24 29.3 29.3 29.3

female 58 70.7 70.7 100.0

Total 82 100.0 100.0

35

Table 2 illustrates the distribution of the sample by age. The age group ranging from

18-24 accounts for the 65.9% of the sample, those between 25-34 for 18.3%, participants

between 35-44 represents 3.7%, those ranging from 45-54 accounted for 7.3% and the

remaining 4.9% correspond to those equal or above 55 years of age.

Table 2. Age of participants

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

18-24 54 65.9 65.9 65.9

25-34 15 18.3 18.3 84.1

35-44 3 3.7 3.7 87.8

45-54 6 7.3 7.3 95.1

+55 4 4.9 4.9 100.0

Total 82 100.0 100.0

In order to examine the normality of the data, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) Tests

were run. As it can be seen in table 3, K-S test indicates a normal distribution for materialism,

D(82) = .08, p = .200, and for the need to belong, D(82) = .08, p = .200. However, the data is

not normally distributed for self-esteem, D(82) = .11, p = .024, self-discrepancy , D(82) = .17,

p = .000 nor for age, D(82) = .38, p = .000. Consequently, non-parametric tests have been

carried out.

Table 3. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality for the five ordinal variables

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

MVS .078 82 .200* .979 82 .205

NTB .085 82 .200* .981 82 .271

SES .106 82 .024 .978 82 .160

SDiscrepancy .166 82 .000 .944 82 .001

age .378 82 .000 .632 82 .000

*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

36

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics tell us whether the alternative hypotheses are likely to be true,

therefore, helping us to confirm or reject the predictions. Because the data is not normally

distributed, and in addition, the four variables of study, in addition to age, violate the

parametric assumption which requires the data to be interval (due to having been measured in

Likert-scales, and thus, providing an ordinal value), non-parametric analyses have been run,

except for the case of looking at multiple regressions, and path analysis.

Whereas gender was not proposed as a variable in any of the hypotheses in the

current investigation, there was an expectation based on previous literature, that gender

differences would appear. Consequently, in order to establish whether there were significant

differences in the mean scores of materialism, self-esteem, need to belong and self-

discrepancy between males and females, a Mann-Whitney U test was carried out. This test

compares the differences of outcomes between two independent groups to conclude whether

the two samples derive from the same population. As table 4 shows, although mean values

differed somewhat between males and females, these differences were not significant for any

variable, MVS p = .170, NTB p = .810, SES p = .443, SDiscrepancy p = .834.

Table 4. Mann-Whitney U test for Materialism, Self-esteem, Belongingness and Self-discrepancy

Ranks

gender N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

MVS

male 24 35.90 861.50

female 58 43.82 2541.50

Total 82

SES

male 24 38.38 921.00

female 58 42.79 2482.00

Total 82

37

gender N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

NTB

male 24 40.52 972.50

female 58 41.91 2430.50

Total 82

SDiscrepancy

male 24 42.33 1016.00

female 58 41.16 2387.00

Total 82

Test Statisticsa

MVS SES NTB SDiscrepancy

Mann-Whitney U 561.500 621.000 672.500 676.000

Wilcoxon W 861.500 921.000 972.500 2387.000

Z -1.372 -.767 -.240 -.210

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .170 .443 .810 .834

a. Grouping Variable: gender

The bar graph in Figure 1, displays the differences on materialistic tendencies

according to gender, counting for 100% for each legend variable category. This graph

facilitates the comparison between materialistic trends between males and females. There are

minor differences between gender. However, while 8% of males score low in materialism,

there is 0% of females in this category.

38

Figure 1. Levels of materialism by gender

The box plot in Figure 2 illustrates the variation of self-esteem by gender. Males had

slightly higher scores than females, additionally, the values in the upper quartile are more

disperse. The comparison by gender between medians show that the average female scored

somewhat higher than males. There is no difference between the lowest quartiles by gender.

Although, there are some outliers, SPSS has identified them as mild. The difference in size of

the whisker corresponding at each gender reflects an asymmetrical distribution.

39

Figure 2. Box plot for self-esteem on males and females

Figure 3 represents the variation between genders on belongingness. Males had lower

scores and more dispersion than females, whereas the range of values in the upper quartile

are more disperse for females. The medians are roughly the same for both genders. Both

males and females present asymmetrical distributions.

Figure 3. Box plot for belongingness on males and females

40

The box plot in Figure 4 displays the variability of self-discrepancy by gender. Males

show appreciable both higher and lower scores, and considerably more dispersed than

females. The median for both genders are equal. The range in which 50% of females’ scores

fall, is more compressed than such for males. One outlier has been identified for males. This

is a mild outlier. A larger number of mild outliers are noticeably in the scores for females,

and with one outlier being severe. The box plot illustrates an asymmetrical distribution for

males, the distribution appears symmetrical.

Figure 4. Box plot for self-discrepancy by males and females

A Kruskal Wallis test was carried out to compare the variables according the different

age groups. This test is regarded as an extension of Mann-Whitney U test, as it is also used to

determine if there are statistically significant differences between the different groups of the

independent variable on an ordinal dependent variable. Kruskal Wallis however, admits the

use of independent variables with more than two categories.

The descriptive table, in table 5, demonstrates unequal group sizes by age. The test

statistic table shows that the need to belong is significant at p = .017, being this the only

significant variable. It can be concluded therefore, that age significantly affects the need to

41

belong. Additionally, the confidence interval provides confidence that the significant effect is

real.

Table 5. Kruskal Wallis test

Ranks

age N Mean Rank

MVS

18-24 54 45.42

25-34 15 37.37

35-44 3 42.83

45-54 6 22.58

+55 4 31.50

Total 82

SES

18-24 54 38.16

25-34 15 46.77

35-44 3 69.50

45-54 6 43.75

+55 4 42.50

Total 82

NTB

18-24 54 45.68

25-34 15 37.07

35-44 3 5.67

45-54 6 28.50

+55 4 48.13

Total 82

SDiscrepancy

18-24 54 38.96

25-34 15 45.37

35-44 3 48.00

45-54 6 49.17

+55 4 44.88

Total 82

Test Statisticsa,b

MVS SES NTB SDiscrepancy

Chi-Square 6.424 6.040 11.097 2.045

df 4 4 4 4

Asymp. Sig. .170 .196 .025 .727

Monte Carlo Sig.

Sig. .164c .188c .017c .740c

99% Confidence Interval Lower Bound .155 .178 .014 .729

Upper Bound .174 .198 .020 .752

a. Kruskal Wallis Test

b. Grouping Variable: age

c. Based on 10000 sampled tables with starting seed 2000000.

42

Considering that Kruskal Wallis is an omnibus test statistic and therefore, cannot

indicate where the difference lies, a Tukey HSD Post Hoc test is presented to do so. As the

table shows, the significant difference on need to belong lies between 18-24 and 35-44 age

group, p = .018.

Table 6. Tukey HSD Post Hoc test

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable (I)

age

(J)

age

Mean

Difference

(I-J)

Std.

