biblical interpretation bi 5301. who needs hermeneutics? definition: the discipline that deals with...

Biblical Biblical InterpretationInterpretation

BI 5301BI 5301

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Definition: The discipline that deals Definition: The discipline that deals

with the principles of interpretation.with the principles of interpretation. Why should such a discipline be Why should such a discipline be

needed at all?needed at all?– Even courses on Shakespeare have no Even courses on Shakespeare have no

hermeneutics prerequisite.hermeneutics prerequisite.– So why is it needed to understand the Bible?So why is it needed to understand the Bible?

Possible answers:Possible answers:– That the Bible is a divine book and so requires That the Bible is a divine book and so requires

special training. (But Protestants have always special training. (But Protestants have always emphasized the perspicuity or clarity of the emphasized the perspicuity or clarity of the Scriptures.)Scriptures.)

– Because in addition to being divine, the Bible is Because in addition to being divine, the Bible is also a human book. (We do need hermeneutics for also a human book. (We do need hermeneutics for texts other than the Bible.)texts other than the Bible.)

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Why then have we not been taught Why then have we not been taught

hermeneutics?hermeneutics? In fact, we have been taught In fact, we have been taught

hermeneutics all our lives.hermeneutics all our lives. We already know the most basic We already know the most basic

principles of interpretation.principles of interpretation.– Most fundamental principle of biblical Most fundamental principle of biblical

interpretation consists in putting into practice interpretation consists in putting into practice what we do unconsciously every day.what we do unconsciously every day.

– What matters is to “transpose” our customary What matters is to “transpose” our customary interpretive routines to our reading of the interpretive routines to our reading of the Bible.Bible.

But that is where our problems begin.But that is where our problems begin.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? What we do every day is not that simple.What we do every day is not that simple.

– First we had to learn English.First we had to learn English.– Our minds have been receiving day in and Our minds have been receiving day in and

day out countless impressions and our brains day out countless impressions and our brains have carefully organized these millions of have carefully organized these millions of impressions.impressions.

So, our daily practice of interpretation is So, our daily practice of interpretation is not as simple as we might at first think.not as simple as we might at first think.

It requires a fairly complex (though It requires a fairly complex (though usually unconscious) process that focuses usually unconscious) process that focuses on on languagelanguage and and historyhistory..

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? The problem becomes more serious if The problem becomes more serious if

there are significant linguistic and there are significant linguistic and cultural differences between the cultural differences between the speaker (or writer) and the hearer (or speaker (or writer) and the hearer (or reader).reader).

Examples: (Shakespeare)Examples: (Shakespeare)– Passages containing words we have never Passages containing words we have never

seen before or that appear to have very seen before or that appear to have very unusual meanings.unusual meanings.

– Passages where the words are familiar yet Passages where the words are familiar yet the total meaning seems to escape us.the total meaning seems to escape us.

– Passages where word or phrase is familiar Passages where word or phrase is familiar and its use makes sense in context, but our and its use makes sense in context, but our ignorance about the history of the language ignorance about the history of the language misleads us (misleads us (foregone conclusion, foregone conclusion, p. 18).p. 18).

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? The above problems we may The above problems we may

encounter in our own language and in encounter in our own language and in our own general culture.our own general culture.

The Bible by contrast is neither written The Bible by contrast is neither written in English nor a modern language in English nor a modern language closely related to English.closely related to English.

Also, we are faced with a text far Also, we are faced with a text far removed from us in place and time.removed from us in place and time.

Thus, with regard to both language Thus, with regard to both language and history, Bible interpretation poses and history, Bible interpretation poses a problem for us.a problem for us.

So an accurate understanding of the So an accurate understanding of the Bible requires Bible requires grammatico-historical grammatico-historical exegesisexegesis..

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? The term The term exegesisexegesis (seldom used (seldom used

by specialists in other fields) refers by specialists in other fields) refers to interpretation; it implies that to interpretation; it implies that the explanation of the text has the explanation of the text has involved careful, detailed analysis.involved careful, detailed analysis.

Grammatico-historicalGrammatico-historical indicates indicates that this analysis must pay that this analysis must pay attention both to the language in attention both to the language in which the original text was written which the original text was written and to the specific cultural context and to the specific cultural context that gave rise to the text.that gave rise to the text.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? We cannot assume that linguistic rules We cannot assume that linguistic rules

of English syntax or the nuances of of English syntax or the nuances of English words correspond to those of NT English words correspond to those of NT Greek.Greek.

Nor can we can we fail to take note of Nor can we can we fail to take note of the distinctive cultural features of the distinctive cultural features of Hebrew society or of the historical Hebrew society or of the historical circumstance behind an OT book.circumstance behind an OT book.

If we do either, we run the risk of If we do either, we run the risk of allowing our preconceptions to allowing our preconceptions to determine what the biblical passages determine what the biblical passages may or may not mean.may or may not mean.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? No literary document has given rise to No literary document has given rise to

a larger body of scholarly writing than a larger body of scholarly writing than the Bible. the Bible.

Why?Why?– The distance (linguistic & historical) The distance (linguistic & historical)

separating us from the Bible is so great.separating us from the Bible is so great.– The Bible is a rather long document written The Bible is a rather long document written

by many people over a long period of time.by many people over a long period of time.– The Bible has attracted the professional The Bible has attracted the professional

attention of many, many scholars over attention of many, many scholars over twenty centuries.twenty centuries.

– The Bible touches on the deepest problems The Bible touches on the deepest problems faced by human kind.faced by human kind.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Again, we remind ourselves that there Again, we remind ourselves that there

is no difference in principle between is no difference in principle between problems of biblical interpretation and problems of biblical interpretation and the ones we confront day by day.the ones we confront day by day.

We are actually practicing We are actually practicing grammatico-historical exegesis when grammatico-historical exegesis when we read a letter from a relative we read a letter from a relative whether we are conscious of it or not.whether we are conscious of it or not.

