Beyond national culture: implications of cultural dynamics for consumer researchC. Samuel Craig, Susan P. Douglas. International Marketing Review . London: 2006. Vol. 23, Iss. 3; pg. 322Abstract (Summary) The purpose of this study is to develop a more thorough understanding of culture in a rapidly changing global environment. The recent literature dealing with ways in which cultural dynamics are influencing the nature and meaning of culture are examined. Different perspectives of culture related to three key components of culture, intangibles, material culture and communication, are explored. Based on this, directions for research on the content of culture are discussed as well as how it should be approached. Culture is becoming increasingly deterritorialized and penetrated by elements from other cultures. This is resulting in cultural contamination, cultural pluralism and hybridization. It has become more difficult to study culture as it is becoming diffuse. At the same time, it is becoming more important to study it because of its pervasive influence on consumer behavior. Given that culture is no longer a phenomenon defined by and isolated to a particular locale, research on culture must carefully specify the role of culture, define the appropriate unit of analysis, isolate confounding influences and expand the range of contexts. The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasingly important to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations. For progress to be made, research designs must account for this complexity and span multiple contexts.

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Introduction

Culture has a profound influence on all aspects of human behavior. Its impact may be subtle or pronounced, direct or oblique, enduring or ephemeral. It is so entwined with all facets of human existence that it is often difficult to determine how and in what ways its impact is manifested. Adding to the complexity of understanding the impact of culture is its inherently dynamic nature. Cultural influences change and culture evolves as political, social, economic and technological forces reshape the cultural landscape ([69] Usunier and Lee, 2005). Given the rapid pace of change, it becomes increasingly imperative to take into account the dynamic character of culture and to understand the way the composition of culture is being transformed by global forces.

Expanding networks of inter-personal and mass communications, spawned by the growth of satellite communication links, the internet and voice/data networks have altered traditionally static territorially based notions of culture ([30] Hermans and Kempen, 1998) and resulted in greater interchange and linkages between cultural entities. Members of different cultural groupings are moving from one country to another, bringing with them their interests, values, and distinctive behavior patterns and intermingling with others, thus further clouding the spatial and social boundaries of culture ([7] Andreasen,

1990). This results in cultural interpenetration, i.e. the penetration of one culture by another. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult to identify the "ethnie" core of a culture due to cultural contamination. Greater commingling and fusion of elements of different cultures at the same time dilutes, enriches, and alters individual cultures.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a more thorough understanding of cultural dynamics and the different ways in which new sources of cultural influence are permeating and changing society. Emphasis is placed on examining the components of culture and providing a conceptual overview of the key forces impacting and changing culture. Its metamorphosis from a set of socially independent and geographically isolated units to a more complex, multi-level, intertwined, and evolving organism is examined. This is based on examining previous literature in marketing and related fields, notably global sociology. First, different concepts of culture in marketing are explored. Then ways in which cultural dynamics are influencing the nature of culture are examined. Based on this, some directions for research on the content of culture are discussed as well as how it should be approached.

Culture and marketing

Culture is a pervasive influence which underlies all facets of social behavior and interaction. It is evident in the values and norms that govern society. It is embodied in the objects used in everyday life and in modes of communication in society. The complexity of culture is reflected in the multitude of definitions of culture. [39] Krober and Kluckholn (1952) in their classic review of culture in the Peabody papers listed over 160 different definitions of culture, and were sufficiently dissatisfied with all of them to add a one more (161) of their own. Of all these definitions, perhaps the most widely accepted is that given by [68] Tylor (1881) who described culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society," or as later synthesized by [31] Herskovits (1955) as the "manmade" part of the environment - i.e. what distinguishes humans from other species.

Consumer researchers have largely followed this view of culture. [45] McCracken (1986) adopts an all encompassing view of culture defining it as the "lens through which the individual views phenomena." As such it determines how individuals perceive and interpret phenomena, provides the "blueprint" of human activity, determines the co-ordinates of social action and productive activity and specifies the behaviors and objects that issue from both. This view follows closely the interpretative perspective of scholars such as [19] Clifford (1988), [26] Geertz (1973) and [44] Marcus (1999) and their view of culture as interpretation of meaning in a culturally constituted world.

This represents a different view of culture from that recently discussed by [41] Leung et al., (2005) which views culture as a multi-layered construct existing at different levels, global, national, organizational and group cultures, which encompass the individual. Attention is focused on aggregate social and group processes, and particularly the extent to which these are converging or diverging across countries, rather than on the individual,

which is the heart of consumer culture. Emphasis is placed on the intersection of these aggregate levels and the factors, which facilitate cultural change. Individual characteristics are viewed as a moderating influence rather than the heart of the investigation as is the case in consumer research. Further, the current epoch is viewed as one of partial globalization rather than of cultural convergence.

The framework adopted here is based on that developed by [62] Sojka and Tansuhaj (1995) who group research in marketing on culture into three major streams:

abstract or intangible elements of culture such as values and belief systems;

material aspects of culture, such as artifacts, symbols and rites; and

the communication links which bind and perpetuate a cultural system.

Each of these perspectives is rooted in a different research tradition. As such each provides a unique and distinct perspective and insights into a facet of culture.

In the past, these three elements have often been discussed independently or attention has focused on a single element. They are, however, closely intertwined (Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). Communication provides a means of transmitting the intangible aspects of culture, such as values and beliefs from one person to another or from one generation to another. This communication process is inherently dynamic and at the same time continually evolving. Artifacts ranging from religious icons to shoes or clothing, may also be an expression of intangible beliefs, and at the same time designate membership in a particular culture.

