Bias and Ethics in Bias and Ethics in ResearchResearch

Obtaining legitimate results Obtaining legitimate results without harming participantswithout harming participants

What is Bias?What is Bias?

►Bias refers to nonrandom effects Bias refers to nonrandom effects caused by some factors unrelated to caused by some factors unrelated to the research hypothesis.the research hypothesis.

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias►Hindsight Bias is the “I-Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. phenomenon. ►After learning the outcome After learning the outcome of an event, many people of an event, many people believe they could have believe they could have predicted that very predicted that very outcome. outcome.

After the Chris Brown/Rihanna incident, someone said they knew

Chris Brown was a violent guy when they first saw him. Did they

really?

Personal/Experimenter BiasPersonal/Experimenter Bias

►The researcher allowing The researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a studythe outcome of a study

►Often not a conscious Often not a conscious actact

►Can be avoided by using Can be avoided by using a double-blind formata double-blind format

Subject ExpectancySubject Expectancy► Suppose you went to the doctor with a Suppose you went to the doctor with a

stress-induced headache. Concerned stress-induced headache. Concerned about giving you unnecessary drugs, the about giving you unnecessary drugs, the doctor instead gives you a sugar pill but doctor instead gives you a sugar pill but tells you that the pill is a strong pain tells you that the pill is a strong pain reliever. reliever.

► An hour later, your headache is gone. An hour later, your headache is gone. Since you had the expectation that your Since you had the expectation that your headache would be gone, it went away, headache would be gone, it went away, even without the benefit of medicine. This even without the benefit of medicine. This is called a is called a subject-expectancysubject-expectancy effecteffect and the sugar pill is called a and the sugar pill is called a placeboplacebo..

► In experiments, subject expectancy In experiments, subject expectancy effects can be controlled by using effects can be controlled by using double-blinddouble-blind procedures. This simply procedures. This simply means that both the person administering means that both the person administering the procedure (e.g., the experimenter) the procedure (e.g., the experimenter) and the participant/subject in the and the participant/subject in the procedure (e.g., the patient) are kept procedure (e.g., the patient) are kept unaware of (blind to) the condition to unaware of (blind to) the condition to which the participant is being assigned. which the participant is being assigned.

The “Hawthorne Effect”The “Hawthorne Effect”

► In the mid-1920’s, the Hawthorne Works (an In the mid-1920’s, the Hawthorne Works (an Electric Company plant in Chicago) was Electric Company plant in Chicago) was involved in a series of experiments to test involved in a series of experiments to test whether lighting conditions contributed to whether lighting conditions contributed to higher/lower levels of work and efficiency in higher/lower levels of work and efficiency in employees. employees.

►Workers in 3 different departments were Workers in 3 different departments were observed under different levels of illumination.observed under different levels of illumination.

► They believed that increased levels of They believed that increased levels of illumination would mean more work output, illumination would mean more work output, and lower levels would mean less work output.and lower levels would mean less work output.

The Results?The Results?

► In In both both the experimental and control the experimental and control conditions, performance increased, and it conditions, performance increased, and it seemed to have absolutely nothing to do with seemed to have absolutely nothing to do with the lighting whatsoever.the lighting whatsoever.

► They soon realized that it was simply the They soon realized that it was simply the subjects’ knowledge that they were being subjects’ knowledge that they were being observed at all that affected their observed at all that affected their performance. They knew they were under a performance. They knew they were under a type of special scrutiny, even if they didn’t type of special scrutiny, even if they didn’t know what it was about.know what it was about.

► Subject expectation and effort can lead to Subject expectation and effort can lead to changes in results, and may compromise a changes in results, and may compromise a researcher’s ability to attribute the change to researcher’s ability to attribute the change to the IV.the IV.

Observer Expectancy Effects: Observer Expectancy Effects: Clever HansClever Hans

► Around the turn of the 20Around the turn of the 20thth century in century in Germany, Wilhelm von Osten owned a Germany, Wilhelm von Osten owned a horse that appeared to rival humans in horse that appeared to rival humans in its intelligence.its intelligence.