The difference is quantitative rather The difference is quantitative rather than qualitative; (we are still focusing than qualitative; (we are still focusing on the human qualities of scripture).on the human qualities of scripture).

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Put in different words, when we read Put in different words, when we read

the Bible we come across a much the Bible we come across a much larger number of details about which larger number of details about which we are ignorant than is the case when we are ignorant than is the case when we interpret contemporary English we interpret contemporary English texts.texts.

Put that way we are reminded that the Put that way we are reminded that the problems of biblical interpretation are problems of biblical interpretation are usually our problems, not the Bible’s.usually our problems, not the Bible’s.

Fundamentally, the Bible is a simple Fundamentally, the Bible is a simple and clear book.and clear book.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Why so much debate about biblical Why so much debate about biblical

interpretation?interpretation? Exegesis of Matt. 8:23-27 as an illustration Exegesis of Matt. 8:23-27 as an illustration

(Kaiser/Silva, p. 20ff)(Kaiser/Silva, p. 20ff) What do we learn from the 8-fold levels of What do we learn from the 8-fold levels of

meaning?meaning?– We see how in one sense the Bible is quite clear, We see how in one sense the Bible is quite clear,

while in another sense its interpretation can become while in another sense its interpretation can become complicated. (As far as grammatico-historical complicated. (As far as grammatico-historical exegesis (levels 1 & 2, also 3 & 5), the story is a exegesis (levels 1 & 2, also 3 & 5), the story is a simple narrative).simple narrative).

– We can see how scholars who do not profess We can see how scholars who do not profess Christian faith can nevertheless write helpful Christian faith can nevertheless write helpful commentaries. (An atheist, for example, may commentaries. (An atheist, for example, may completely misunderstand level 4 while being able to completely misunderstand level 4 while being able to give an excellent exposition at the first two or three give an excellent exposition at the first two or three levels).levels).

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Thus far we have been looking at Thus far we have been looking at

general hermeneuticsgeneral hermeneutics; there is also ; there is also such a thing as such a thing as biblical hermeneuticsbiblical hermeneutics..1.1. We must accept the principle that only We must accept the principle that only

the Spirit of God knows the things of God the Spirit of God knows the things of God (I Cor. 2:11). Consequently, only one who (I Cor. 2:11). Consequently, only one who has the Spirit can expect to acquire a has the Spirit can expect to acquire a truly satisfactory understanding of truly satisfactory understanding of Scripture.Scripture.

2.2. The need for the Spirit’s help is The need for the Spirit’s help is emphasized from a different standpoint in emphasized from a different standpoint in I John 2:26-27b.I John 2:26-27b.

Who Needs Who Needs Hermeneutics?Hermeneutics? Thus far we have been looking at Thus far we have been looking at

general hermeneuticsgeneral hermeneutics; there is also ; there is also such a thing as such a thing as biblical hermeneuticsbiblical hermeneutics. .

3. The previous passages suggest that God’s 3. The previous passages suggest that God’s message is consistent. Thus, we should message is consistent. Thus, we should interpret the various parts of Scripture in a interpret the various parts of Scripture in a way that accords with its central teachings. way that accords with its central teachings. We may not pit one part of Scripture against We may not pit one part of Scripture against another, nor interpret a detail of Scripture in another, nor interpret a detail of Scripture in a way that undermines its basic message.a way that undermines its basic message.

4. A satisfactory interpretation of the Bible 4. A satisfactory interpretation of the Bible requires a submissive predisposition. “Give requires a submissive predisposition. “Give me understanding, and I will keep your law me understanding, and I will keep your law and obey it with all my heart” (Ps. 119:34)and obey it with all my heart” (Ps. 119:34)

The Meaning of The Meaning of MeaningMeaning

Humpty Dumpty: “When I use a Humpty Dumpty: “When I use a word it means just what I choose word it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor it to mean—neither more nor less.” (Lewis Carroll, less.” (Lewis Carroll, Through Through the Looking Glassthe Looking Glass))

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Three New Humpty DumptysThree New Humpty Dumptys The problem of meaning changed The problem of meaning changed

dramatically in in 1946—New Criticism dramatically in in 1946—New Criticism 1.1. W. K. Wimsatt & Monroe Beardsley-- The W. K. Wimsatt & Monroe Beardsley-- The

popular version of their theory is that popular version of their theory is that whatever an author meant or intended to whatever an author meant or intended to say is irrelevant to our obtaining the say is irrelevant to our obtaining the meaning of the text—the “intentional meaning of the text—the “intentional fallacy.”fallacy.”

2.2. Hans-Georg Gadamer—every interpreter Hans-Georg Gadamer—every interpreter has a new and different knowledge of the has a new and different knowledge of the text in the reader’s own historical text in the reader’s own historical moment.moment.

3.3. Paul Ricoeur—a text is semantically Paul Ricoeur—a text is semantically independent of the intention of its author.independent of the intention of its author.

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning By contrast E. D. Hirsch affirmed By contrast E. D. Hirsch affirmed

that the meaning of a literary that the meaning of a literary work is determined by the work is determined by the author’s intention; the author’s author’s intention; the author’s truth-intention provides the only truth-intention provides the only genuine discriminating norm for genuine discriminating norm for ascertaining valid or true ascertaining valid or true interpretations from invalid and interpretations from invalid and false ones.false ones.

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Four Models for Understanding the Four Models for Understanding the

Meaning of the BibleMeaning of the Bible 1. The Proof-text Model1. The Proof-text Model

– Typically, biblical meaning is needed for a Typically, biblical meaning is needed for a real-life purpose and the interpreter goes real-life purpose and the interpreter goes searching for some Bible texts that support searching for some Bible texts that support the topical theme or doctrinal position the topical theme or doctrinal position desire.desire.

– The texts are valued more for their short, The texts are valued more for their short, epigrammatic use of several key words that epigrammatic use of several key words that coincide with the topic or contemporary coincide with the topic or contemporary subject chosen than for the evidence that subject chosen than for the evidence that they actually bring from their own context.they actually bring from their own context.