The interdependence of the three elements is evident in the lifestyles of teens throughout the world. They are exposed to media advertising as well as movies, music and magazines, communicating shared values such as individualism, independence and self-reliance. Items of apparel such as jeans, athletic shoes, baseball caps, jewelry, and watches, symbolize their membership in this global culture. At the same time, communications, such as advertising or magazines, both reflect and influence cultural values. For example, Nike advertising targeted at teens in the US emphasizes sports and stresses individualistic values and competitiveness - core values of US teen culture. The same advertising aimed at teens in collectivist societies that emphasize relations and interaction with others, suggests and instills new values and may gradually change core beliefs to resemble those of their peers in the western world. This is not to suggest that all teens are subject to western influence, but the impact, to varying degrees, is apparent throughout the world.

Values and belief systems

The intangible elements of culture incorporate the dominant societal values and belief systems that characterize a society or culture and guide the patterning of behavior in that society. Here, it is important to consider the layering of beliefs and value-systems as well

as their scope or relevance to a particular behavior or consumption situation. Value-systems can be examined at the level of the society, specific groups or organizations within society, as well as at the level of the individual (i.e. personal values). Equally, values may be general value orientations, relating, for example, to time, behavior towards others, concepts of self or alternatively relative to specific areas or domains of life, e.g. work and leisure, relations to others, or to specific consumption or purchase situations, i.e. a gift, a consumer durable, a family purchase, or for one's self.

Attention has been focused on cultural intangibles at the societal level and their impact on individual behavior. However, there are numerous other intangibles that impact individual consumption patterns and ways of behaving. These include, for example, ideals and aspirations, role norms and gender ideology, cultural myths, metaphors and signs. While complex and difficult to compare across cultures due to their subjective and existential nature, these are nonetheless key elements of culture that determine the patterning of daily life and behavior of consumers.

At the aggregate or societal level, a dominant stream of research has focused on identifying value-orientations in society. In their classic study, [38] Kluckholm and Strodtbeck (1961) identified four value orientations: man's relation to nature, time dimension, personal activity and man's relation to others. Particularly, influential has been the schema of national culture developed by [32] Hofstede (2001) based on an extensive study of work related goals and value patterns of managers in a large multi-national company. He initially identified four dimensions: power distance, or acceptance of inequality in power in society; Individualism, or emphasis on self-interest and immediate family vs collective goals; uncertainty avoidance or society's tendency to cope with unstructured situations by developing strict codes of behavior; and masculinity vs femininity or the extent to which society values goals perceived as masculine such as competition vs goals perceived as feminine such as nurturing. A fifth dimension, long- vs short-term orientation, was subsequently added when the study was extended to Asia based on a study of Chinese values. This revealed another dimension opposing long- to short-term aspects of Confucian thinking, persistence and thrift to personal stability and respect for tradition. These five dimensions are postulated to represent the collective patterning of the mind, and to constitute fundamental value orientations that underlie differences in managerial practices, organizational patterns and decision-making. This has also been widely used in marketing to characterize the national culture of different countries and as an independent variable to explain or understand cross-national differences ([18] Clark, 1990; [48] Nakata and Sivakumar, 1996; [60] Shimp and Sharma, 1987).

An alternative schema, grounded in Rokeach's value survey, was developed by [55] Schwarz (1992). Schwarz grouped values into value types according to the underlying motivational goals. Reasoning that the same basic human values would be found in all cultures, he developed measures of each value and examined their existence in a number of countries ([56] Schwarz and Bilsky, 1996). This has also been widely used in marketing and consumer behavior ([63] Steenkamp et al. , 1999).

At the societal level, these value types were grouped into three cultural dimensions, conservatism vs autonomy, hierarchy vs egalitarianism, and mastery vs harmony. While Schwarz viewed his approach as distinctly different from that of Hofstede, there are some strong underlying similarities. The first two dimensions closely resemble the individualism-collectivism and the power distance value-orientations while mastery vs harmony parallel Hofstede's masculinity/feminity dimensions. The similarities between the two value schemas provide further support for their validity as dominant value structures, which exist across societies.

Cultural orientation has been the central construct used in psychology and other social sciences ([50] Oysermann et al. , 2002) to understand and define culture ([1] Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997; [2] Aaker, 2000). This perspective, grounded in psychology, has focused on examining cognition and cognitive processes and the universality of models and conceptual frameworks developed in one society or culture in another. Countries are selected as exemplars of either individualist or collectivist societies and cognitive processes or behavior patterns of respondents in two or more countries compared. A key objective is to determine whether cognitive processes and constructs typically identified in an individualist society such as the USA, can be generalized to collectivist societies such as Hong Kong, Taiwan or Japan. In marketing, cultural orientation has been studied primarily in relation to marketing communications and cognitive processes. Differences have been found between individualist and collectivist societies in relation to the influence of consensus information on product evaluation ([1] Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997), information content in advertising ([33] Hong et al. , 1987), emotional appeals in advertising ([3] Aaker and Williams, 1998), and in the accessibility or diagnosticity of persuasion appeals ([2] Aaker, 2000). These studies suggest the existence of major differences in the salience of appeals between individualist and collectivist societies, notably related to the importance of the individual relative to the group.