Error

Sig. 95% Confidence Interval

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

NTB Tukey HSD

18-24

25-34 2.378 1.983 .752 -3.16 7.92

35-44 12.778* 4.029 .018 1.52 24.03

45-54 5.111 2.923 .411 -3.05 13.28

+55 -.972 3.520 .999 -10.81 8.86

25-34

18-24 -2.378 1.983 .752 -7.92 3.16

35-44 10.400 4.296 .121 -1.60 22.40

45-54 2.733 3.281 .920 -6.43 11.90

+55 -3.350 3.823 .905 -14.03 7.33

35-44

18-24 -12.778* 4.029 .018 -24.03 -1.52

25-34 -10.400 4.296 .121 -22.40 1.60

45-54 -7.667 4.803 .504 -21.08 5.75

+55 -13.750 5.188 .071 -28.24 .74

45-54

18-24 -5.111 2.923 .411 -13.28 3.05

25-34 -2.733 3.281 .920 -11.90 6.43

35-44 7.667 4.803 .504 -5.75 21.08

+55 -6.083 4.385 .638 -18.33 6.17

+55

18-24 .972 3.520 .999 -8.86 10.81

25-34 3.350 3.823 .905 -7.33 14.03

35-44 13.750 5.188 .071 -.74 28.24

45-54 6.083 4.385 .638 -6.17 18.33

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

43

Addressing the Hypotheses

In order to understand the correlation between materialism, need to belong, self-

esteem, self-discrepancy and age, table 7 illustrates the summary of the analysis required to

answer hypothesis 1 to 5. The table presents a bivariate Spearman’s correlation coefficient,

also known as Spearman’s rho. Bivariate correlation refers to the correlation between two

variables. Spearman’s correlation is the non-parametric equivalent of parametric correlations,

which allows researchers to measure the direction and the strength of the association between

the ranked variables.

Age is negatively correlated to the level of materialism, with a coefficient of rs = -

.247, p < .05. Therefore, as age increases, materialistic values decrease. No significant

correlation is found between age and self-esteem, rs = .188, p = .091. There is a significant

negative correlation between age and need to belong with rs = -.241, p < .029. Therefore, the

last correlation, looking at the connection between age and self-discrepancy does not

correlate, rs = .154, p = .168, p > .05. It can also be identified from the matrix in table 7, that

due to the absence of strong correlations r > .80, multicollinearity can be ruled out.

Table 7. Spearman’s rho between age, materialism, self-esteem, need to belong and self-

discrepancy

age MVS SES NTB SDiscrepancy

Spearman's

rho

age

Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.247* .188 -.241* .154

Sig. (2-tailed) . .025 .091 .029 .168

N 82 82 82 82 82

MVS

Correlation Coefficient -.247* 1.000 -.288** .290** -.052

Sig. (2-tailed) .025 . .009 .008 .641

N 82 82 82 82 82

SES

Correlation Coefficient .188 -.288** 1.000 -.482** .170

Sig. (2-tailed) .091 .009 . .000 .126

N 82 82 82 82 82

44

Spearman's

rho

age MVS SES NTB SDiscrepancy

NTB

Correlation Coefficient -.241* .290** -.482** 1.000 .037

Sig. (2-tailed) .029 .008 .000 . .743

N 82 82 82 82 82

SDiscrepancy

Correlation Coefficient .154 -.052 .170 .037 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .168 .641 .126 .743 .

N 82 82 82 82 82

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

H1: Individuals with lower self-esteem will present stronger values towards materialism than

individuals with high self-esteem.

Table 7 shows that the bivariate Spearman’s correlation coefficient investigating the

relationship between self-esteem and materialism, indicates a significant negative

correlation, rs = -.29, p = .009. This data shows a medium strength relationship

between self-esteem and materialism, in which an increase in one is met with a

decrease in the other. The 𝑅s2 for the relationship between both variables is .08,

which means that self-esteem can account for 8% of the variance in materialistic

values.

H2: Individuals with low self-esteem have stronger needs to belong to a group than

individuals with high self-esteem.

The results from the analysis conclude that there exists a strong negative effect

between self-esteem and needs to belong rs = -.48, p = .000. In terms of variance, 𝑅s2

is .23, which means that self-esteem can account for a 23% of the variance in the need

to belong.

45

H3: Individuals with higher ideal-self than actual-self will display stronger materialistic

values than individuals with congruent selves.

The data from table 7 reporting the results of the analysis for hypothesis 3, indicates

there is not a significant correlation between self-discrepancies and materialistic

tendencies, rs = -.05, p = .641.

H4: Individuals with a low self-esteem will display incongruent selves.

The Spearman’s rho highlights that there is not a significant correlation between self-

esteem and self-discrepancy, rs = .17, p = .126.

H5: Individuals with high materialistic values will present high need to belong.

Table 7 shows the existence of a medium strength significant relationship between

materialistic tendencies and need to belong, rs = .29, p = .008. The variance, 𝑅s2 is

.08, which means that materialistic values account for 8% of the variance in the need

to belong.

H6: Individuals with strong needs to belong, have low self-esteem and a higher ideal-self

than an actual-self, which leads to high materialistic values.

A Spearman’s partial rank correlation was employed for the analysis of hypothesis 6,

as the mentioned proposition requires the study of the correlation of two variables while

controlling for another two variables. In order to do this non-parametric partial correlation,

both SPSS and R statistical computing were utilized. SPSS does not have a way of specifying

rank correlations for the analysis of Spearman’s partial correlations, however, an alternative

course of action was performed, by introducing manually the matrix subcommands. R have

been used due to its recognized reliability on this particular analysis, and therefore, allowing

for a corroboration or contradiction with the results acquired from SPSS.

46

Table 8 and table 9 show that both statistical programmes reported that the same

partial correlation for materialistic values and need to belong while controlling for self-

esteem and self-discrepancy, rs = .18, p = .104. It is therefore, safe to say that this correlation

is not significant.

Table 8. Spearman’s partial rank correlation in SPSS

Control Variables MVS NTB

SES & SDiscrepancy

MVS

Correlation 1.000 .183

Significance (2-tailed) . .104

df 0 78

NTB

Correlation .183 1.000

Significance (2-tailed) .104 .

df 78 0

Table 9. Spearman’s partial rank correlation in R

estimate p. value statistic n gp Method

0.1828503 0.104495 1.642583 82 2 spearman

Further Analyses on the hypotheses

Whereas the last hypothesis was exclusively looking at the relationship between

materialism and need to belong while controlling for self-esteem and self-discrepancy,

parallel Spearman partial ranks’ correlation analyses were run to gain a deeper insight into

the connection between the variables.

As table 10 illustrates, when controlling for self-discrepancy, self-esteem and age on

the relationship between materialism and need to belong, the partial correlation is not

significant, rs = .15, p = .192. When controlling for age and self-esteem, there is not

significant correlation, rs(78) = .15, p > .05. Neither there is correlation when controlling for

self-esteem, rs(79) = .18, p = .107. Significant partial correlations were found however, when

controlling for age and self-discrepancy, rs(78) = .25, p = .027, for self-discrepancy,

47

rs(79) = .29, p = .008 and for age, rs (79) = .24, p > .05. Therefore, self-esteem is not only no-

significant, but it also influences counteracting the effect of the other variables.

Table 10. Spearman Partial Rank Correlations

Control Variables MVS NTB

Correlation 1.000 .149

MVS Significance (2-tailed) . .192

SDiscrepancy & SES & Age df 0 77

Correlation .149 1.000

NTB Significance (2-tailed) .192 .

df 77 0

Correlation 1.000 .150

MVS Significance (2-tailed) . .183

Age & SES df 0 78

Correlation .150 1.000

NTB Significance (2-tailed) .183 .

df 78 0

Correlation 1.000 .247

MVS Significance (2-tailed) . .027

Age & SDiscrepancy df 0 78

Correlation .247 1.000

NTB Significance (2-tailed) .027 .

df 78 0

Correlation 1.000 .293

MVS Significance (2-tailed) . .008

SDiscrepancy df 0 79

Correlation .293 1.000

NTB Significance (2-tailed) .008 .

df 79 0

SES MVS Correlation 1.000 .181

Significance (2-tailed) . .107

df 0 79

NTB Correlation .181 1.000

Significance (2-tailed) .107 .

df 79 0

48

Control Variables MVS NTB

MVS Correlation 1.000 .245

Significance (2-tailed) . .027

Age df 0 79

NTB Correlation .245 1.000

Significance (2-tailed) .027 .

df 79 0

Whereas the correlations have facilitated the understanding of the relationships

between the variables, ordinal regressions were performed to examine the relationship

further. Ordinal regressions are used to predict an ordinal dependent variable from a

predictor. The model fitting table (see Table 11) indicates that the model improves the ability

to predict the outcome materialism in relation to belongingness, with a significant amount of

variance explained by the model, p < .05. The results from the goodness of fit table reveal

that the model is a good fit for this data, p > .05. 𝑅𝑁2 = .482, therefore, this model explains

48% of the variance. The model predicting materialism by self-esteem is also significant, p =

.000, with 80% of variance explained by materialism. Nevertheless, the model does not fit

the data for materialism and self-discrepancy, p > .05, nor for materialism and age, p > .05.

