Benchmark 4 Review Benchmark 4 Review NotesNotes

Honors BiologyHonors Biology

Scientific Method Review Scientific Method Review

• Using microscopes:Using microscopes:

Total magnification = Total magnification = eyepiece X objective eyepiece X objective lenslens

Example: Example: 40X 40X magnification = 10X magnification = 10X eyepiece times 4X eyepiece times 4X lenslens

Scientific Method Review Scientific Method Review (con’t.)(con’t.)

Independent Independent Variable:Variable:

• Always graphed Always graphed on the X-axison the X-axis

• What “I” set up in What “I” set up in an experimentan experiment

Dependent Dependent Variable:Variable:

• Always graphed Always graphed on the Y-axison the Y-axis

• What I What I measuremeasure as the experiment as the experiment progressesprogresses

Scientific Method (con’t.)Scientific Method (con’t.)

• Positive Exponents:Positive Exponents:

Positive exponents Positive exponents add zeros to the add zeros to the end of a number, end of a number, making the number making the number larger than 10larger than 10

Example: 10Example: 1022 = 100 = 100

• Negative ExponentsNegative Exponents

Negative exponents Negative exponents add zeroes to the add zeroes to the FRONT of a number, FRONT of a number, making the number making the number smaller than 1smaller than 1

Example: 10Example: 10-2-2 = = 0.010.01

Scientific Method Review Scientific Method Review (con’t.)(con’t.)

• Relative Size Relative Size Using Exponents:Using Exponents:

Size differences = Size differences = absolute valuesabsolute values

Example: Example: A certain protist is A certain protist is 5.4 X 105.4 X 10-8 -8 mm in size. mm in size. A certain bacterium is A certain bacterium is 6.1 X106.1 X10-11 -11 in size. in size.

Which organism is Which organism is larger,larger,

and roughly how and roughly how manymany

times larger?times larger?

Biomolecules ReviewBiomolecules Review

Organic Molecules:Organic Molecules:

• Contain carbon (C) Contain carbon (C) in their structurein their structure

• Examples include Examples include nucleic acids, nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and carbohydrates, and vitaminsvitamins

Inorganic Molecules:Inorganic Molecules:

• DO NOT contain DO NOT contain carbon (C) in their carbon (C) in their structurestructure

• Examples include Examples include minerals and waterminerals and water

Quick Facts: CarbohydratesQuick Facts: Carbohydrates

• Quick source of Quick source of energyenergy

• Built from Built from monosaccharidesmonosaccharides

• Glucose, made Glucose, made during during photosynthesis, is photosynthesis, is a carbohydratea carbohydrate

• The mitochondria The mitochondria breaks glucose in breaks glucose in to ATP during to ATP during cellular respirationcellular respiration

• Because glucose is Because glucose is soluble in polar soluble in polar water molecules, it water molecules, it is moved from our is moved from our digestive system to digestive system to cells via the cells via the circulatory systemcirculatory system

Quick Facts: LipidsQuick Facts: Lipids

• Used in animals and Used in animals and humans to store humans to store energy long-termenergy long-term

• Phospholipids are a Phospholipids are a component of the component of the cell membrane for cell membrane for all prokaryotes and all prokaryotes and eukaryoteseukaryotes

• Waxes waterproof Waxes waterproof feathers and leaves. feathers and leaves. This prevents plant This prevents plant cells from bursting due cells from bursting due to over absorption of to over absorption of water during osmosis water during osmosis on very rainy dayson very rainy days

• Building blocks: Fatty Building blocks: Fatty AcidsAcids

Quick Facts: Nucleic AcidsQuick Facts: Nucleic Acids

• Built from nucleotidesBuilt from nucleotides

• Two types: DNA and Two types: DNA and RNARNA

• DNA bases:DNA bases:

A—TA—T

C—G C—G

• RNA bases:RNA bases:

A—UA—U

G—CG—C

• DNA is double-DNA is double-stranded and held in stranded and held in the nucleus of the nucleus of eukaryoteseukaryotes

• RNA is single-strandedRNA is single-stranded

Quick Facts: ProteinsQuick Facts: Proteins

• Assembled by Assembled by linking amino acids linking amino acids at the ribosomesat the ribosomes

• Physical result of Physical result of gene reading and gene reading and assembly (DNA—assembly (DNA—mRNA—protein) mRNA—protein)

• Enzymes, catalysts Enzymes, catalysts of chemical of chemical reactions, are one reactions, are one type of proteintype of protein

• Enzymes typically Enzymes typically end in –ase. Each end in –ase. Each type of enzyme has type of enzyme has its own optimum its own optimum temperature and temperature and pH range in which pH range in which it works best.it works best.