While cultural value orientations tap a central dimension of cultural variation and provide a highly parsimonious approach to studying culture, they constitute broad societal constructs which do not reflect more nuanced or process-oriented aspects of society or the importance of contextual variables in influencing behavior and cognition ([47] Miller, 2002; [50] Oysermann et al. , 2002). In particular, they ignore differences among individuals in the extent to which they subscribe to the dominant societal cultural orientation as well as the extent to which cultural influences may be activated in a given situation ([15] Briley et al. , 2001). It has, therefore, been argued that a dynamic constructionist view of culture should be adopted, which focuses on identifying specific knowledge structures or implicit cultural theories that mediate social behavior in specific domains ([34] Hong and Chui, 2001).

Material culture and artifacts

Each culture has its own vision of the world and set of culturally constituted meanings that provide understanding and rules for its members which may be unintelligible to others. Within this stream, [45] McCracken's (1986) work provides a framework for understanding the cultural meaning of consumer goods and consumption patterns ([9]

Applebaum and Jordt, 1996). It identifies cultural categories of time, space, nature, and person as the fundamental co-ordinates of meaning that organize the phenomenal world. A key mechanism framing interpretation of consumption is advertising in a society, which serves as a conduit through which viewers or readers are informed of the meaning of consumer goods ([12] Belk and Pollay, 1985; [67] Tse et al. , 1989).

Material culture incorporates the rituals, artifacts, institutions and symbols of a society that bind it together and establish rules and norms for behaving towards others within society, either in general or on specific occasions such as weddings, funerals, festivals, etc. The meaning and symbolism attached to individual possessions and goods owned by individuals, families or social groups and the significance attached to gifts and gift-giving rituals are also important elements of material culture. Consumption patterns also demarcate life-styles and social class ([35] Holt, 1998).

The meaning attached to possessions is another integral component of culture. [70] Wallendorf and Arnould (1988) note "objects serve as the set and props on the theatrical stage of our lives and markers to remind ourselves of who we are." Favorite objects serve as possessions that reflect local cultures, and as such different values and social structure. In the southwest of the US, favorite objects represent unique individual expressions of self or personal experiences, while in Niger they are fewer and more likely to represent links with other members of society, either of a co-operative, e.g. Koranic texts, or competitive nature, e.g. horses ([70] Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988). While the specific objects differed between cultures, attachment to objects as distinct from materialism is a pervasive phenomenon in all cultures.

The rituals and institutions established by society are important indicators of the strength of cultural ties and the shared collective programming of society. In Japan, for example, the existence of formal rituals and customs is an important element binding the society and ensuring harmonious relations among its members. In the USA, on the other hand, the broad mix of cultures and national origins results in multiple and diverse cultural traditions and rituals which often intermingle and blend into each other.

Rituals associated with consumption behavior, or specific consumption occasions provide insights into the way in which consumer goods are embedded in and form an integral part of the cultural fabric of society ([10] Arnould, 1989; [14] Belk et al. , 1989). Gift giving has been one of the most extensively studied social rituals ([13] Belk, 1988: [58] Sherry, 1983). Here, the practices surrounding the formalized nature of gift giving in Japan has been contrasted with gift-giving practices in other cultures. Equally, study of gift-giving practices in Hong Kong has revealed these to be embedded in particular socio-cultural practices, which form a continuum from intimates to acquaintances ([37] Joy, 2001). In essence, each culture develops its own gift-giving practices incorporating ties of obligation and reciprocity consistent with the network of social relationships within the culture.

Brands also serve as cultural markers ([35] Holt, 1998). The meaning and set of associations surrounding a brand name as also a brand category may vary from one

culture to another ([37] Joy, 2001; [58] Sherry, 1983). Studies of diffusion patterns and favorite objectives also underscore differences in preference formation from one culture to another and hence the importance of understanding cultural-specific factors underlying diffusion patterns in society ([70] Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988).

These studies generate a rich understanding of consumption phenomena at a particular site, especially in terms of product use and symbolism. However, to the extent that the unit of analysis is a specific cultural context, generalizations to a broader context, and implicit comparisons with regard to other cultures are difficult to make. As a result, integration of findings relating to specific sites into a broader understanding of cultural influences on consumption, and of the significance and meaning of these influences across multiple sites or cultural contexts is somewhat problematic. Ultimately, much depends on how sites are selected, and the cultural components being studied

Language and communication systems

The view of culture as content focuses on interpreting the role of artifacts and the meanings consumers ascribe to them. Closely related to this is research that examines the meaning and implications of language as an interpretation of culture. While both streams may end up examining similar stimuli, the focus is different. Content studies examine the role and meaning of an object as it is used by consumers. For example, favorite objects of specific cultural groups such as the Hansa ([10] Arnould, 1989) and Indian immigrants to the US ([46] Mehta and Belk, 1991) and Italian immigrants in Montreal ([36] Joy et al. , 1995) have been studied. Communication studies, on the other hand, examine the use of objects and language as conveyors of culture, as for example, the use of ideographic writing systems in brand recall ([53] Schmitt et al. , 1994).

Communication is a key element of culture as it provides a mechanism for transmitting and interpreting messages relating to the world around an individual. Communication takes place in a physical and social context such as time, location and the social relationship of the participants, as well as in relation to other competing messages ([28] Hall, 1973). All these influence and condition how a communication is received. Members of a culture share a common key for interpreting their social surroundings, which establishes rules for governing the interaction. Members of different cultures may not know how to interpret these signs, resulting in miscommunication.