Table 11. Ordinal regression

Model Fitting Information

Model -2 Log

Likelihood

Chi-Square df Sig.

MVS & NTB Intercept Only 438.148

Final 393.297 44.852 28 .023

MVS & SES Intercept Only 542.832

Final 409.427 133.405 48 .000

MVS & SDiscrepancy Intercept Only 276.309

Final 270.706 5.603 9 .779

MVS & Age Intercept Only 197.105

Final 190.706 6.399 4 .171

Link function: Logit.

49

Goodness-of-Fit

Chi-Square df Sig.

MVS & NTB Pearson 726.971 868 1.000

Deviance 315.178 868 1.000

MVS & SES Pearson 1818.760 2384 1.000

Deviance 403.882 2384 1.000

MVS & SDiscrepancy Pearson 257.017 279 .823

Deviance 160.862 279 1.000

MVS & Age Pearson 124.995 124 .458

Deviance 94.568 124 .977

Link function: Logit.

Pseudo R-Square

Cox and Snell .481

MVS & NTB Nagelkerke .482

McFadden .098

Cox and Snell .803

MVS & SES Nagelkerke .804

McFadden .243

Cox and Snell .066

MVS & SDiscrepancy Nagelkerke .066

McFadden .010

Cox and Snell .075

MVS & Age Nagelkerke .075

McFadden .012

Link function: Logit.

An alternative ordinal regression has been performed to evaluate the predictability of

the model by gender. Being the significant value for males p = .000, and for females p =

.001. The results from the goodness of fit table reveal that the model fits well for this data for

both males and females, p > .05. The model explains however, 100% of variance for males,

while describes 59% for females.

50

Table 12. Ordinal regression for MVS & NTB by gender

Model Fitting Information

gender Model -2 Log

Likelihood

Chi-Square df Sig.

male Intercept Only 136.251

Final .000 136.251 19 .000

female Intercept Only 306.457

Final 255.424 51.033 24 .001

Link function: Logit.

Goodness-of-Fit

gender Chi-Square df Sig.

male

Pearson 117.662 342 1.000

Deviance 65.355 342 1.000

female

Pearson 556.338 624 .976

Deviance 207.655 624 1.000

Link function: Logit.

Pseudo R-Square

male

Cox and Snell .997

Nagelkerke .999

McFadden .970

female

Cox and Snell .585

Nagelkerke .586

McFadden .139

Link function: Logit.

Lastly, despite violating the assumptions of normality and of interval variables, a

multiple regression was performed, as it is considered that this analysis might provide the

enlightenment that former performed tests have not. Multiple regressions are used to predict

a dependent variable given two or more independent variables. In this particular analysis,

need to belong, self-esteem, self-discrepancy and age, were deemed relevant predictors of

materialistic values. A forced entry was selected for the four regression models. The

coefficient of determination for model 1 reported by the model summary in table 13, informs

that the need to belong explains 7% of the variance for materialism, p < .05. Whereas model

51

4 reports a p = .052, usually perceived as a non-significant value, in this case age is

interpreted as playing a significant role in the prediction of the outcome, being the

insignificance levels from both self-esteem and self-discrepancy impacting negatively in the

influence of age in model 4. The contribution of this variable to the model can be seen in the

𝑅2 Change, being .044 for age, second highest after need to belong, 𝑅2 Change = .066.

However, neither model 2 nor 3 are significant, p > .05. Therefore, the model that predicts

best is model 1, looking at the predictability of materialism through belongingness. With a

Durbin-Watson test of d = 1.571, it can be assumed that there is no linear auto-correction.

Table 13. Multiple regression

Model Summary

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error

of the

Estimate

Change Statistics Durbin-

Watson

R Square

Change

F

Change

df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .258a .066 .055 8.746 .066 5.683 1 80 .019

2 .308b .095 .072 8.666 .028 2.476 1 79 .120

3 .309c .095 .060 8.719 .001 .046 1 78 .831

4 .373d .139 .094 8.561 .044 3.906 1 77 .052 1.571

a. Predictors: (Constant), NTB

b. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES

c. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES, SDiscrepancy

d. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES, SDiscrepancy, age

e. Dependent Variable: MVS

Further evidence of the significance of age can be seen in table 14, in which in

combination with need to belong, is displayed a significant value, p = .008.

Table 14. Multiple regression for age and need to belong

Model Summaryb

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error

of the

Estimate

Change Statistics Durbin-

Watson R Square

Change

F

Change

df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .341a .116 .094 8.561 .116 5.205 2 79 .008 1.681

a. Predictors: (Constant), age, NTB b. Dependent Variable: MVS

52

ANOVA shows that the four models are statistically significant predicting

materialism (p < .05). It can be concluded that it is unlikely that any of these models would

happen by chance. Whereas according to this data, each model improves the ability to predict

materialism, model 1, belonging by itself, is the best model/predictor F(1, 80) = 5.68, p =

.019.

Table 15. ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1

Regression 434.696 1 434.696 5.683 .019b

Residual 6118.816 80 76.485

Total 6553.512 81

2

Regression 620.611 2 310.305 4.132 .020c

Residual 5932.901 79 75.100

Total 6553.512 81

3

Regression 624.111 3 208.037 2.737 .049d

Residual 5929.401 78 76.018

Total 6553.512 81

4

Regression 910.392 4 227.598 3.106 .020e

Residual 5643.120 77 73.287

Total 6553.512 81

a. Dependent Variable: MVS

b. Predictors: (Constant), NTB

c. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES

d. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES, SDiscrepancy

e. Predictors: (Constant), NTB, SES, SDiscrepancy, age

The coefficient table, in table 16, indicates that there is no collinearity in the data.

Standardized coefficient Beta value for need to belong in model 1, is the strongest

contributor explaining the outcome across the four models, β = .258, p = .019. Noteworthy is

that this variable becomes no significant, p = .229 in model 4, under the effect of the other

variables. It can be concluded that the most relevant variable explaining materialism is the

need to belong in model 1, in accordance with the law of parsimony, namely among various

hypothesis competing, the simplest explanation is more likely to be accurate.

53

Table 16. Coefficients

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardize

d

Coefficients t Sig.

Correlations Collinearity

Statistics

B Std.

Error Beta

Zero-

order Partial Part

Toleran

ce VIF

1

(Constant) 31.874 4.516 7.059 .000

NTB .323 .136 .258 2.384 .019 .258 .258 .258 1.000 1.000

2

(Constant) 41.185 7.419 5.551 .000

NTB .219 .150 .174 1.459 .149 .258 .162 .156 .803 1.245

SES -.323 .205 -.188 -1.573 .120 -.265 -.174 -.168 .803 1.245

3

(Constant) 40.880 7.599 5.380 .000

NTB .222 .152 .177 1.464 .147 .258 .164 .158 .794 1.259

SES -.314 .210 -.183 -1.497 .138 -.265 -.167 -.161 .776 1.289

SDiscrepancy -.131 .610 -.024 -.215 .831 -.047 -.024 -.023 .965 1.036

4

(Constant) 44.469 7.679 5.791 .000

NTB .182 .150 .145 1.213 .229 .258 .137 .128 .780 1.282

SES -.286 .207 -.167 -1.384 .170 -.265 -.156 -.146 .772 1.295

SDiscrepancy -.035 .601 -.006 -.058 .954 -.047 -.007 -.006 .959 1.043

age -1.666 .843 -.214 -1.976 .052 -.267 -.220 -.209 .954 1.048

a. Dependent Variable: MVS

Although no strong correlation was found between the variables in table 7, nor did the

above coefficients in table 16 reflect collinearity, the collinearity diagnostics in table 17 do,

especially for model 4. As the collinearity values are weak, it is not regarded as breaking the

assumption of no multicollinearity.