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Four Models for Understanding the Meaning Four Models for Understanding the Meaning

of the Bibleof the Bible 1. The Proof-text Model1. The Proof-text Model

– Insofar as it ignores context, it is inadequate; at its Insofar as it ignores context, it is inadequate; at its worst, it tends to treat the Bible as if it were no worst, it tends to treat the Bible as if it were no more than an anthology of sayings for every more than an anthology of sayings for every occasionoccasion

– It may disregard the purpose for which the text It may disregard the purpose for which the text was written, the historical conditioning in which it was written, the historical conditioning in which it is set, and the genre conventions that shaped it.is set, and the genre conventions that shaped it.

– Consequently, the method is vulnerable to all kinds Consequently, the method is vulnerable to all kinds of quick-and-easy adjustments of the scriptural of quick-and-easy adjustments of the scriptural words to say what one wishes them to say in the words to say what one wishes them to say in the contemporary setting, ignoring their intended contemporary setting, ignoring their intended purpose and usage as determined by context, purpose and usage as determined by context, grammar, and historical background.grammar, and historical background.


The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Four Models for Understanding the Four Models for Understanding the

Meaning of the BibleMeaning of the Bible 2. The Historical-Critical Method2. The Historical-Critical Method

– This method is more concerned with This method is more concerned with identifying the literary sources and social identifying the literary sources and social settings that gave birth to the smallest settings that gave birth to the smallest pieces of text rather than concentrating pieces of text rather than concentrating on any discussions about how normative on any discussions about how normative these texts are for contemporary readers these texts are for contemporary readers and for the church.and for the church.


Meaning of the BibleMeaning of the Bible 2. The Historical-Critical Method2. The Historical-Critical Method

– This method has most frequently avoided This method has most frequently avoided any discussion of the relation of the text any discussion of the relation of the text to divine revelation or its use in the to divine revelation or its use in the devotional or doctrinal life of Christians.devotional or doctrinal life of Christians.

– The theory of meaning and interpretation The theory of meaning and interpretation concludes with what the text meant in a concludes with what the text meant in a distant time, place and culture.distant time, place and culture.

– This is allegedly a matter of disinterested This is allegedly a matter of disinterested research into the objective facts of research into the objective facts of grammar, history, and modern critical grammar, history, and modern critical methodologies.methodologies.


Four Models for Understanding Four Models for Understanding the Meaning of the Biblethe Meaning of the Bible

2. The Historical-Critical Method2. The Historical-Critical Method– The task of finding out what the The task of finding out what the

text means today for the church text means today for the church and the individual is relegated to and the individual is relegated to theologians and pastors.theologians and pastors.

– In addition, the interpretive task is In addition, the interpretive task is declared complete after the text declared complete after the text has been dissected and left has been dissected and left disjointed in an ancient context.disjointed in an ancient context.


Four Models for Understanding the Four Models for Understanding the Meaning of the BibleMeaning of the Bible

2. The Historical-Critical Method2. The Historical-Critical Method– The pastoral and personal problem of The pastoral and personal problem of

application has been left unaddressed; the application has been left unaddressed; the interpretation process was stopped when interpretation process was stopped when it was only partially completed.it was only partially completed.

– This model emphasized its allegiance This model emphasized its allegiance more to contemporary theories on the more to contemporary theories on the formation of the texts and the alleged formation of the texts and the alleged Oriental and classical sources that lay Oriental and classical sources that lay behind them than to a consideration of behind them than to a consideration of what the text had to say.what the text had to say.



3. The Reader-Response Method3. The Reader-Response Method This method has grown up around the This method has grown up around the

contributions of Gadamer and Ricoeur.contributions of Gadamer and Ricoeur. While the historical-critical is seen as one While the historical-critical is seen as one

necessary step, the method emphasizes the necessary step, the method emphasizes the necessity of allowing the reader and interpreter necessity of allowing the reader and interpreter to determine what the text now means—mostly to determine what the text now means—mostly in new, different and partially conflicting in new, different and partially conflicting meanings.meanings.

This method, in reaction, has gone too far in the This method, in reaction, has gone too far in the other direction.other direction.

What has been lost is the primacy of authorial What has been lost is the primacy of authorial intention and most possibilities for testing the intention and most possibilities for testing the validity of the various suggested interpretations.validity of the various suggested interpretations.


Meaning of the BibleMeaning of the Bible– 4. The Syntactical-Theological Method4. The Syntactical-Theological Method

This model does the traditional This model does the traditional grammatico-historical study of the text, grammatico-historical study of the text, followed by a study of its meaning that followed by a study of its meaning that shows its theological relevance—both shows its theological relevance—both with respect to the rest of Scripture and with respect to the rest of Scripture and with respect to its contemporary with respect to its contemporary application.application.

All too often modern interpreters have All too often modern interpreters have failed to observe the syntactic and failed to observe the syntactic and theological relationships that the words theological relationships that the words and concepts have in Scripture.and concepts have in Scripture.



– 4. The Syntactical-Theological Method4. The Syntactical-Theological Method This model stresses the need for taking whole This model stresses the need for taking whole

pericopes or complete units of discussion as pericopes or complete units of discussion as the basis for interpreting a text.the basis for interpreting a text.

The key interpretive decisions revolve around The key interpretive decisions revolve around how the syntax of phrases, clauses, and how the syntax of phrases, clauses, and sentences contributes to the formation of the sentences contributes to the formation of the several paragraphs that form the total block of several paragraphs that form the total block of text on that subject or unit of thought.text on that subject or unit of thought.

Because the Bible purports to be word from Because the Bible purports to be word from God, the task of locating meaning is not God, the task of locating meaning is not finished until one apprehends the purpose, finished until one apprehends the purpose, scope or reason for which the text was scope or reason for which the text was written.written.


Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 1. Meaning As The Referent1. Meaning As The Referent

Recall the Shakespeare examples; it is Recall the Shakespeare examples; it is possible to know the meaning of every possible to know the meaning of every word in a text and still be without a word in a text and still be without a clue as to what is being said.clue as to what is being said.