Modes of communication both verbal and non-verbal are an integral part of culture ([28], [29] Hall, 1973, 1976; [52] Samovar and Porter, 1994; [71] Whorf, 1956) and provide links within and across cultural units. Communication arises from the need to connect and interact with others and unites otherwise isolated individuals. Communication involves messages that are encoded and transmitted to others who decode them and respond accordingly.

Language is a key component of communication since it provides a mechanism for encoding and decoding messages. A shared language is thus a key factor unifying members of a common culture. Language provides an organizing schema for interpreting

and understanding the world. The Sapir Whorf hypothesis, for example, postulates that language plays an important role in the formation of thought patterns and behavioral response as well as in the transmission of cultural norms and behavior patterns from one generation to another ([71] Whorf, 1956). Thus, for example, Eskimos have several words for snow to reflect different types of snow, and in the UK there are multiple words for different types of rain.

Language and communication also give meaning to objects and symbols for the individual. At the same time, they act as a unifying force binding together the members of a specific society and culture, and facilitating intra-group interaction, while at the same time hindering interaction with members of other societies and cultures. Rapid advances in communications technology have dramatically reduced the importance of geographic proximity for communication. Individuals can now be in instant touch with others around the world by voice or written word. Information that once took days or weeks to spread is available immediately. As a result, physical proximity is no longer a key requirement for formation of a cultural entity.

Language has many facets that relate to the meaning of consumer products. Linguistic structure plays an important role in the formation of cognitive processes such as perception and hence judgment and choice ([54] Schmitt and Zang, 1998) as well as in brand recall and recognition ([53] Schmitt et al. , 1994) and the encoding and recall of information ([64] Tavassoli, 1999). Equally, foreign language and loanwords can help in establishing the identity of a local (indigenous) product ([59] Sherry and Camargo, 1987). Use of a minority subculture's language in advertising ([40] Koslow et al. , 1994) has also been found to impact consumer response. Examination of how bilinguals process information in advertisements further demonstrates the importance of language in message recall ([43] Luna and Peracchio, 2001). Language is shown to be an important thread of culture not only in communication within a culture, but also in categorizing cultural content and in retaining information relating to that culture.

While language is a key element of culture it provides only one aspect of communication in a culture. In addition, visual expression, gestures and signs are often important elements of communication particularly in certain types of cultures ([29] Hall, 1976). Both language and visual modes of communication play an important role in social communication and issues such as message interpretation or misinterpretation which merit further attention, particularly in relation to communications between cultures.

Intercultural communication, or face-to-face communication between people of different national cultures, gives rise to numerous issues of which differences in language constitute but one important barrier ([27] Gudykunst, 2003). Differences in cultural background, values and mores and self-identifies may act as impediments to effective communication. Ways of expressing emotions, perceptions of self, others and of phenomena may also differ and give rise to problems of miscommunication. As a result communication between peoples of different cultures is fraught with difficulties. Even within cultures different groups and communities may have their own particular modes of

communication, binding them together, but at the same time excluding others ([4] Abrams et al. , 2003).

The three intertwined components of culture comprise the underlying fabric of society. They permeate all aspects of daily life and human interaction. However, culture is not static, but continually evolving and changing. As a result of increased movement, contact, and interaction occurring across cultures, local cultural patterns and traditions are being altered, breaking down and being permeated by new influences from other cultures. These dynamics and their consequences are discussed next.

Cultural dynamics

Growing links between local cultures and the increasing permeability of cultural boundaries are changing the nature of culture and transforming its patterning. With advances in communications technology, cultures are increasingly linked by global flows diffusing ideas, products and images across the world at amazing speed. The sociologist [8] Appadurai (1990) has identified five global flows that are transforming the nature of society and muting the effect of divisions and barriers between them. Mediascapes, i.e. flows of image and communication, are the most far-reaching in both influencing consumers and at the same time are subject to influence by marketers. Ethnoscapes, i.e. flows of tourists, migrants, foreign students, are also shaping beliefs and result in direct exposure of members of one culture to another. Ideoscapes, i.e. flows of political ideas and ideologies, exert more subtle influences that take more time to have any impact. Ethnoscapes and mediascapes are the conduits for transmission of ideas and ideologies. The last two scapes, technoscapes, i.e. flows of technology and know-how or linkages between plants and offices throughout the world, and finanscapes, i.e. flows or capital and money, are important forces but less evident for individual consumers. In many instances it is the desire to expand markets for goods and services that sets many of these flows in motion. Technology and capital are critical factors for business as they seek to expand around the globe and their impact is ultimately manifested in the first three scapes. These flows are the primary mechanisms that transmit content from one culture to another.

The five global flows dramatically change the character of the global landscape, and in particular, the way in which the cultural context is configured. Traditionally, culture has been viewed as localized and defined by territorial boundaries. Cultural behavior patterns are viewed as delimited within a given locality, with little interaction or overlap with other cultures. The strength of global flows creates a very different landscape in which cultural patterns are no longer concentrated in a given locality, but are rather interconnected across broad geographic areas and multiple groupings as cultural boundaries become less clearly defined. The consequences of these flows are identified in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] and the remainder of this section is devoted to an elaboration of these consequences.