►Hans could perform mathematical Hans could perform mathematical calculations (counting, adding, calculations (counting, adding, multiplication and division – including multiplication and division – including decimals and fractions), and used a decimals and fractions), and used a system that mapped numbers to letters system that mapped numbers to letters in order to spell and read.in order to spell and read.

► The horse even passed the scrutiny of a The horse even passed the scrutiny of a special panel (made up of scientists and special panel (made up of scientists and animal trainers) that was convened to animal trainers) that was convened to test the authenticity of his feats.test the authenticity of his feats.

► A man named Oskar Pfungst wasn’t A man named Oskar Pfungst wasn’t buying it, however. He suspected that buying it, however. He suspected that the horse might be responding to subtle the horse might be responding to subtle clues from the questioner/experimenter.clues from the questioner/experimenter.

► To test this possibility, he compared To test this possibility, he compared Hans’ abilityHans’ ability When the questioner knew the problem and When the questioner knew the problem and

the answerthe answer When the questioner did not see the problem When the questioner did not see the problem

and did not know the answerand did not know the answer► In the former case, Hans was correct 98% In the former case, Hans was correct 98%

of the time. In the latter case, only 8%.of the time. In the latter case, only 8%.

A horse is a horse, of course, A horse is a horse, of course, of course…of course…

► Hans was responding to subtle Hans was responding to subtle visual cues given by the visual cues given by the questioner – his facial questioner – his facial expression and body posture expression and body posture cued Hans when to start and cued Hans when to start and stop his hoof-tapping.stop his hoof-tapping.

► Hans demonstrates the necessity of a blind Hans demonstrates the necessity of a blind experimental design, and the importance of a experimental design, and the importance of a good scientific theory. The theory that Hans was good scientific theory. The theory that Hans was reading, writing, and performing math failed as a reading, writing, and performing math failed as a good theory, as it didn’t fit known facts. Pfungst good theory, as it didn’t fit known facts. Pfungst attempted to develop a better theory, and in the attempted to develop a better theory, and in the process, he revealed the dangers of observer process, he revealed the dangers of observer bias.bias.

What do we learn from What do we learn from Hans?Hans?

Observer-Expectancy Cont.Observer-Expectancy Cont.► Observer-expectancy effects (also called Observer-expectancy effects (also called

experimenter expectancy) - when experimenter expectancy) - when observations are not made in controlled observations are not made in controlled conditions, the observers can conditions, the observers can sometimes affect the phenomena under sometimes affect the phenomena under observation.observation.

► People observing Hans expected him to People observing Hans expected him to get the answers correct and (knowingly get the answers correct and (knowingly or unknowingly) communicated to him or unknowingly) communicated to him how to answer questions correctly. how to answer questions correctly. Experiments attempt to control for Experiments attempt to control for observer-expectancy effects. observer-expectancy effects.

► So how can we avoid such biases if they So how can we avoid such biases if they are unintentional? We can do this by are unintentional? We can do this by keeping the observer keeping the observer blindblind. This means . This means that the observer does not know about that the observer does not know about the research hypothesis and therefore the research hypothesis and therefore has no expectations to communicate. has no expectations to communicate.

Life Before Ethical GuidelinesLife Before Ethical Guidelines►Prior to the Nuremberg Code (post-Prior to the Nuremberg Code (post-

WWII) and the APA Code of Ethics WWII) and the APA Code of Ethics (1953), many freedoms in how (1953), many freedoms in how research could be conducted existed. research could be conducted existed. The Carney Landis study is an The Carney Landis study is an example of such research. example of such research.

How Far is Too Far?How Far is Too Far?► Landis wanted to study the facial expressions that Landis wanted to study the facial expressions that

accompany strong emotion. In order to do so he had to accompany strong emotion. In order to do so he had to induce strong emotions in his subjects. induce strong emotions in his subjects.