Quick Facts: Vitamins and Quick Facts: Vitamins and MineralsMinerals

• Important Important VitaminsVitamins

C – Wound healingC – Wound healing

D – strong bones D – strong bones and teethand teeth

K – Muscle K – Muscle regulationregulation

• Important MineralsImportant Minerals

Calcium – strong Calcium – strong bonesbones

Potassium – Muscle Potassium – Muscle regulationregulation

Iron – Oxygen Iron – Oxygen transport in blood transport in blood via the circulatory via the circulatory systemsystem

Cell Structure and Cell Structure and FunctionFunction

• ProkaryotesProkaryotes

Have NO nucleus or Have NO nucleus or nuclear membranenuclear membrane

Possess cell Possess cell membranes, DNA, membranes, DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm ribosomes, cytoplasm and a cell wall like and a cell wall like structure called a structure called a capsulecapsule

ExampleExample: Bacteria: Bacteria

• EukaryotesEukaryotes

DO have a TRUE nucleus DO have a TRUE nucleus surrounded by a nuclear surrounded by a nuclear membranemembrane

Have many complex Have many complex organelles to help organelles to help perform complex perform complex functions for functions for multicellular lifemulticellular life

ExamplesExamples: Plant and : Plant and animal cellsanimal cells

Producers: Sources of Energy Producers: Sources of Energy

• Autotrophs (producers) perform Autotrophs (producers) perform bothboth cellular cellular respiration and photosynthesisrespiration and photosynthesis

• Plants use their chloroplasts to photosynthesizePlants use their chloroplasts to photosynthesize• Chemosynthesis: Performed by archaebacteria to Chemosynthesis: Performed by archaebacteria to

create glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and create glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and inorganic compoundsinorganic compounds

• Equation for photosynthesis: Equation for photosynthesis: Sunlight + carbon dioxide + water Sunlight + carbon dioxide + water glucose glucose

(sugar) + oxygen(sugar) + oxygen

Harnessing Sources of Harnessing Sources of EnergyEnergy

• Heterotrophs must consume glucose Heterotrophs must consume glucose because they cannot make it within because they cannot make it within their bodiestheir bodies

• Cellular respiration refines glucose in to ATP Cellular respiration refines glucose in to ATP for cellular functions in heterotrophs and for cellular functions in heterotrophs and autotrophsautotrophs• Cellular Respiration Equation: Cellular Respiration Equation: Glucose + Oxygen Glucose + Oxygen ATP + Carbon Dioxide + ATP + Carbon Dioxide +

WaterWater(Happens in the mitochondria)(Happens in the mitochondria)

HomeostasisHomeostasisMany processes we studied this year help maintain body Many processes we studied this year help maintain body

balancebalance

• KIDNEYS and the EXCRETORY SYSTEM KIDNEYS and the EXCRETORY SYSTEM help remove wastes created in the cellshelp remove wastes created in the cells

• OSMOSIS and DIFFUSION regulate the OSMOSIS and DIFFUSION regulate the movement of important nutrients and water movement of important nutrients and water into the cellsinto the cells

• MITOCHONDRIA create the needed ATP MITOCHONDRIA create the needed ATP for cellular functions and muscle firingfor cellular functions and muscle firing

Homeostasis: Systems in Homeostasis: Systems in TandemTandem

Many body systems work together to keep Many body systems work together to keep balance in the bodybalance in the body

Circulatory and Respiratory Systems: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide as cellular respiration occurs

Nervous and Muscular: Work together for muscle movement and firing at the proper time. Maintain heartbeat, breathing, and voluntary muscle movement

Active and Passive Active and Passive TransportTransport

ACTIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT requires ATPrequires ATP

• Substances move from Substances move from low concentration to low concentration to high concentration high concentration (against the gradient)(against the gradient)

• Ex: sodium potassium Ex: sodium potassium pump/ion pumpspump/ion pumps

PASSIVE TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT does not require does not require

ATPATP• Substance move from Substance move from

high concentration to high concentration to low concentration low concentration (with the gradient)(with the gradient)

• Ex: Osmosis and Ex: Osmosis and diffusiondiffusion

Asexual ReproductionAsexual Reproduction

• Creates clonesCreates clones

• Major types:Major types:• Vegetative – used by plantsVegetative – used by plants• Binary Fission – used by bacteriaBinary Fission – used by bacteria• Budding – Used by sponges and Budding – Used by sponges and

hydrahydra• Fragmentation – used by starfishFragmentation – used by starfish

MITOSISMITOSIS

• Makes diploid (2N) Makes diploid (2N) cells from a diploid cells from a diploid

cell (2N)cell (2N)• Creates genetically Creates genetically

identical cellsidentical cells

• Used in our bodies for Used in our bodies for growth, repair, and growth, repair, and healinghealing

MEIOSISMEIOSIS• Makes haploid (N) Makes haploid (N)

cells for sexual cells for sexual reproductionreproduction

• Creates genetically Creates genetically unique egg and unique egg and sperm cells sperm cells (gametes)(gametes)

• Cells created are Cells created are used in fertilization used in fertilization to make a zygoteto make a zygote

• Occurs in plants Occurs in plants and animals to and animals to make reproductive make reproductive cellscells

Application QuestionsApplication Questions

1.1. One species of Amazonian frog has One species of Amazonian frog has 124 chromosomes in each cell. How 124 chromosomes in each cell. How many chromosomes are in its egg many chromosomes are in its egg cells?cells?