Cultural interpenetration

Flows from one culture to another, result in the second culture being interpenetrated by the first. When the flows are bilateral, both cultures become interpenetrated. As links are established across cultures, geographically localized cultural entities are rapidly disappearing. New contact zones or spatial patterns of interaction are established across national groups and cultures. For example, changing ethnoscapes result in the creation of ties that span national boundaries ([30] Hermans and Kempen, 1998). As guest workers from developing countries enter into the work force of more affluent societies, they are able to retain contact with their homeland through global media, resulting in attachment to policies in their country of origin, or bringing in products from that country. For example, Turkish migrant workers to Germany and the Netherlands have introduced the "Doner Kebap," a Turkish sandwich of roasted meat, and "pide," Turkish flat bread, into those countries ([16] Caglar, 1995). If there are sufficient numbers of immigrants, retail shops and restaurants will be established that offer products and services from their home country.

In some instances, such ties may result in disruption or discontinuities, as dominance of an immigrant group gives rise to fears of disappearance of indigenous local habits and traits. In other cases, these intrusions are benign, and different cultures co-exist in harmony along side each other, each respecting the boundaries of the other, and in some cases adopting certain habits or traits of the other.

Deterritorialization

One of the consequences of cultural interpenetration is that a specific culture is no longer confined to a defined geographic locale. Linkages and scapes crossing many diverse cultures create an array of transnational contact zones or cultural contexts. On the one hand, they impact the homogeneity of the different cultures and on the other; establish linkages that transform locality to translocality ([24] Featherstone, 1990). This deterritorialization of culture implies that geographic location is far less critical and at times misleading in defining culture and cultural particularity. A culture that once developed relative to specific resources or specific institutions available at a given location, now draws from different resources scattered in multiple locations and through links established between locations.

Localized cultural units no longer form the nuclei for the development of distinct cultures, but are replaced by geographically dispersed cultures linked together through modern communications technology ([51] Pieterse, 1995; [30] Hermans and Kempen, 1998). Cultural boundaries are becoming more porous, as contact is established between different cultural contexts through the various flows. As a result of such contact, values, attitudes and/or behavior are becoming more amorphous and continually changing, particularly with regard to other cultures and cultural values.

Cultural contamination

One important consequence of changing cultural boundaries and the reconfiguration of the cultural context is cultural contamination. No longer can the pure "ethnie" core of a

culture and its distinctive compositional elements be clearly distinguished. This common ethnie of "shared memories, myths, values and symbols woven together and sustained in popular consciousness" ([24] Featherstone, 1990) is becoming more broadly diffused among the general population and no longer forms a common bond shared uniquely by members of the culture.

The ease of establishing contact between individuals at geographically dispersed locations throughout the world through global systems of communication and mass media, further contributes to the breakup of the close knit ties of local cultures and the widespread diffusion of products, ideas and images of diverse cultures. This results in a blurring of cultural boundaries which is further reinforced by increased consumer mobility and travel and greater exposure to global and culturally diverse media.

Cultural pluralism

Rather than rapidly assimilating into a host country, immigrants in many countries and contexts are retaining their own ethnic or cultural identity ([65] Thompson and Tambyah, 1999). This is facilitated by the ease with which links can be maintained across cultural contexts. The proliferation of cultural groupings is also resulting in increasing cultural pluralism. As a result, consumers often belong to multiple cultural groupings, i.e. ethnic, linguistic or religious groups, and hence have multiple identities. For example, female Catholic Korean immigrants in California are members of the Asian immigrant culture in California, as well as the Korean culture, the Korean immigrant culture in California, and the Catholic Asian culture, etc.

Some individuals identify strongly with multiple groupings. For example, a Pakistani Muslim immigrant, may identify strongly with the Muslim religion, with his country of origin, as well as with his country of adoption, rather than shifting from identification with his country of origin to his country of adoption as is commonly assumed ([6] Alexander, 1994). This gives rise to the question of whether strong ethnic or cultural identification is a personality trait, or in other words, whether some individuals have a strong drive to identify with a group, while others have much weaker drives for group identification.

Different identities may, therefore, be operant depending on the specific context or situation. The ethnic identity of origin may, for example, be operant in the home, while that of the host culture dominates in the work place. Equally, the importance of a specific cultural influence may vary depending on the product category. For example, religion may be operant in terms of food and sometimes clothing purchases, while ethnic origin influences choice of store, and language determines choice of information sources.

Hybridization

A very subtle trend is the hybridization of cultures. As [51] Pieterse (1995) indicates, hybridization occurs when "... new forms become separated from existing practices and recombine with new forms in new practices." Thus, rather than resulting in a

homogeneous or universal globalization, different compositional elements and cultural streams become intermingled, forming a complex new entity combining elements of each stream.

Hybridization occurs not only among elements of culture that are in harmony with each other, as for example, adoption in the USA of other elements of western cultures or Japanese art forms, but among cultures that are substantially different from one other. Thus, for example, European Americans adopt African-American music just as Indian musical traditions have permeated western music, resulting in the emergence of world music ([51] Pieterse, 1995; [25] Featherstone and Lash, 1995).

Co-existence of people from different cultures in close proximity may also lead to hybridization of culture ([51] Pieterse, 1995) as they become intermingled through intermarriage, or other forms of social interaction. Immigrants of different national or ethnic origins will become exposed to each other's cultural traditions, life-styles and behavior patterns, as well as those of their common host culture. The customs or festivals of one group may be adopted by others, as for example; Christmas has been widely adopted in many Asian countries by non-Christians. Similarly, American sports such as basketball, baseball and football have been adopted in other parts of the world, and soccer in the US. As a result, cultural identities are continually changing and evolving over time and compositional elements are no longer specific to a given context as the fluidity of boundary lines blurs the lines of cultural demarcation.