What is generally missing is a sense of What is generally missing is a sense of what is being spoken about—the what is being spoken about—the referent.referent.

The referent is the object, event, or The referent is the object, event, or process in the world to which a word process in the world to which a word or a whole expression is directed.or a whole expression is directed.



The interpreter who wants to understand The interpreter who wants to understand will ask the same referential question that will ask the same referential question that the Ethiopian reader of the Suffering the Ethiopian reader of the Suffering Servant in Isaiah 53 asked Philip: “Tell Servant in Isaiah 53 asked Philip: “Tell me, please, who is the prophet talking me, please, who is the prophet talking about, himself or someone else?” (Acts about, himself or someone else?” (Acts 8:34)8:34)

In other words, to whom do the words In other words, to whom do the words refer? The Ethiopian could understand refer? The Ethiopian could understand the words, but he had no idea what the the words, but he had no idea what the exact referent was.exact referent was.



What was Jesus talking about in John What was Jesus talking about in John 6:53, “Unless you eat the flesh of the 6:53, “Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you?”have no life in you?”

The “false apostles” of 2 Cor. 11:13 The “false apostles” of 2 Cor. 11:13 need to be identified in order to need to be identified in order to understand what Paul was working understand what Paul was working against in 2 Cor. 10-13.against in 2 Cor. 10-13.– Were they Gnostics?Were they Gnostics?– Were they Hellenistic Jew?Were they Hellenistic Jew?

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 1. Meaning As The Referent1. Meaning As The Referent

Our understanding of 2 Thessalonians Our understanding of 2 Thessalonians is greatly enriched when we can is greatly enriched when we can identify the referents for the “man of identify the referents for the “man of lawlessness” and “the one who holds lawlessness” and “the one who holds (lawlessness) back” in 2 Thess. 2:3 (lawlessness) back” in 2 Thess. 2:3 and 7.and 7.

The identifications cannot be made The identifications cannot be made lightly; the interpretation of this lightly; the interpretation of this passage is radically affected by the passage is radically affected by the choice of referent that is made.choice of referent that is made.

When we ask, “What do you mean?” When we ask, “What do you mean?” we are often trying to find out what we are often trying to find out what the whole discussion is all about or the whole discussion is all about or who/what is being talked about.who/what is being talked about.


Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 2. Meaning As Sense2. Meaning As Sense

Meaning as the referent tells what is Meaning as the referent tells what is being spoken about, but meaning as being spoken about, but meaning as sense tells what is being said about sense tells what is being said about the referent.the referent.

When we ask for the sense of a word When we ask for the sense of a word or a passage, we are either searching or a passage, we are either searching for a definition or for some type of for a definition or for some type of appositional clause that will show us appositional clause that will show us how the word, or the entire paragraph, how the word, or the entire paragraph, is functioning in its context.is functioning in its context.



Meaning as sense is whatever some Meaning as sense is whatever some user has willed to convey by a user has willed to convey by a particular word or series of words in a particular word or series of words in a sentence, paragraph or a discourse.sentence, paragraph or a discourse.

Beyond the sentence, the Beyond the sentence, the relationshiprelationship of propositions within the paragraphs of propositions within the paragraphs and discourses carry the sense the and discourses carry the sense the writer wished to convey.writer wished to convey.



Illustration: Romans 9:30-10:12Illustration: Romans 9:30-10:12– Contains four key phrasesContains four key phrases– The referent of the phrases was the The referent of the phrases was the

Jews.Jews.– But what meanings and what sense But what meanings and what sense

did Paul attach to each?did Paul attach to each?– Israel had gone about the whole Israel had gone about the whole

process of pursuing righteousness process of pursuing righteousness backwards.backwards.



The sense of the use of the The sense of the use of the words as they make up the words as they make up the sensesense of the whole passage, is the of the whole passage, is the second most important meaning second most important meaning to gain once the to gain once the referentreferent has has been identified.been identified.


Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 3. Meaning As Intention3. Meaning As Intention

We are interested only in the We are interested only in the truthtruth--intention of the author as expressed in intention of the author as expressed in the way he put together the individual the way he put together the individual words, phrases, and sentences in a words, phrases, and sentences in a literary piece to form a meaning.literary piece to form a meaning.

It is not always possible to dissociate It is not always possible to dissociate meaning as sense from meaning as meaning as sense from meaning as intention; the two are often identical.intention; the two are often identical.



But some points need to be made under But some points need to be made under the heading of “meaning as intention.”the heading of “meaning as intention.”

Intention affects meaning in several Intention affects meaning in several ways:ways:

1.1. The author’s intention determines The author’s intention determines whether the words are to be whether the words are to be understood literally or figuratively.understood literally or figuratively.

2.2. Second, the author’s intention Second, the author’s intention determines the referent a word is to determines the referent a word is to have.have.



Objections:Objections:1. Mark 10:25 “needle’s eye”1. Mark 10:25 “needle’s eye”

Some would say the utterance goes Some would say the utterance goes beyond the author’s immediate beyond the author’s immediate referent—that it would apply to all referent—that it would apply to all “rich” in any day.“rich” in any day.

However, since the principle has not However, since the principle has not changed either in the biblical changed either in the biblical context or the modern one, the context or the modern one, the truth-intention remains the same; truth-intention remains the same; rather than breaking the rule, it rather than breaking the rule, it supports it.supports it.



Objections:Objections:2. Mark 7:6, “Isaiah was right when he 2. Mark 7:6, “Isaiah was right when he prophesied about you hypocrites. . . .” prophesied about you hypocrites. . . .”

Isaiah did not directly address an Isaiah did not directly address an audience existing 700 years after audience existing 700 years after he died, but the truth he affirmed he died, but the truth he affirmed was readily transferred across the was readily transferred across the centuries because what he said centuries because what he said could just as well have been said of could just as well have been said of Jesus’ contemporaries. There is no Jesus’ contemporaries. There is no change in authorial intentionality.change in authorial intentionality.