2.2. A bacterial cell in the Amazon A bacterial cell in the Amazon reproduces by binary fission. The reproduces by binary fission. The bacterium contains 20 chromosomes. bacterium contains 20 chromosomes. How many are in its offspring?How many are in its offspring?

Genetics: Major Genetics: Major VocabularyVocabulary

• Homozygous dominantHomozygous dominant: DD: DD• Homozygous recessiveHomozygous recessive: dd: dd• HeterozygousHeterozygous: Dd : Dd

• GenotypeGenotype: Genetic makeup of an organism – : Genetic makeup of an organism – use Punnett Squares to predict for offspringuse Punnett Squares to predict for offspring

• PhenotypePhenotype: Physical characteristics of an : Physical characteristics of an organism – Pedigrees always mark organism – Pedigrees always mark phenotypes for a given familyphenotypes for a given family

Genetics: Two Major Types Genetics: Two Major Types of Punnett Squaresof Punnett Squares

AutosomalAutosomal Sex-LinkedSex-LinkedInherited the same wayInherited the same way Inherited Inherited

differentlydifferently

in males and femalesin males and females by genderby gender

Pedigrees: Visual analysis of Pedigrees: Visual analysis of trait inheritance in a familytrait inheritance in a family

• Shaded individuals have the phenotype (“are affected”) – Shaded individuals have the phenotype (“are affected”) – is this a dominant or recessive disorder?is this a dominant or recessive disorder?

Genetic ApplicationsGenetic Applications• Gene splicing: Gene splicing:

Used to create insulin Used to create insulin and and

other medicines for other medicines for

humans. Inserts a humans. Inserts a

human gene into human gene into

bacterial cells so they bacterial cells so they can can

quickly produce a quickly produce a proteinprotein

• Gel electrophoresis:Gel electrophoresis:

Used to compare bandUsed to compare band

patterns in DNA ofpatterns in DNA of

organisms. organisms.

Can be used to Can be used to determine determine

paternity, solve crimes, paternity, solve crimes,

and determine common and determine common

evolutionary ancestryevolutionary ancestry

Natural SelectionNatural Selection• AdaptationsAdaptations: Any : Any

features in a species features in a species that help them survive that help them survive and/or reproduce and/or reproduce offspring in their offspring in their environmentenvironment

• The development of The development of adaptations in a species adaptations in a species over time is called over time is called EVOLUTIONEVOLUTION

Determining RelatednessDetermining Relatedness

• Many modern species share common ancestors. Many modern species share common ancestors. Modern species evolved differently due to their Modern species evolved differently due to their different habitats. different habitats. Embryo similarities, DNA Embryo similarities, DNA comparison, vestigial structures, and homologous comparison, vestigial structures, and homologous structuresstructures are analyzed to look for common ancestors. are analyzed to look for common ancestors.

• Homologous structuresHomologous structures: Structures that look : Structures that look the same between speciesthe same between species

• Vestigial structuresVestigial structures: Structures that exist : Structures that exist within an organism but serve no purpose within an organism but serve no purpose

(Ex: appendix in humans)(Ex: appendix in humans)

EcologyEcology

Food webs show Food webs show energy transfer in energy transfer in an ecosysteman ecosystem

List theList the

PRODUCERSPRODUCERSHERBIVORESHERBIVORES

OMINVORESOMINVORESCARNIVORESCARNIVORES

Thinking about relationships. . .Thinking about relationships. . .

A decrease in A decrease in the tree the tree population population would most would most immediately immediately decrease decrease available available energy for energy for which which organisms?organisms?

Ecology: Basic VocabularyEcology: Basic Vocabulary

• Trophic LevelTrophic Level: Feeding level in a food chain: Feeding level in a food chain

• Abiotic FactorAbiotic Factor: Nonliving factor that affects : Nonliving factor that affects an ecosystem (temperature, water, soil. . .)an ecosystem (temperature, water, soil. . .)

• Biotic FactorBiotic Factor: Living factor that affects an : Living factor that affects an ecosystem (lion population, trees, ecosystem (lion population, trees, berries. . .)berries. . .)

• PopulationPopulation: One species living in the same : One species living in the same place at the same timeplace at the same time

Human Impacts on the Human Impacts on the EnvironmentEnvironment

• CombustionCombustion: Heightened levels of carbon : Heightened levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is caused by dioxide in the atmosphere is caused by burning fossil fuelsburning fossil fuels

• EutrophicationEutrophication: Fertilizer runoff causes : Fertilizer runoff causes heightened levels of nitrogen and heightened levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in bodies of water. This phosphorus in bodies of water. This depletes oxygen levels in the water.depletes oxygen levels in the water.