Implications for research on culture

Each of the three streams of research identified earlier provides a distinctive aperture and lens to view the intertwined facets of culture. Each is rooted in a specific research tradition reflecting a focus on a particular aspect of culture. As a result, any one perspective provides only a partial glimpse that fails to capture the full richness of cultural influences. As a consequence, findings are often interpreted in terms of a single perspective, ignoring other possible interpretations or insights.

The complexity of cultural influences and the numerous ways in which these are changing, suggest the need to adopt a broader perspective. This perspective should capture the richness and diversity of these different aspects of culture and their influence, as well as providing a view of culture that can be applied meaningfully to marketing situations. In addition to thinking about conceptual issues in designing research on culture, research design must also consider the methodological implications of changing cultural dynamics. Both of these are examined next.

Conceptual issues in cross-cultural research

Research might, for example, usefully focus on studying in-depth a particular culture over time, examining how values and belief systems evolve, how patterns of communication change and new forms of material artifacts replace the old. Given the importance of the global flows identified earlier, of even greater salience is the

examination of how such flows impact cultural patterning and establish linkages across cultural boundaries. Cultural interpenetration, cultural contamination, cultural pluralism and hybridization while by no means new, have been little studied to date. More detailed examination of such phenomena and the implications for marketing would undoubtedly provide fruitful avenues for understanding the dynamics of cultural change.

A consequence of cultural interpenetration is cultural contamination. This implies that the central values of a culture are no longer distinct and readily measurable, but rather permeated by influences from other cultures. Consequently, there will be greater variance within country on measures of individual values such as the Schwarz typology. Greater within country variance also makes it more difficult to obtain significant differences between countries as well. Equally, at the aggregate level, the dominant value system of a country or region will begin to incorporate values from other countries. The rate and degree of change will be a function of the extent and type of contact with other countries. Values typically characterizing western societies, such as individualism and independence, will increasingly be adopted in collectivist Asian societies. At the same time, Asian values such as harmony will become more evident in western societies. Examination of the extent to which individuals in a given society are embracing non-traditional values from other societies would begin to document the extent of change.

The mechanisms through which such changes in the value system occur vary. Some individuals who have been exposed to other cultures either passively through mass-media and communication systems or actively through living in or traveling to other cultures, will exhibit adaptability to different culture systems as they move from one culture to another. Such individuals have been termed variously "world minded" ([11] Beckmann et al. , 2000) or cosmopolitan ([17] Cannon and Yaprak, 2002; [65] Thompson and Tambyah, 1999). In a recent study of "worldmindedness " ([11] Beckmann et al. , 2000), qualitative research was undertaken in a preliminary "emic" stage of research to assess how individuals in the three countries studied, Austria, Denmark, and the USA, perceived the concept of worldmindedness or cosmopolitanism. This was closely related to the linguistic context of the study.

More research is also needed to assess how far language influences meaning and equivalency in different cultures. More specifically, it is important to assess whether the same construct is linked to the same product related attitudes and consumption patterns in each country. As cultural interpenetration and contamination occur, the unique material associated with the "ethnie" core of a culture, i.e. its artifacts, symbols and rituals will become less clear and readily identifiable. It will become increasingly difficult to distinguish one "ethnie" core from another. A blurring of the "ethnie" core will occur as objects and symbols transferred from one culture to another are adopted, and often adapted in a new and different cultural context. Traditions and rituals become intermingled and merged, as those of one culture are adopted and absorbed by another. As a result of this interchange new food consumption patterns, clothing or entertainment that reflect a fusion of two or more cultures are emerging, as for example, Afro Hispanic rhythms or Asian fusion cuisine. At the same time, increasing cultural interpenetration results in a resurgence of traditional rituals and artifacts among a small fragmented

market segment. Often they may seek to establish and reaffirm their cultural identity and affinity, resulting in extensive use of objects and symbols as well as performance of rituals characteristic of their culture of origin.

Cultural dynamics also influence the diffusion of objects and artifacts from one culture to another or the extent to which symbols of belonging to one culture have been adopted by another. Measures to trace the flows of goods and artifacts from one culture or geographic location to another need to be developed. This requires more than tracing the diffusion of new products from one country to another. It implies that, for example, studies should track not only the movement of goods, but also the transfer of meaning associated with the objects. This is particularly salient for objects that are cultural icons or typical of a particular culture.

Given the increased fluidity of culture and the growth of inter-linkages between cultures, it is important that more time is spent examining the extent to which trade linkages and communication links such as media, or travel as well as cultural similarity or geographic distance influence adoption of products from one country to another. As communication across broad geographic distances becomes increasingly easy, linguistic similarity of cultures becomes more critical than geographic proximity in determining diffusion patterns.

US films have, for example, been found to be more successful in English-speaking countries, countries with values similar to the USA, and somewhat surprisingly, those with more McDonalds' outlets per capita ([21] Craig et al. , 2005). Subsequent research might validate this latter indicator as a measure of Americanization, examining whether the number of McDonalds is related to consumption of other US products such as Levis jeans or Nike athletic shoes. Further, the extent to which adoption of such symbols of Americanization is related to other indicators of links with the USA or of potential US influence might be examined, as for example, trade flows with the USA, presence of US subsidiaries, mail flows, telephone communications, and number of business and tourist travelers to and from the USA. Similar measures examining bilateral flows of products, trade and communication between two or more countries could be used to assess the relative influence and inter-linkages between other countries.