54

Table 17. Collinearity Diagnostics

Model Dimension Eigenvalue Condition

Index

Variance Proportions

(Constant) NTB SDiscrepancy SES age

1 1 1.977 1.000 .01 .01

2 .023 9.243 .99 .99

2

1 2.045 1.000 .01 .01 .03

2 .932 1.481 .00 .00 .97

3 .023 9.411 .99 .99 .00

3

1 2.949 1.000 .00 .00 .01 .01

2 .955 1.758 .00 .00 .95 .00

3 .086 5.844 .00 .18 .01 .37

4 .011 16.748 1.00 .81 .03 .62

4

1 3.681 1.000 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02

2 .966 1.952 .00 .00 .94 .00 .00

3 .259 3.769 .00 .02 .02 .01 .90

4 .084 6.636 .00 .16 .01 .42 .04

5 .010 19.043 .99 .82 .04 .57 .04

a. Dependent Variable: MVS

Path analysis

Path analysis uses regression models to test a theory of causal relationships among

various variables. Tests were run to determine whether the variables predict (or not) a

significant amount of the variance of materialism. The model of study exemplified in Figure

5, examines whether the correlation between self-esteem and self-discrepancy influences

belongingness, and in turn impacts on materialism. The path diagram illustrates the strength

of the standardized regression weights. The stronger effect is seen between self-esteem and the

need to belong (β = -.46), and between need to belong and materialism (β = .26).

55

Figure 5. Path diagram for self-esteem, self-discrepancy, need to belong and materialism.

The results of the analysis specify χ2 = 2.547, df = 2. The probability level p = .280,

indicates that there is no significant difference between the proposed model and the perfect

model, since p > .05. The data implies that the model is a good fit, however, due to the small

sample size and therefore the likelihood of committing a type 1 error, examining other

indices is beneficial. There are many competing goodness of fit indices, although no one is

preferable over the rest. Considering various goodness of fit indices allow to be reasonably

confident in the results. Nevertheless, a good performance does not guarantee the

plausibility of the model. The full examination of the path analysis can be found in the

Statistical Analysis Appendix (see Appendix VIII).

Table 18. Results from the proposed model

Result (Default model)

Chi-square 2.547

Degrees of freedom 2

Probability level .280

56

The path analysis has examined the likelihood of the proposed model, which suggests

that self-esteem and self-discrepancy correlates with each other, and simultaneously, they

influence on belongingness needs, which in turn induces materialistic tendencies. Across the

results obtained from the path analysis, it was revealed that self-discrepancy does not have a

significant relationship with self-esteem, p > .05, nor with need to belong, p = .340. Based on

these results, it could be estimated that the model would improve by excluding the variable

self-discrepancy. However, since SPSS Amos has not suggested any different path analysis

which would fit better than the current model, and based on the consistent findings across the

indices denoting the goodness of fit of the model, this can be interpreted as indicating that the

current model is the best model.

Conclusion

For the analysis of the research area, both descriptive and inferential statistics were

employed on a sample size of 82 participants (N = 82). The assumptions for parametric data

have been violated for the normal distribution of the data and for the interval variables,

consequently non-parametric analyses have been used. Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis

tests have allowed an understanding of the four variables in relation to age and gender. The

former test did not reveal differences in scores between males and females, whereas the second,

in combination with a Tukey HSD Post Hoc reported a difference on scores in need to belong

by age. Spearman’s correlations favoured the study of the first five hypotheses, indicating the

existence of the relationship between self-esteem and materialism, need to belong and self-

esteem, and materialism and need to belong. A Spearman partial rank correlation was

thereafter carried out to examine the last hypothesis, in which the analysis of materialism and

need to belong, while controlling the effect of self-esteem and self-discrepancy proved to be

non-significant. For further understanding on the effects of the variables, ordinal regressions

and multiple regressions were performed. Need to belong and self-esteem are significant

predictors for materialism according to the ordinal regression’s results. The multiple regression

57

analysis illustrates furthermore, that need to belong by itself, is the best predictor for

materialism. Lastly, a path analysis has been used to examine the relations of the variables as

established in the model. After assessing multiple indices, it can be determined that the

suggested model, which proposes that self-esteem and self-discrepancy affect belongingness

needs, and in turn, impacts on materialistic tendencies, is the best model. The interpretations

of these analyses will be discussed in Chapter 5.

58

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion

Introduction

This chapter aims to interpret the analyses previously performed, providing insight into

the nature of the relationship between materialism, need to belong, self-esteem, and self-

discrepancy and considering the possible effects that age and gender may have on them.

Summary of results

The aim of this research has been to identify the relationships between materialism,

need to belong, self-esteem and self-discrepancy, and whether the influence of self-esteem

and self-discrepancy impact on belongingness needs, and consequently on materialism. This

research has examined six hypotheses, from which five of them have been proposed

following the footprint of previous literature, while the sixth intended to innovatively

encompass all four variables. Descriptive and inferential statistics have been carried out.

Most analyses are non-parametric due to the violation of two assumptions. Spearman’s

correlations were performed for hypotheses 1 to 5, demonstrating the existence of significant

relationships between self-esteem and materialism, self-esteem and need to belong, and

materialism and need to belong. A Spearman’s partial rank correlation indicates a non-

significant effect for hypothesis 6, looking at materialism and need to belong while

controlling for self-esteem and self-discrepancy. Ordinal regressions produced significant

results, linking the need to belong and self-esteem to materialism. Multiple regression tests,

in turn, have revealed that the best predictor for materialism is the need to belong, without

the influence of the other variables. Path analysis concluded that the proposed model, in

which self-esteem and self-discrepancy affect belongingness needs, and consecutively

impacting in materialism, is the best possible model.

59

Findings

Although no previously revised article had focused on the existence of gender

distinction in relation to any of the variables studied, this demographic was included to

analyse whether there would be differences between males and females, as it can often be an

effective enhancer of the knowledge on a given topic. Society often perceives stronger

associations between females and materialistic attitudes, and towards belongingness needs,

portraying girls as being engrossed with shopping, and reliant on their friends. However,

while the results highlight a mean difference larger for females than for males in these two

variables, the difference is not significant. Nevertheless, it seems relevant to acknowledge

that only males have reported low levels of materialism, which indicates that females do have

somewhat more positive attitudes towards materialism than males.

Additionally, with the same rationale, age was also examined in connection of its

effect on each of the four main variables. Even though no hypothesis was raised, it was

plausible, despite not having evidence from previous literature supporting or rejecting it, that

age could possibly impact on the scores, in which younger ages could conceivably rate

higher in materialism, and need to belong, and lower in self-esteem and self-discrepancy.

The findings reveal that there are no significant differences between the scores for the

variables and the different age groups, except in relation to the need to belong for age groups

18 to 24 years old and those aged 35-44. This result reveals stronger attachment needs for the

younger group. It is reasoned that, since every participant in this group was recruited in WIT,

many are away from home, and thus, far from family and long term friends. Late adolescence

and early adulthood are periods of uncertainties, which can derive in stronger needs to

belong. Conversely, the participants in the group 35-44 might have families of their own,

which would provide stronger attachments, satisfying in many cases the belongingness

needs, additionally, it is more unlikely that they are would not be leaving the family nucleus

60

to live independent lives, as younger generations would. Despite having used a Kruskal

Wallis test for this analysis to counteract the effect of the divergence sample sizes in each

age group, the fact that NTB in 18-24 has a sample of 54, and the 35-44 group has a sample

of 3, it can be a motive precipitating the significant difference. Therefore, the offered

interpretation should be taken cautiously.