Objections:Objections:– Nevertheless, it is the author’s intended Nevertheless, it is the author’s intended

meaning that must be the starting point meaning that must be the starting point from which all understanding beings.from which all understanding beings.

– In this passage, even though there are In this passage, even though there are multiple fulfillments throughout history, multiple fulfillments throughout history, none of these fulfillments constitute double none of these fulfillments constitute double or multiple senses or meanings. or multiple senses or meanings.

– They all participate in the one single sense, They all participate in the one single sense, even though it had a multiple number of even though it had a multiple number of fulfillments over the course of time.fulfillments over the course of time.



– Divine Intervention. In the case of Scripture, Divine Intervention. In the case of Scripture, another major intention must be considered.another major intention must be considered.

– Is the divine intention in the revealed word Is the divine intention in the revealed word the same as the human authorial intention, the same as the human authorial intention, or it is different?or it is different?

– Are cases in Scripture where God’s Are cases in Scripture where God’s intentions clearly differed from those of the intentions clearly differed from those of the humans he was using to assist his purposes.humans he was using to assist his purposes.

– Example: Gen. 50:20: “You intended to Example: Gen. 50:20: “You intended to harm me, but God intended it for good.”harm me, but God intended it for good.”



– But none of those examples is about the But none of those examples is about the writingwriting of Scripture; what is being confused of Scripture; what is being confused is is purposepurpose-intention from -intention from truthtruth-intention.-intention.

– The significant passage is I Cor. 2:6-16:The significant passage is I Cor. 2:6-16:– v. 13 stresses that the writers of Scripture v. 13 stresses that the writers of Scripture

did receive words taught by human wisdom did receive words taught by human wisdom but “but “words taught by the Spirit.”words taught by the Spirit.”

– That is, the Holy Spirit did not mechanically That is, the Holy Spirit did not mechanically whisper the text into the writer’s ears, nor whisper the text into the writer’s ears, nor did the authors experience automatic did the authors experience automatic writing.writing.



Instead, they experienced a Instead, they experienced a living living assimilationassimilation of the truth, so that what of the truth, so that what they had experienced in the past by they had experienced in the past by way of culture, vocabulary, way of culture, vocabulary, experiences, etc., was all taken up and experiences, etc., was all taken up and assimilated into the unique product assimilated into the unique product that simultaneously came from the that simultaneously came from the unique personality of the writers.unique personality of the writers.

Just as truly, however, it came also Just as truly, however, it came also from the Holy Spirit.from the Holy Spirit.



The Holy Spirit stayed with the writers not The Holy Spirit stayed with the writers not just in the conception or idea stage, but just in the conception or idea stage, but all the way up through the writing and all the way up through the writing and verbalizing stage of the writing of the verbalizing stage of the writing of the text; that is what Paul claimed for himself text; that is what Paul claimed for himself and for prophets and apostles.and for prophets and apostles.

Thus it is difficult to see how the product Thus it is difficult to see how the product of the text can be severed into divine and of the text can be severed into divine and human components reflecting human components reflecting independent intention—one human and independent intention—one human and one divine.one divine.



This is not to say that the divinely This is not to say that the divinely intended referents were limited to intended referents were limited to those that the author saw or meant.those that the author saw or meant.

It was only necessary that the writer It was only necessary that the writer have an adequate understanding of have an adequate understanding of what was intended both in the near what was intended both in the near and the distant future, even if he and the distant future, even if he lacked a grasp of all the details that lacked a grasp of all the details that were to be embodied in the progress were to be embodied in the progress of revelation and of history.of revelation and of history.


Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 4. Meaning As Significance4. Meaning As Significance

In many contexts the terms In many contexts the terms meaningmeaning and and significancesignificance overlap; in their use overlap; in their use in textual studies, however, the two in textual studies, however, the two must be distinguished.must be distinguished.

E. D. HirschE. D. Hirsch MeaningMeaning is that which is represented is that which is represented

by a text; it is what the author meant by a text; it is what the author meant by his use of a particular sign by his use of a particular sign sequence; it is what the signs sequence; it is what the signs represent. represent.



SignificanceSignificance, on the other hand, names , on the other hand, names a relationship between that meaning a relationship between that meaning and a person, or a conception, or a and a person, or a conception, or a situation, or indeed anything situation, or indeed anything imaginable.imaginable.

The important feature of meaning as The important feature of meaning as distinct from significance is that distinct from significance is that meaning is the determinate meaning is the determinate representation of a text for an representation of a text for an interpreter. . . . Significance is interpreter. . . . Significance is meaning-as-related-to-something-else.meaning-as-related-to-something-else.

The Meaning of MeaningThe Meaning of Meaning Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 4. Meaning As Significance4. Meaning As Significance

In these terms, meaning is fixed and In these terms, meaning is fixed and unchanging; significance is never fixed unchanging; significance is never fixed and always changing.and always changing.

To reject the original author as the To reject the original author as the determiner of meaning is to reject the determiner of meaning is to reject the valid principle that can lend validity to valid principle that can lend validity to an interpretation.an interpretation.

But it would also be tragic to stop the But it would also be tragic to stop the interpretational responsibilities with interpretational responsibilities with the task of what a text meant to the the task of what a text meant to the author and the original audience author and the original audience without going on to deal with the without going on to deal with the contemporary significance of the text.contemporary significance of the text.



The hermeneutical task The hermeneutical task mustmust continue continue on to say what the text means to the on to say what the text means to the contemporary reader or listener.contemporary reader or listener.

This meaning as significance could This meaning as significance could also be called the consequent or also be called the consequent or implicit sense.implicit sense.

Along with one, single meaning-as-Along with one, single meaning-as-sense, there are many meanings-as-sense, there are many meanings-as-significance. Inferences Lev. 10??significance. Inferences Lev. 10??


A text may also carry a hint of its own A text may also carry a hint of its own significances and inferences within significances and inferences within itself, such as in Acts 5:30: “The God itself, such as in Acts 5:30: “The God of our fathers raised Jesus from the of our fathers raised Jesus from the dead—whom you had killed by dead—whom you had killed by hanging him on a tree.”hanging him on a tree.”