Tracking of links between different cultures at the macro-economic, product-market and individual level can provide an indication of the interconnection between these cultures and the degree of intercommunication. This should also include examination of verbal communication such as phone calls or face-to-face meetings, as well as physical and written communication, as for example, travel between cultures, movement of goods and performance of services across cultural boundaries, use of the internet, e-mail, instant messaging, etc.

Given the fluidity of communication, research needs to capture the dynamics as they unfold, focusing, for example, on the impact of the rise of bilingualism or the increased use of loan words. In targeting immigrant bi-linguals, the effectiveness of adapting ads to local languages needs to be further probed. Attention might be directed towards language

preference differences between first, second and third generation immigrants, as also whether the similarity of their native language to the language of the country or adoption, or socio-economic status plays a role. The extent to which immigrants have learned the language prior to arriving in the country of adoption, as well as the reasons for choosing to immigrate to a particular country are also important.

Use of loan words also merits further investigation and is becoming increasingly significant as more individuals travel and are exposed to languages, customs, brand names and material objects from other countries ([59] Sherry and Camargo, 1987). Research might focus on the factors underlying the rise of this phenomenon, as for example, increased inter-linkages and communication between countries and cultures, similarity in cultural values between countries, etc. This will require text-based analysis, i.e. of the ad stimuli that provide a mirror of the values and practices of a culture ([12] Belk and Pollay, 1985). This type of analysis is greatly facilitated by the availability of ads in an electronic format. In addition, use of electronic techniques such as e-mail and internet-based surveys allow use of qualitative analysis in conjunction with quantitative analysis to tap into the emotional impact of ads ([57] Sharman et al. , 2004).

Methodological issues in cross-cultural research

Specifying the role of culture

Research on culture must specify why and in what way culture is relevant to the phenomenon being studied (for more detail on international research methodology see, [20] Craig and Douglas, 2005; [23] Douglas and Craig, 2006). This in turn requires delineating different levels of culture, i.e. global, regional, national, sub-national, to be examined and the nature of their influence on consumption behavior. In some cases, cultural influences may form the focal point of the study, as for example, where attention is centered on examining cultural conventions such as weddings, and the extent to which traditional wedding practices in countries such as China and Thailand are becoming westernized. In other cases, cultural factors may play a mediating role. For example, the extent to which values, such as ethnocentricism or world mindedness, mediate responses to marketing stimuli, could be examined by gauging responses to advertising showing products positioned as foreign or domestic ([5] Alden et al. , 1999).

Where attitudes, interest and behavior are examined in multiple contexts, it is important to select these contexts based on some relevant dimension or aspect hypothesized to affect the attitudes and behavior studied. For example, inter-personal behavior might be examined in a collectivist vs an individualistic society ([66] Triandis, 1995). Observed differences can then be attributed to collectivist vs individualistic values. In this case, the societies being compared should differ primarily with regard to the aspect of interest, and not systematically with regard to some other underlying factor, which may affect the outcome. Factors such as country size, population density, average level of education, and per capita income may all exert some influence on the observed outcome. Inclusion of other cultural distance measures such as geographic distance or cultural similarity (using, for example, the Schwarz individual level measures) in investigating differences

and similarities in attitudes and consumption patterns between countries and cultures would also help to shed further light on the impact of culture.

Identifying the unit of analysis

Deterritorialization, market fragmentation and the development of linkages across national borders imply that national culture is no longer as relevant as the unit of analysis for examining culture. Rather the dominance of national culture and national borders has been replaced by a multiplicity of complex cultural influences, which may be studied at the global, regional, cross-national or sub national (e.g. urban/rural) level. Research designs must begin to take into account these different levels of culture. Further, less reliance should be placed on the country as the unit of analysis. Instead greater attention is needed to alternative units which are finer and more closely knit to find ones that are "culturally" pure.

The "culti-unit" proposed by Naroll, the cultural anthropologist is particularly useful in identifying analytically pure units to study ([49] Naroll, 1970). A culti-unit consists of "people who are domestic speakers of a common distinct language and belong to the same state or contact group." The two key criteria defining the unit are language, which may be a dialect or main language, and the degree of social interaction and communication. This definition is well suited for examining consumer behavior, where language and communication or interactions are often important boundary lines staking differences and similarities in consumption and purchase behavior ([22] Douglas and Craig, 1997). Use of the culti-unit is also consistent with the view that transmission of collective identity requires a sense of continuity, shared memories, and a sense of common destiny in order to endure ([61] Smith, 1990). An enduring cultural identity is most forcibly provided at the level of the contact group with its ethnie core of shared myths, memories, values and symbols.