► To get an expression of fear, for example, he put the To get an expression of fear, for example, he put the subject’s hand, sight unseen, into a bucket of water in subject’s hand, sight unseen, into a bucket of water in which there were three frogs. When the hand had been which there were three frogs. When the hand had been in long enough for the subject to detect that there was in long enough for the subject to detect that there was something active in the bucket, he applied a strong something active in the bucket, he applied a strong electric shock to the hand. electric shock to the hand.

► Worst of all, to create the emotion of revulsion, he Worst of all, to create the emotion of revulsion, he handed the subject a live rat and a dull table knife and handed the subject a live rat and a dull table knife and ordered the subject to decapitate the rat. If the subject ordered the subject to decapitate the rat. If the subject refused, he would do it, while the subject was required refused, he would do it, while the subject was required to watch. to watch.

► Describe some ethical violations you believe exist in the Describe some ethical violations you believe exist in the above text.above text.

► Do you find Do you find anyany aspect of Landis’ procedure acceptable? aspect of Landis’ procedure acceptable?

► Psychologists are responsible for the ethical Psychologists are responsible for the ethical conduct of research conducted by them or conduct of research conducted by them or by others under their supervision.by others under their supervision.

► Psychologists conduct research with due Psychologists conduct research with due concern for the dignity and welfare of the concern for the dignity and welfare of the participants.participants.

► Psychologists inform participants that they Psychologists inform participants that they are free to participate or to decline to are free to participate or to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research participate or to withdraw from the research at any time. at any time.

► Psychologists inform participants of Psychologists inform participants of significant factors that may be expected to significant factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate.influence their willingness to participate.

APA Ethical Guidelines APA Ethical Guidelines

► Psychologists must obtain Psychologists must obtain informed consent from informed consent from research participants prior to research participants prior to filming or recording them.filming or recording them.

APA Ethical Guidelines (cont.)APA Ethical Guidelines (cont.)► Participants should be fully debriefed Participants should be fully debriefed

following any deception.following any deception.► Psychologists inform research participants Psychologists inform research participants

of their anticipated sharing or further use of their anticipated sharing or further use of personally identifiable research data.of personally identifiable research data.

► Psychologists provide a prompt Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research.results, and conclusions of the research.

► Psychologists must honor all Psychologists must honor all commitments made to research commitments made to research participants.participants.

► The APA also presents additional The APA also presents additional guidelines for the use and care of animals guidelines for the use and care of animals in research.in research.

Institutional Review Board Institutional Review Board (IRB) Guidelines(IRB) Guidelines

► Informed consent shall fully inform participants of the Informed consent shall fully inform participants of the parameters of the study.parameters of the study.

► Special steps must be taken to protect research Special steps must be taken to protect research participants in a subordinate position.participants in a subordinate position.

► Informed consent may be waived under certain Informed consent may be waived under certain circumstances.circumstances.

► Excessive inducements for participation are to be Excessive inducements for participation are to be avoided.avoided.

► Deception is allowed if no other alternative is available.Deception is allowed if no other alternative is available.► Participants must be given timely feedback about the Participants must be given timely feedback about the

nature, results, and conclusions of the research.nature, results, and conclusions of the research.

► Research proposals submitted to an IRB Research proposals submitted to an IRB must be accurate.must be accurate.

► Informed consent shall fully inform Informed consent shall fully inform participants of the nature and participants of the nature and requirements for participation.requirements for participation.

Stanley Milgram and Stanford Stanley Milgram and Stanford Prison ExperimentsPrison Experiments

►What are the ethical concerns of the What are the ethical concerns of the Milgram and Zimbardo studies?Milgram and Zimbardo studies?

Ethics in Animal ResearchEthics in Animal Research

►The APA also has established ethical The APA also has established ethical guidelines for the use of animals in guidelines for the use of animals in psychological studies. See the psychological studies. See the following links for more information:following links for more information: http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/car

e/guidelines.aspx?item=1 http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/r

esearch-animals.pdf