Hypothesis 1: Individuals with lower self-esteem will present stronger values towards

materialism than individuals with high self-esteem.

The findings confirm that there is a link between materialism and self-esteem, as it

had previously been suggested (Shrum et al., 2013, 2014). Additionally, in the same manner

as Donnelly et al. (2016), Rindfleisch et al., (2009), and Thomas & Wilson, (2016) had

affirmed, this study also found a negative correlation in which individuals with higher

materialistic values report lower self-esteem. This effect can be explained through research

findings which stated that some individuals turn to materialism as a consequence of

experiencing insecurity (Clark et al., 2010; Thomas & Wilson, 2016). This is precisely what

characterises low self-esteem (Donnelly et al., 2016). While the correlations performed to

investigate this hypothesis, cannot determine the causations of the variables, namely, whether

materialism leads to low self-esteem or vice versa, the Kruskal Wallis test highlights that,

although without reaching statistically significant differences, materialistic mean values

decrease with age, while low self-esteem has greater occurrence in adolescence and early

adulthood, and increases with age. A former study in which the self-esteem of children was

enhanced, reported a reduction on consuming tendencies (Dalton, 2008). From this line of

thought, it could be understood that materialism, in certain occasions, might be utilized as a

compensatory coping mechanism with the aim of increasing positive feelings through

consumption, either just through the pleasure of the purchasing action itself, or due to the

enhancement of one’s self-image (Cisek et al., 2014).

61

Hypothesis 2: Individuals with low self-esteem have stronger needs to belong to a group

than individuals with high self-esteem.

The results from the analysis confirms the relationship between low self-esteem and a

high need to belong. Thus, whereas every individual has belongingness needs, it would be

expected that those individuals with their social attachment needs met, present an average

desire to be accepted, while stronger values of belongingness might potentially indicate

feelings of loneliness. Additionally, this outcome corroborates previous studies which

established that loneliness is associated with feelings of inferiority or insecurity (Ang et al.,

2014), such as self-esteem. Several investigations have similarly reported that individuals

with their belongingness needs met display higher self-esteem (Wilczyńska et al., 2015),

whereas individuals with low self-esteem amplify the threat of being rejected (Derrick et al.,

2008), and feeling excluded can activate stronger needs to reconnect (Lakin et al., 2008;

Loveland et al., 2010; Maner et al., 2007; Pieters, 2013). Although the results of the analyses

correspond to those of previous studies, the current findings cannot resolve the direction of

the causality, unlike some former literature which has attempted to do. Thus, a line of

research proposes that rejection and loneliness impacts negatively in the individual’s self-

esteem (Loveland et al., 2010), while others have suggested that low self-esteem might

prevent people from connecting with others (Derrick et al., 2008). Deriving from these ideas,

it is logical to sustain that there is a bidirectional relationship.

Hypothesis 3: Individuals with higher ideal-self than actual-self will display stronger

materialistic values than individuals with congruent selves.

The results derived from the study of this hypothesis show that the correlation is not

statistically significant, therefore, there is not relationship between materialistic values and

self-discrepancy, consequently, the null hypothesis is accepted. This result is surprising as

previous research had consistently highlighted that individuals with a gap between actual and

62

ideal selves might engage in materialistic behaviours as an attempt to reduce the discrepancy

(Dittmar, 2005; UNICEF, 2011). Another line of thought claims that some people use

consumption to construct and/or to enhance their identity (Donnelly et al., 2016). Although

in this particular case the current hypothesis must be rejected, the reason for this effect might

be due to the reduced sample size.

Hypothesis 4: Individuals with a low self-esteem will display incongruent selves.

The non-statistically significant results after computing the analysis for the study of

the hypothesis examining self-esteem and self-discrepancy has led to the rejection of the

hypothesis, and the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Former empirical literature established

that individuals with self-discrepancies experience a higher prevalence of low levels of self-

esteem (Derrick et al., 2008). The current hypothesis therefore refutes the previous finding.

However, based on the understanding of the concept of self-discrepancy, a large linkage

between both self-discrepancy and self-esteem is foreseeable. The reasoning behind this idea

is that having a gap between actual and ideal self implies that an individual perceives

him/herself as lacking qualities as to embody their vision of an ideal self. On the other hand,

self-esteem can be conceived as an umbrella term which encompasses satisfaction with one’s

self, self-respect, etc. Following the line of thought of previous studies, it is reasonable to

estimate, that those individuals who feel inadequate in relation to their ideal self, are to some

level linked to having a low self-concept, a low self-respect, a low self-satisfaction, in other

words, a low self-esteem. Therefore, current results might have been influenced by an

external factor, with the small sample size being the most visible one.

Hypothesis 5: Individuals with high materialistic values will present high need to belong.

The analysis of this hypothesis aimed to reveal whether those individuals who

potentially feel lonely, or who have their attachment needs unmet engage in materialistic

63

behaviours. The Spearman’s correlation reported a medium strength significant relationship

between materialism and need to belong. The research hypothesis is consequently confirmed.

The present results follow along the same lines as previous studies undertaken by Dittmar

(2005), Mead et al. (2011), Nguyen et al. (2015), Pieters (2013) and Segev et al. (2015) had

achieved, there is an association between materialism and belongingness. It is proposed that

these results could indicate that individuals employ materialism as a strategy to gain

acceptance, either by signalling success, such as supported by Elphinstone and Critchley

(2016), or by indicating conformity or similarity to a reference group. An alternative

interpretation is that consumption is used for individuals with higher belongingness needs to

attempt to alleviate the negative emotions of feeling lonesome (Felix & Garza, 2012; Shrum

et al., 2014). It is crucial to consider that correlations cannot specify if one variable causes

the alternative variable, either way, recent literature are suggesting the possibility of a bi-

directional relationship (Rindfleisch et al., 2009).

Hypothesis 6: Individuals with strong needs to belong, have low self-esteem and a higher

ideal-self than an actual-self, which leads to high materialistic values.

The hypothesis sought to reveal whether self-esteem and a disparity between one’s

ideal self and their actual self, are contributing factors leading to the rise on belongingness

needs, which is subsequently accomplished or expected to be so, by engaging in materialistic

attitudes and behaviours. The Spearman’s partial rank correlation looking at the relationship

between need to belong and materialism, when controlling for both self-discrepancy and self-

esteem, discloses a non-significant relationship. This, however, denotes that when removing

the influence of self-esteem and self-discrepancy, need to belong and materialism are not

correlated, namely, there is no relationship between them when the influence of both self-

esteem and self-discrepancy is removed. Since the Spearman’s rho for materialism and need

to belong was significant, this variation demonstrates that the two neutralized variables, self-

64

esteem and self-discrepancy, have a great influence on the relationship between materialism

and belongingness. Whereas no causalities can be drawn from this analysis, it is likely that

the hypothesis is proved. Although this approach is unique, and thus it is filling a gap in the

literature, the results are in line with previous research. Thus, it has previously been

established that feeling lonely is associated to feelings of insecurity and inferiority (Ang et

al., 2014). These emotions are features of low self-esteem. Additionally, a line of research

has advocated that social rejection can injure the person’s self-esteem (Loveland et al., 2010)

while at the same time, people with low self-esteem are more inclined to perceive social

exclusion (Min, 2012). Further support from previous research established that individuals

with their belongingness needs met, display higher self-esteem (Wilczyńska et al., 2015), yet

it has also been determined that individuals with low self-esteem do not fulfil their

belongingness needs by gaining social inclusion (Dommer et al., 2013). Therefore, the link

between self-esteem and need to belong, in agreement with the current research, has been

shown to be compelling. In addition, feeling inferior, rejected or inadequate stimulates

consumption, as goods can restore one’s self-concept and enhance status (Donnelly et al.,

2016). A parallel theory suggests that materialism derives from the unfulfillment of high

needs, such as belongingness (Norris & Williams, 2016; Rindfleisch et al., 2009), although a

different perspective determined that materialistic tendencies are attempts from the

individual to satisfy their social attachment needs (Dittmar, 2005; Mead et al., 2011; Nguyen

et al., 2015; Segev et al., 2015). These findings are in agreement with the present results.