Why didn’t Peter simply use the verb Why didn’t Peter simply use the verb crucifycrucify in place of the cumbersome in place of the cumbersome phrase “hanging him on a tree”?phrase “hanging him on a tree”?

No doubt Peter wanted to call to mind No doubt Peter wanted to call to mind the connotations of Deut. 21:22-23 the connotations of Deut. 21:22-23 with it references to the accursed with it references to the accursed status of all who died in this manner.status of all who died in this manner.



Could not the inference b e that the Could not the inference b e that the Messiah died under God’s curse on the Messiah died under God’s curse on the sin of Israel and the world as he took our sin of Israel and the world as he took our place?place?

Rather than classifying this kind of Rather than classifying this kind of inference as a direct expression of inference as a direct expression of authorial intention, it seems best to authorial intention, it seems best to consider it as example of “consequent” or consider it as example of “consequent” or “implicit” significances that the text of “implicit” significances that the text of Scripture encourages us to find as a Scripture encourages us to find as a legitimate part of its total meaning.legitimate part of its total meaning.



– It is important, however, to make certain It is important, however, to make certain that the consequent or implicit meaning that the consequent or implicit meaning that we attribute to a text is one that that we attribute to a text is one that accurately reflects the fundamental truth accurately reflects the fundamental truth or principle in the text, not a separate or principle in the text, not a separate and different one.and different one.

– Accordingly, Paul applied (not Accordingly, Paul applied (not allegorized) the principle of not muzzling allegorized) the principle of not muzzling an ox in Deut. 25:4 to the practical an ox in Deut. 25:4 to the practical application of paying the preacher.application of paying the preacher.



– Both Deut. And Paul worked from Both Deut. And Paul worked from the same principle, namely, that the same principle, namely, that developing attitudes of developing attitudes of graciousness and cheerful giving of graciousness and cheerful giving of one’s substance is (in this case) one’s substance is (in this case) more important than merely being more important than merely being concerned for the livelihood of concerned for the livelihood of animals (Deut.25) or even paying animals (Deut.25) or even paying workers what should be paid for workers what should be paid for their labor (I Cor. 9:7-12).their labor (I Cor. 9:7-12).



– Not only did Paul say that what was Not only did Paul say that what was written in Deut. was not written for written in Deut. was not written for oxen, but entirely for us; it is also oxen, but entirely for us; it is also clear that the collection of laws in clear that the collection of laws in the section of Deut. from which this the section of Deut. from which this one was taken all have as their one was taken all have as their object the inculcation of a spirit of object the inculcation of a spirit of gentility and generosity about gentility and generosity about them.them.


– Similarly, Jesus used Hosea 6:6 (“I desire Similarly, Jesus used Hosea 6:6 (“I desire mercy, not sacrifice”) to justify his mercy, not sacrifice”) to justify his disciples’ eating with publicans and disciples’ eating with publicans and sinners (Matt.9:10-13) and to justify his sinners (Matt.9:10-13) and to justify his disciples’ action of plucking and eating disciples’ action of plucking and eating grain on the Sabbath (Matt. 12:1-7).grain on the Sabbath (Matt. 12:1-7).

– Surely, the applications differed from one Surely, the applications differed from one another, but the principle behind both another, but the principle behind both the OT and the NT texts remains the the OT and the NT texts remains the same—the attitude of the heart is more same—the attitude of the heart is more important and always takes precedence important and always takes precedence over a mere external duty.over a mere external duty.



– If the above texts illustrate If the above texts illustrate legitimate inferences that carry the legitimate inferences that carry the meaning over into new areas, but meaning over into new areas, but where the significances are of the where the significances are of the same order as those contained in same order as those contained in the sense that the author meant, the sense that the author meant, what illustration can we give of an what illustration can we give of an inference that is separate and inference that is separate and different from the author’s sense different from the author’s sense and therefore to be avoided as being and therefore to be avoided as being hermeneutically incorrect?hermeneutically incorrect?



Major premise: God is absolutely Major premise: God is absolutely unchanging (Mal. 3:6)unchanging (Mal. 3:6)

Minor premise: What is Minor premise: What is absolutely unchanging is eternal absolutely unchanging is eternal (known from reason, but not (known from reason, but not taught there).taught there).

Therefore: God is eternal.Therefore: God is eternal.



There is no authority There is no authority in this textin this text for claiming that God is eternal; for claiming that God is eternal; the implication and the the implication and the application are separate and application are separate and different from what is taught in different from what is taught in the text, and therefore it is not the text, and therefore it is not an inference that comes from the an inference that comes from the principle taught in the text.principle taught in the text.


Aspects of MeaningAspects of Meaning 5. Other Meanings of “Meaning”5. Other Meanings of “Meaning”

Meaning as Meaning as valuevalue: “The book of : “The book of Isaiah means more to me than all Isaiah means more to me than all the other prophetic books.”the other prophetic books.”

This is an expression of This is an expression of preference and priority.preference and priority.

But no claim is made as to the But no claim is made as to the sense, truth claims, or sense, truth claims, or significance of the book of Isaiah.significance of the book of Isaiah.



Meaning as Meaning as entailmententailment: “This means : “This means war”war”

““Jesus learned obedience from what he Jesus learned obedience from what he suffered” (Heb. 5:8)suffered” (Heb. 5:8)

The meaning of “learning” for the writer The meaning of “learning” for the writer of Hebrews carried with it entailment.of Hebrews carried with it entailment.

But care must be exercised lest one fall But care must be exercised lest one fall into the trap of condoning a separate into the trap of condoning a separate and different inference from what the and different inference from what the text actually gives evidence for.text actually gives evidence for.

Using and Abusing Using and Abusing LanguageLanguage

This topic covers the evaluation This topic covers the evaluation of arguments.of arguments.

– Not necessarily in the sense of the Not necessarily in the sense of the philosophical discipline called philosophical discipline called logiclogic..