There are two key issues involved in identifying and analyzing a culti-unit. First, the culti-unit has to be identified so that the research effort can progress. The available sampling frames or the population to which the researcher has access will typically be the defining factor, as it is difficult to identify an appropriate culti-unit a priori. In many cases, therefore the definition may be subjective and somewhat arbitrary. The second step is more important, that of determining whether the selected culti-unit appears to be analytically pure. Since, cultural contamination occurs primarily through outside influence, the purity of a culti-unit and the extent to which its ethnie core has been culturally contaminated can be assessed by examining in-depth the impact of relations of members of a given culti-unit with individuals within and outside the group. A given culti-unit can be selected, for example, ethnic Chinese living in an upscale area in Guangzhou China. Once all the data have been collected, the values, beliefs, and consumer behavior patterns of those who have traveled abroad extensively and have substantial business and/or social interaction with Chinese in other areas of China or with individuals in other parts of the world can then be compared with those whose relations and interaction are predominantly with other Chinese of the same background and in the same area in Guangzhou. The differences observed between the two groups will then

suggest how the ethnie core is evolving and the extent to which cultural contamination is taking place.

Isolating confounding influences

A third issue concerns the isolation of confounding influences on the behavior studied. This in turn is closely related to the definition of the unit of analysis and the structure of the research design. Since, multi-site marketing research involves the comparison of variations between spatially distinct entities or units, it is critical that confounding external influences be isolated or accounted for. Further, interaction between units will plague the researcher and contaminate research results. This poses a particular problem in examining the dynamics of cultural change insofar as respondents are exposed to direct and indirect influences that extend well beyond their locale.

As Galton noted in his remarks following Tylor's presentation of his classic paper on the cross-cultural method at the Royal Statistical Society in 1889, it is typically impossible to obtain cross-cultural sampling units, which are independent of each other ([49] Naroll, 1970). Traits that are supposedly culturally distinctive often spread between neighboring or historically proximate regions through diffusion or migration. This problem apparent over 100 years ago is even more significant intoday's world where the five flows identified by Appudurai are inter-linking countries.

Respondents, especially where these are students, are likely to have traveled to other countries or at a minimum have been exposed to ideas and influences emanating from other countries and cultures. Even respondents, who have not traveled, are exposed to images and information about other countries through mass media. Consequently, findings relating to differences or similarities between countries, for example, in relation to consumption or purchasing patterns, attitudes towards different foreign or global brands, may simply reflect consumer mobility and migration, and exposure to other life-styles and consumption patterns

This suggests that it is important to set-up controls to test for the impact of such influences on attitudes and behavior, especially where this relates to products from another cultures. Respondents can, for example, be asked to indicate the extent to which they have traveled or lived in other cultures, listen to TV programs and other media, use the internet, have friends or relatives from other cultures, or are in general interested in and exposed to information about other cultures.

Expanding the range of contexts

Another priority is the extension of the range and diversity of countries and socio-cultural contexts. This is critical in order to understand which elements of culture are universal and which are embedded in a specific culture. It will also aid in studying variation in cultural theories and constructs in different societal contexts. Study of a broader range of socio-cultural contexts especially where extensive preliminary research is conducted in each case; also helps to identify new concepts and constructs or relevant elements of

culture. In addition, it enables systematic examination of the impact of specific aspects of the socio-cultural context, such as language, size or geographic scope. This is parallel to the distinction made by [42] Lonner and Adamopoulos (1997) in comparing the impact of cultural context vs cultural content.

Most cross-cultural consumer research, published in English has been US-centric - i.e. conducted by US or US-trained researchers. Often it has focused on examining the generality of models and theories developed in the US to other countries in Europe or Asia. In particular, focus on individualism/collectivism, for example, has resulted in comparison of behavior in the USA as an exemplar of individualism, with that in an Asian country such as China, Taiwan or Hong Kong, as an exemplar of collectivism ([50] Oysermann et al. , 2002). Examination of cultural phenomena and cultural traditions in other continents such as Latin America, Africa or India, would considerably enrich and enhance our understanding of the range of culture and its influence.

Conclusion

The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasingly important to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations. Cultural influences are changing dramatically, as cultures are no longer dependent on local resources to formulate their characteristic tastes, preferences and behavior and are increasingly linked across vast geographic distances by modern communication media. Membership in a culture is becoming more fluid as individuals travel widely and both adapt to new cultural contexts while transporting elements of one culture to another. As membership in a culture becomes increasingly transitional, unique elements are less clearly demarcated or distinctive. New hybrid cultures are emerging, blending elements of different origins. The dynamic and evolving character of these cultural influences greatly complicates research designed to disentangle the impact and meaning of culture. For progress to be made, research designs must account for this complexity and span multiple contexts to establish the generality of findings. This will result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in molding consumption behavior.

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[Appendix]Corresponding authorC. Samuel Craig can be contacted at: scraig@stern.nyu.edu  

[Author Affiliation]C. Samuel Craig, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA   Susan P. Douglas, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA

[Illustration]Figure 1: Components of culture  

Table I: Consequences of cultural dynamics  

References Cited by (1)

Indexing (document details)Subjects: Cross cultural studies,  Multiculturalism & pluralism,  Consumer

behavior,  Globalization,  Market research,  StudiesClassification Codes

1220   Social trends & culture ,  1300   International trade & foreign investment,  7100   Market research ,  9130   Experimental/theoretical , 9190   United States

Locations: United States,  USAuthor(s):

C. Samuel Craig  profile,  Susan P. Douglas  profileAuthor Affiliation:

C. Samuel Craig, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA   Susan P. Douglas, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA

Document types:

Feature

Document features:

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Publication title:

International Marketing Review . London: 2006. Vol. 23, Iss. 3;  pg. 322

Source type: PeriodicalISSN: 02651335ProQuest document ID:

1073440291

Text Word Count

10275

DOI: 10.1108/02651330610670479Document URL:

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