Moreover, while prior research had established the connection between materialism,

self-esteem and need to belong, the inclusion of the variable self-discrepancy lacks in

literature. Nevertheless, the relationship between belongingness, materialism and self-

discrepancy has been formulated, based on the fact that individuals with low self-esteem

report larger self-discrepancies (Derrick et al., 2008). Moreover, consumption is a major

route to enhance or construct one’s identity (Shrum et al., 2013), through the display of

65

goods to others. Thus, when an individual perceives their ideal self far from their actual self,

they likely engage in consumption to transform and improve their own self-concept and to

display this upgraded version to others. Research has proposed that people might look at their

ideal or referent group to obtain characteristics to complete their self-concept, and therefore

to consume in agreeance (Araujo Gil et al., 2016). Consequently, it can be determined that,

although the current findings go a step further by merging various factors, and revealing a

multifactor intertwinement impelling the linkage between need to belong and materialism,

these findings are in consonance with preceding studies.

Further findings

Further Spearman’s partial rank correlations illustrate that when controlling for self-

discrepancy, self-esteem and age, need to belong and materialism do not have a significant

correlation. Since the Spearman correlation reported significance without controlling for any

variable, it can be interpreted that the effect between materialism and belongingness is

caused by those three factors, and therefore, self-discrepancy, self-esteem and age play an

important role in understanding the relationship between materialism and belongingness.

Nevertheless, when controlling just for age and self-discrepancy in the same relationship, the

correlation is reported significant rs(78) = .25, p = .027. Yet, when examining the correlation

between need to belong and materialism rs(82) = .29, p = .008, the influence of the age and

self-discrepancy do not appear to be strongly influencing the main relationship.

The results of the partial correlation when controlling only for self-discrepancy shows

that this variable does not influence the observed relationship materialism and belongingness,

as after removing the effect of self-discrepancy, the partial correlation displays very similar

results to the Spearman correlation without controlling for variables, rs(78) = .29, p = .008.

This evidence indicates a lack of influence of self-discrepancy on materialism-belongingness,

which refutes previous literature. However, this dissimilarity between the present results and

66

previous findings, could be due to the fragmentation of the influence of self-esteem and self-

discrepancy performed in this study in opposition to preceding ones. Namely, previous

studies did not look at the influence of both self-esteem and self-discrepancy in the

relationship leading to materialism, hence, it might have gone unnoticed that self-discrepancy

without the influence of self-esteem, does not account for the main relationship. Age on its

own does not present much explanation for the main relationship neither.

Self-esteem, according to the reported findings, is the major explanatory factor. When

removing the effect of the controlled variable, materialism and need to belong do not have a

significant relationship, therefore, self-esteem is a very meaningful factor influencing

possibly both need to belong and materialism. This finding is consonant with preceding

literature, which have suggested that loneliness is influenced by self-esteem (Ang et al.,

2014), as it has also been proved in the present research, and that material things can enhance

self-concept (Min, 2012), and be employed strategically to gain social attachments (Dittmar,

2005).

Similar results were obtained from the ordinal regression analyses, in which two

models were reported to be the best predictors of the outcome materialism, being need to

belong, and self-esteem. Thus, the models are improved by including these significant

variables. Since self-esteem can explain 80% of the variance of the model, while

belongingness can account for 48% of the variance, self-esteem seems to influence

materialism to a greater extent than belongingness does. It can be interpreted that self-esteem

influences directly materialistic tendencies, yet it might also influence them indirectly,

through the need to belong, since according to the Spearman’s correlations there is a strong

correlation between self-esteem and need to belong. Thus, the individual’s self-esteem can

impact directly in their engagement in consumption, maybe, as suggested in preceding

research to restore a positive self-image (Dalton, 2008), or to compensate for certain

67

deficiencies through external gratifications (Abdalla & Zambaldi, 2016). Yet self-esteem can

also impact indirectly on belongingness needs, for instance, insecurities might derive in

stronger social attachments to feel valued, and in turn, belongingness impact on materialism.

This reasoning continues to be in line with previous literature, and remains aligned, while

enhancing, above results.

In consonance with the partial rank correlations, age and self-discrepancy did not

seem to predict materialism, at least to a significant level. Gender, nevertheless, has also

revealed to be a good predictor of materialism, especially for males, in which according to

the current results, it accounts for 100% of the variance. However, no literature was reviewed

in regard to gender difference, therefore, it cannot be established whether this data confirms

or refutes alternative findings.

Moreover, the multiple regression indicated that the best predictor for materialism is

model 1, in which need to belong is the only variable. The R square change indicated a very

small variance of materialism accounted by need to belong, a 0.4%. It also appears surprising

that the model 2, in which need to belong and self-esteem are proposed as predictors for

materialism, is not significant. Moreover, self-esteem, while reported as a strong predictor in

ordinal regressions, it only endorses 0.08% of the variance of materialism in this analysis.

These are unexpected findings, yet these could be due to the order of the introduction of the

variables in the regression, which in this case, a forced entry method was implemented.

Based on some influencing factors reported in previous literature, the present research

proposed a path analysis to try to connect these factors together, and to gain a clearer outlook

of the interrelationships between materialism, need to belong, self-esteem and self-

discrepancy. Thus, the path analysis suggested that self-esteem and self-discrepancy

influence each other, so they are highly correlated, as they overlap on the perspectives on

how individuals perceive each other. Both variables in turn impact on need to belong, which

68

subsequently influence materialism. This path analysis has been represented in a path

diagram in Figure 6. The results confirmed that this idealised model is the perfect model or

close to being so. Thus, it is feasible that individuals with low self-esteem have also a

divergence between ideal and actual self-concept, these feelings of insecurity and inferiority

enhance stronger social attachment needs. This could be understood as an external pursuit of

security by fulfilling affiliative needs. Yet, in order to achieve or enhance social relations,

possibly partly due to the lack of security, these individuals might be more inclined to engage

in materialistic tendencies to both compensate for their insecurities, thus employing

consumption as a compensatory mechanism, and also as to signal identity, conformity and

similarity to a reference group.

Nonetheless, while the overall fitness of the model was positive, certain estimates in

the analyses reported no significance for the influence of self-discrepancy. For instance, the

path analysis correlation between self-esteem and self-discrepancy reported no significance,

likewise as the relationship between self-discrepancy and need to belong. From these

findings, it can be interpreted that the above variable does not have much influence in the

model, or not in a significant extent. This follows the same line of results from previous

interpretations of Spearman’s correlation, which reported that there was no correlation

between self-discrepancy and any of the other studied variables. Subsequently, it was

determined through the partial rank correlations, that self-discrepancy did not influence in the

relationship between need to belong and materialism. The ordinal and multiple regressions

also reported insignificant predictability of self-discrepancy for materialism. Consequently, it

is likely that the model would be most accurate by dismissing the variable self-discrepancy.