– Rather, in regard to the problems that Rather, in regard to the problems that arise when Bible students seek to figure arise when Bible students seek to figure out the meaning of the Bible and to out the meaning of the Bible and to defend their interpretation.defend their interpretation.

– Because many exegetical arguments are Because many exegetical arguments are based on appeals to Greek and Hebrew, based on appeals to Greek and Hebrew, attention has to be given to the proper attention has to be given to the proper use of the biblical languages.use of the biblical languages.


Don’t Minimize the Importance of Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Original Languagesthe Original Languages

For some, hearing references to Greek For some, hearing references to Greek and Hebrew can prove quite and Hebrew can prove quite intimidating.intimidating.

Some believe the KJV is inspired and is Some believe the KJV is inspired and is therefore all one needs.therefore all one needs.

– What did English speakers do before the What did English speakers do before the KJV?KJV?

– Does God inspire individual translations into Does God inspire individual translations into each modern language?each modern language?

Others have argued that Jesus Christ is Others have argued that Jesus Christ is the only mediator (I Tim. 2:5) and the only mediator (I Tim. 2:5) and depending on a specialist in languages depending on a specialist in languages would compromise this truth?would compromise this truth?


Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Original LanguagesOriginal Languages

Part of the answer to this concern is to Part of the answer to this concern is to affirm without hesitation that the English affirm without hesitation that the English translations available to us are translations available to us are adequate.adequate.

But, we must never forget, that But, we must never forget, that whenever we read an English whenever we read an English translation, we are in fact recognizing, translation, we are in fact recognizing, though indirectly, our dependence on though indirectly, our dependence on scholarship.scholarship.

– Someone had to learn the languages.Someone had to learn the languages.– Scholars should not impose their views on Scholars should not impose their views on

the church, but the church must not forget the church, but the church must not forget how much it has benefited from their work how much it has benefited from their work through the centuries.through the centuries.


Don’t Minimize the Importance Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Original Languagesof the Original Languages

It is a great mistake to deny the It is a great mistake to deny the importance of paying attention to the importance of paying attention to the original languages.original languages.

– Example: minister argued from “Be Example: minister argued from “Be angry and sin not” (Eph. 4:26) that anger angry and sin not” (Eph. 4:26) that anger is always wrong for the Christian.is always wrong for the Christian.

– Argued that the negative Argued that the negative notnot applied to applied to both verbs.both verbs.

– Actually there is no ambiguity in Greek Actually there is no ambiguity in Greek where the negative follows the verb for where the negative follows the verb for “be angry” and precedes (and therefore “be angry” and precedes (and therefore negates) the verb “sin.”negates) the verb “sin.”



– Example: A scholar has argued that the Example: A scholar has argued that the essence of being is a dynamic “letting-essence of being is a dynamic “letting-be.”be.”

– There is nothing in the Hebrew text of There is nothing in the Hebrew text of Gen. 1:3 that corresponds precisely to Gen. 1:3 that corresponds precisely to the English word “let.”the English word “let.”

– Hebrew (as well as other languages) has Hebrew (as well as other languages) has a specific form for the third person a specific form for the third person imperative; English does not.imperative; English does not.

– ““Let” does not have usual sense of Let” does not have usual sense of “allow,” but functions merely as a “allow,” but functions merely as a helping verb to express the imperative.helping verb to express the imperative.


Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Original LanguagesOriginal Languages

More often than not some knowledge of the More often than not some knowledge of the biblical languages proves its value in a biblical languages proves its value in a negativenegative way, that is, by helping us avoid way, that is, by helping us avoid invalid interpretations.invalid interpretations.

– Heretical views are often based on a misuse of the Heretical views are often based on a misuse of the text.text.

– Jehovah’s Witnesses appeal to the fact that in John Jehovah’s Witnesses appeal to the fact that in John 1:3c, “And the Word was God,” the Greek term for 1:3c, “And the Word was God,” the Greek term for God, God, theostheos, does not have the definite article, and , does not have the definite article, and so, they argue, it means either “a god” or “divine.”so, they argue, it means either “a god” or “divine.”

– One of the ways Greek distinguishes between the One of the ways Greek distinguishes between the subject and the predicate adjective is that the subject and the predicate adjective is that the subject has the definite article and the adjective subject has the definite article and the adjective does not.does not.



– Many features of biblical languages also Many features of biblical languages also have a have a positivepositive value for interpretation. value for interpretation.

– Ex. 16:15, “It is the bread the Lord has Ex. 16:15, “It is the bread the Lord has given you to eat.”given you to eat.”

– The phrase may be translated literally, The phrase may be translated literally, “for you for food.”“for you for food.”

– It is not a common expression, and it has It is not a common expression, and it has been suggested that it may be a subtle been suggested that it may be a subtle allusion to Gen. 1:29 where the same allusion to Gen. 1:29 where the same phrase is found.phrase is found.


Don’t Minimize the Importance of Don’t Minimize the Importance of the Original Languagesthe Original Languages

– In the NT, no book uses allusions of this sort In the NT, no book uses allusions of this sort more frequently than the gospel of John.more frequently than the gospel of John.

– John 19:30 describes Jesus’ death with the John 19:30 describes Jesus’ death with the expression “and gave up his spirit.”expression “and gave up his spirit.”

– Some have suggested in the light of Some have suggested in the light of numerous references to his giving the HS to numerous references to his giving the HS to his disciples, that this is the time at which his disciples, that this is the time at which that was done.that was done.

– More likely, John is reminding his readers of More likely, John is reminding his readers of the fact that the dreadful event of the the fact that the dreadful event of the crucifixion is not a sign of failure.crucifixion is not a sign of failure.



Care should be taken with all such Care should be taken with all such interpretations unless they can be interpretations unless they can be confirmed by context.confirmed by context.

The conclusion to be drawn is not The conclusion to be drawn is not that every Christian must attend a that every Christian must attend a seminary and become an expert in seminary and become an expert in Greek and Hebrew.Greek and Hebrew.