The representation of this model is illustrated in Figure 7. The rejection of the discrepancy

variable would confirm previous studies which repeatedly associated belongingness, self-

esteem and materialism (Thomas & Wilson, 2016). Nevertheless, based on the theoretical

interdependence between self-esteem and self-discrepancy (Derrick et al., 2008), and due to

69

the fact that the path analysis has regarded the idealised model with the inclusion of self-

discrepancy, as a perfect model, it is suggested that self-discrepancy should be retained in the

model.

This finding, in sum with the above interpretations provides further proof for the

hypothesis 6, which enquired whether individuals with strong needs to belong, have low self-

esteem and a higher ideal-self than an actual-self, which could lead to higher materialistic

attitudes. It can now be postulated that these interconnections are conclusive.

70

Figure 6. Proposed theoretical model, suggesting that self-esteem and self-discrepancy are

interconnected to each other, and both subsequently impact on need to belong, which in turn, leads

to a stronger relationship between need to belong and materialism

MATERIALISM NEED TO

BELONG

SELF-ESTEEM

SELF-

DISCREPANCY

YY

MATERIALISM NEED TO

BELONG

SELF-ESTEEM

SELF-

DISCREPANCY

YY

Figure 7. Most significant model based on the path analysis results, suggesting that self-esteem

is a robust factor influencing belongingness needs, which in turn, indirectly contributes to the

evolvement of the relationship between need to belong and materialism.

71

Limitations

Certain limitations have become apparent over the course of this study. Undoubtedly,

due to time constraints, the sample size for this project was remarkably small (N = 82), a factor

that most likely has influenced the results achieved, and which therefore has limited the

generalization of the results. Additionally, most of the data was collected from college students

in WIT, again restricting the generalization of the findings to a larger population.

Another limitation of this project is found in the information sheet submitted among

participants, in which the researcher specifically detailed that one of the objectives of study is

to look at low levels of self-esteem. This could presumably raise the awareness of the

participants of the particular questionnaire, which might influence their answers, consciously

or unconsciously.

Some difficulties were found around the self-discrepancy questionnaire. Although

instructions were included in the questionnaire, and queries were answered, a large proportion

of participants did not comprehend the activity. Some wrote whole sentences describing

situations, others provided words not regarded as adjectives, and half of them did not complete

the questionnaire. Additionally, the marking of the questionnaire proposes that only adjectives

are compared to their synonyms or antonyms found in Roget’s Thesaurus. However, there

were some ambiguous and uncertain occasions, in which the researcher had to determine the

most appropriate course of action.

Future research

Based on the feasibility that the small number of participants might have impacted on

the results achieved, it is recommended that future research would seek to obtain larger sample

sizes and that those samples will be more randomly chosen. Thus, for a more compelling

comparison, and therefore, a more conclusive understanding on the effects of age and gender,

a selection of more homogeneous groups sizes in relation to these demographic variables

would be advised. To prevent any possibility of bias when filling the self-esteem questionnaire,

72

it is proposed that forthcoming investigations will provide more general information about the

aim of the study in the information sheet, instead of directly stating that low self-esteem is to

be investigated. Whereas the researcher does not propose deception, it is possible that by just

phrasing it differently in future research, for instance, in terms of looking at self-esteem, the

results of the self-esteem questionnaire may be more reliable. Moreover, due to the difficulties

encountered surrounding the self-discrepancy questionnaire, it is recommended that future

research would implement some important changes, or preferably, that an alternative

questionnaire would be utilised. Lastly, considering the gap in literature examining age and

gender as possible factors explaining the relationship between materialism and belongingness

needs, it is recommended that they would be examined in future research.

Conclusion

The present study examined the relationship between materialism, need to belong,

self-esteem and self-discrepancy. Special attention was directed towards the understanding of

the linkage between materialism and need to belong, increasing the comprehension of such

association in view of the influence of self-esteem and self-discrepancy. From the findings

reached, it can be concluded that needs to belong and materialism are associated to each

other. Therefore, the stronger the belongingness needs, the higher the materialistic

tendencies. While from former analysis, causalities could not be drawn, in conclusive tests, it

was demonstrated that need to belong leads to materialistic dispositions, nonetheless, the

possibility of a bi-directional influence was not examined. These findings are consistent with

previous literature which had established that materialism could be employed strategically as

an attempt to display conformity and to signal similarity to a certain reference group. Yet,

over the length of the analyses, self-esteem was continuously reported as a significant factor

in regards to both need to belong and materialism. From the knowledge gained through the

current study, it is suggested that self-esteem influences both directly and indirectly on

belongingness needs and on materialism itself. Thus, self-esteem is strongly related to need

73

to belong, yet, through this influence, it also impacts subsequently on materialism. This

evidence corroborates preceding research. While self-discrepancy was consistently found no

significance across the analyses, independently of the type of test performed and regardless

of its combination with other variables, the best model turns out to be the suggested one, in

which self-esteem and self-discrepancy influence on need to belong, and subsequently leads

to an increase of materialism. This evidence is ground-breaking, since the model derived

from the mergence of previously established drivers precipitating materialism. Therefore, it

can be concluded that individuals experiencing low self-esteem and discrepancies between

actual and ideal selves, are certainly more strongly predisposed to feel stronger

belongingness needs, which ultimately, promotes materialism. The insight achieved from this

study can contribute to the understanding of such an extended practice across western

societies, and ultimately, to the development and the implementation of appropriate

approaches to tackle maladaptive predispositions.

74

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Appendices

Appendix I

Information sheet

Belonging through materialism

You are being invited to participate in a research study. Thank you for taking the time to read

this information leaflet. This research is being completed as part of my studies in BA (Hons)

in Psychology at Waterford Institute of Technology. I am working under the supervision of

Dr. Nutty in the Dept. of Applied Arts, and contact details are available at the end of this sheet.

BELONGING THROUGH MATERIALISM:

What are the objectives of the study?

The aim of this study is to look at whether materialism becomes a tool for individuals who

present a disparity on selves and low self-esteem, with the intention of achieving social

attachment.

What will happen if I volunteer?

Your participation is entirely voluntary. If you initially decide to take part you can

subsequently change your mind and withdraw from the study without difficulty. If you agree

to participate you will be requested to read the information sheet provided, sign the consent

form and fill out the questionnaires attached.

Right to Withdraw

If you do decide to withdraw from the study at any point you can request to have your data

removed from the study.

Are there any benefits from my participation?

While there may be no direct benefit from your participation, the study will make an important

contribution to our understanding of materialism, and its uses. The findings from this study

will be used for academic purposes only. Individuals will not be offered any monetary or other

rewards for their participation.

Are there any risks involved in participating?

There are no risks associated with participation. Any inconvenience involved in taking part

will be limited.

Confidentiality:

All individual information collected as part of the study will remain confidential to the research

team. You will be asked to put an ID number on any data submitted. All data will be kept in a

locked filing cabinet and will be password protected on a computer. Data will be held for a

maximum of two years.

Contact Details

If you have any further questions about the research you can contact:

RESEARCHER: Maria del Ara Trianes Salguero SUPERVISOR: Dr. Fiona Nutty

PLEASE KEEP THIS PAGE FOR YOUR INFORMATION

82

Appendix II

Participant Consent Form

Belonging through materialism

PLEASE CIRCLE YOUR RESPONSE TO EACH QUESTION

• I have read and understood the attached Information Leaflet YES NO

• I have had the opportunity to ask questions and discuss the study YES NO

• I have received satisfactory answers to all my questions YES NO

• I have received enough information about this study YES NO

• I understand that I am free to withdraw from the study at any time YES NO

• I agree to take part in the study YES NO

Participant’s Signature: ____________________________ Date: _______

Participant’s Name in print: ________________________ Date: _______

83

Appendix III

Gender Male Female

Age 18 – 24 25 – 34 35 – 44 45 – 54 + 55

The Material Values Scale

Indicate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements by circling the

answer that best represents your feelings.

Strongly

Agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

SA A N D SD

1. I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things. SA A N D SD

2. I like a lot of luxury in my life. SA A N D SD

3. I don't place much emphasis on the amount of material objects

people own as a sign of success. SA A N D SD

4. Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure. SA A N D SD

5. The things I own say a lot about how well I'm doing in life. SA A N D SD

6. I have all the things I really need to enjoy life. SA A N D SD

7. I put less emphasis on material things than most people I know. SA A N D SD

8. My life would be better if I owned certain things I don't have. SA A N D SD

9. I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, and clothes. SA A N D SD

10. The things I own aren’t all that important to me. SA A N D SD

11. It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can't afford to buy all

the things I'd like. SA A N D SD

12. Some of the most important achievements in life include

acquiring material possessions. SA A N D SD

13. I like to own things that impress people. SA A N D SD

14. I wouldn’t be any happier if I owned nicer things. SA A N D SD

15. I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned. SA A N D SD

84

Appendix IV

Self-discrepancies Questionnaire

Filling in this questionnaire often helps to clarify inner conflicts about who one feels one is

compared with who one feels one ought or would like to be. These discrepancies may lead to

self-judgements that increase one’s vulnerability to anxiety and depression.

In the 1st column list up to 5 qualities you believe you actually have – both “good” & “bad”.

In the 2nd, list up to 5 qualities you or others would ideally like you to have.

actual self ideal self

list

up

to

5 q

ua

liti

es i

n e

ach

co

lum

n

85

Appendix V

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself.

Strongly

Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

SA A

D SD

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. SA A D SD

2. At times, I think I am no good at all. SA A D SD

3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. SA A D SD

4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. SA A D SD

5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. SA A D SD

6. I certainly feel useless at times. SA A D SD

7. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal SA A D SD

plane with others.

8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. SA A D SD

9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. SA A D SD

10. I take a positive attitude toward myself. SA A D SD

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Appendix VI

Need to Belong Scale

Instructions: For each of the statements below, indicate the degree to which you agree or

disagree with the statement by writing a number in the space beside the question using the

scale below:

1 = Strongly disagree

2 = Moderately disagree

3 = Neither agree nor disagree

4 = Moderately agree

5 = Strongly agree

_____ 1. If other people don't seem to accept me, I don't let it bother me.

_____ 2. I try hard not to do things that will make other people avoid or reject me.

_____ 3. I seldom worry about whether other people care about me.

_____ 4. I need to feel that there are people I can turn to in times of need.

_____ 5. I want other people to accept me.

_____ 6. I do not like being alone.

_____ 7. Being apart from my friends for long periods of time does not bother me.

_____ 8. I have a strong need to belong.

_____ 9. It bothers me a great deal when I am not included in other people's plans.

____ 10. My feelings are easily hurt when I feel that others do not accept me.

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Appendix VII

Email to lecturer

Dear Dr. X:

My name is Ara Trianes Salguero. I am a 3rd year BA (Hons) Psychology student. For my

final year project, I am carrying out a research on materialism as an influential factor for

belonging. My objective is to reveal whether materialism becomes a tool for individuals who

present a disparity on different selves, with the intention of achieving social attachment. Thus,

I aim to investigate materialism and belonging by examining both factors in conjunction with

identity and self-esteem, as two influential determinants. This will provide me with the

comprehension of the interrelationship between these four variables.

I write to enquire if you would consider facilitating me access of three classes from different

degrees you might teach, as I intend on sampling one hundred individuals. In order to discuss

further the matter, would it be possible to meet with you? I am available on X days and at Y

times.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Sincerely,

Ara Trianes Salguero

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Appendix VIII

Statistical Analysis

In order to acquire a deeper awareness of the relationship between the variables, a

path analysis was undertaken. This analysis allowed for an examination of the fitness of the

proposed model, namely, the likelihood of self-esteem and self-discrepancy influencing each

other while also impacting on belongingness needs, which subsequently induces materialism.

The regression weights highlight that some of the paths are significant. An increase

on self-esteem produces a decrease on need to belong in b = -.627, p < .001, and an increase

of need to belong produces an increase of materialism of b = .323, p = .016. Self-discrepancy

is not a significant predictor of belongingness, p > .05.

Table 19. Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

NTB <--- SES -.627 .137 -4.571 ***

NTB <--- SDiscrepancy .424 .445 .953 .340

MVS <--- NTB .323 .135 2.399 .016

The standardized regression weights, like it is displayed in the path analysis diagram,

see Figure 5, report a strong connection between self-esteem and need to belong (β = -.458),

and a weaker relation between need to belong and materialism (β = .258).

Table 20. Standardized Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate

NTB <--- SES -.458

NTB <--- SDiscrepancy .096

MVS <--- NTB .258

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Table 21. Variances: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

SES 27.090 4.257 6.364 ***

SDiscrepancy 2.582 .406 6.364 ***

e1 40.345 6.340 6.364 ***

e2 74.620 11.725 6.364 ***

The covariance between self-esteem and self-discrepancy is estimated to be 1.292, yet

it is not significant, p > .05.

Table 22. Covariances: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

SES <--> SDiscrepancy 1.292 .940 1.374 .170

The correlation shows a weak relationship between self-discrepancy and self-esteem,

r = .154

Table 23. Correlations: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate

SES <--> SDiscrepancy .154

The Chi-square value (CMIN) is a model fit index, which represents the difference

between the model and the data. Although there is no consensus regarding threshold levels,

CMIN requires low values to indicate good fit. The current data CMIN = 2.547, df = 2, and p

= .280, indicates that there is no significant difference between the proposed model and a

perfect model.

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Table 24. CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default model 8 2.547 2 .280 1.274

Saturated model 10 .000 0

Independence model 4 28.701 6 .000 4.783

Goodness of fit index (GFI) is also an absolute fit index. It compares the current

model to the perfect model. A value > .9 indicates a good model, in the current analysis GFI

= .985, therefore it suggests that this is a very good model. Additionally, adjusted GFI

indicates the good fit of the model, AGFI >.90.

Table 25. RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI

Default model 2.235 .985 .924 .197

Saturated model .000 1.000

Independence model 8.332 .847 .746 .508

Bentler’s Comparative Fit Index (CFI) requires values > .95 to illustrate a good

model. In this analysis, CFI = .976. Moreover, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) > .90 is an

indicator of the fitness of the model, being TLI = .928, it is also demonstrating a good fit.

Bentler-Bonett Normed Fit Index (NFI) indicates the proportion of improvement of the

overall fit of the model in relation to the independence model. NFI is also a descriptive fit

index but it is less influenced by sample size than TLI. NFI = .911 also implies a good fit.

Table 26. Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1

RFI

rho1

IFI

Delta2

TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .911 .734 .980 .928 .976

Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000

Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

91

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) evaluates the extent of which

the model fails to fit the data per degree of freedom, favouring complex models. Table 27

indicates the part of the observed variance and covariance matrix which is not explained by

the model, namely, what the independent variables cannot explain for. RMSEA > .1 indicates

a bad model, while values < .05 indicate good model fit. RMSEA provides a value = .058,

which is significantly low to consider it a favourable value. However, examining the lower

and upper bounds for the confidence interval the analysis report LO 90 = .000 and HI 90 =

.236. This might suggest that the model is not a very good fit.

Table 27. RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE

Default model .058 .000 .236 .349

Independence model .216 .141 .298 .000

Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) is useful for making comparisons between

various models. The model with the lowest AIC is considered as having the best fit. In this

case, being the default model = 18.547.

Table 28. AIC

Model AIC BCC BIC CAIC

Default model 18.547 19.600 37.801 45.801

Saturated model 20.000 21.316 44.067 54.067

Independence model 36.701 37.227 46.328 50.328