Should keep in mind, however, that Should keep in mind, however, that English versions English versions by themselvesby themselves cannot be the basis for formulating cannot be the basis for formulating doctrine.doctrine.



In particular, we should be careful not to In particular, we should be careful not to adopt adopt newnew ideas if they have not been ideas if they have not been checked against the Greek or Hebrew checked against the Greek or Hebrew text.text.

When there is a difference of opinion When there is a difference of opinion among Bible students, and attempt among Bible students, and attempt should be made to find out whether the should be made to find out whether the Greek or Hebrew sheds light on the Greek or Hebrew sheds light on the debate.debate.

Those who teach their congregations Those who teach their congregations week after week cannot afford to neglect week after week cannot afford to neglect such an important tool in their service to such an important tool in their service to their congregations.their congregations.


Don’t Exaggerate the Importance of Don’t Exaggerate the Importance of the Biblical Languagesthe Biblical Languages

Seminary students have been known to Seminary students have been known to give the impression that anyone give the impression that anyone unacquainted with the original unacquainted with the original languages must be a second-class languages must be a second-class Christian.Christian.

One common way of overemphasizing One common way of overemphasizing the biblical languages is by the biblical languages is by romanticizing them, by giving the romanticizing them, by giving the impression that Greek and Hebrew have impression that Greek and Hebrew have a unique (and almost divine?) status.a unique (and almost divine?) status.


Don’t Exaggerate the Importance Don’t Exaggerate the Importance of the Biblical Languagesof the Biblical Languages

In an attempt to show the beauty of In an attempt to show the beauty of Hebrew some writers have looked for Hebrew some writers have looked for preculiarities in the grammar the preculiarities in the grammar the may support the contention.may support the contention.

Charles Briggs of Greek: “Later, Charles Briggs of Greek: “Later, when God chose Greek to convey the when God chose Greek to convey the message of the gospel, this language message of the gospel, this language was “employed by the Spirit of God, was “employed by the Spirit of God, and transformed and transfigured, and transformed and transfigured, yes, glorified, with a light and yes, glorified, with a light and sacredness that the classic literature sacredness that the classic literature never possessed.”never possessed.”


Don’t Exaggerate the Importance of the Don’t Exaggerate the Importance of the Biblical LanguagesBiblical Languages

Actually the form of Greek used by the NT Actually the form of Greek used by the NT writers is simpler than that used by the writers is simpler than that used by the great writers of the classical period and great writers of the classical period and approximates the language used commonly approximates the language used commonly by the people in their daily conversation.by the people in their daily conversation.

Some of the fallacies we will look at have Some of the fallacies we will look at have arisen because of the exaggerated arisen because of the exaggerated importance attached to human linguistic importance attached to human linguistic systems (Hebrew and especially Greek).systems (Hebrew and especially Greek).

Biblical authors did not write in a mysterious Biblical authors did not write in a mysterious or coded language; under inspiration, they or coded language; under inspiration, they used their daily language in a normal way.used their daily language in a normal way.


Don’t Equate the Meaning of a Don’t Equate the Meaning of a Word with Its HistoryWord with Its History

One of most common errors involving One of most common errors involving language is the tendency to misuse the language is the tendency to misuse the study of study of etymologyetymology, the origin and , the origin and development of words.development of words.

– Example: The association of Example: The association of sinceresincere with with two Latin words two Latin words sine cerasine cera, “without wax.”, “without wax.”

– The transference from the physical (literal The transference from the physical (literal wax) to the figurative may have been wax) to the figurative may have been accidental or trivial. (Kaiser/Silva, p. 54)accidental or trivial. (Kaiser/Silva, p. 54)



The Bible was not written in Latin, The Bible was not written in Latin, and so the association with statues and so the association with statues could not have been part of the could not have been part of the meaning the NT authors had in mind.meaning the NT authors had in mind.

A brief check of etymological A brief check of etymological dictionaries of English quickly reveals dictionaries of English quickly reveals that there is no certainty whatever that there is no certainty whatever that English that English sinceresincere comes from Latin comes from Latin sine cerasine cera..



In commentaries one comes across In commentaries one comes across etymological comments that usually etymological comments that usually shed no real light on the meaning of shed no real light on the meaning of the text.the text.

– Example: Hebrew word translated “glory,” Example: Hebrew word translated “glory,” kabodkabod, means “weight, heaviness.”, means “weight, heaviness.”

– The notion of “weight” and be related to The notion of “weight” and be related to “importance” and then to a more specific “importance” and then to a more specific meaning when used with reference to God.meaning when used with reference to God.


Don’t Equate the Meaning of Don’t Equate the Meaning of a Word with Its Historya Word with Its History

– While this historical development While this historical development of the word is accurate and of the word is accurate and interesting, does it genuinely interesting, does it genuinely enhance our understanding of the enhance our understanding of the word or concept? Probably not word or concept? Probably not unless there is good contextual unless there is good contextual reason to think that the biblical reason to think that the biblical author himself was associating this author himself was associating this word with the concept of weight.word with the concept of weight.



– The verb The verb hypomenohypomeno “be patient” is “be patient” is made up of “under” and “remain.”made up of “under” and “remain.”

– Preachers often explain that the Preachers often explain that the word means to “stay under” and word means to “stay under” and then often describe carrying a then often describe carrying a heavy burden for a prolonged heavy burden for a prolonged period.period.



– The figurative etymology of the The figurative etymology of the word is often irrelevant to modern word is often irrelevant to modern speakers, since what they mean speakers, since what they mean can be made perfectly clear without can be made perfectly clear without a knowledge of the word’s origins.a knowledge of the word’s origins.

– On the other hand, we must always On the other hand, we must always keep open the possibility that a keep open the possibility that a biblical writer has deliberately biblical writer has deliberately exploited the history (or other exploited the history (or other associations) of a word.associations) of a word.



– Such a literary technique is more Such a literary technique is more frequently found in poetry than it is in frequently found in poetry than it is in prose.prose.

– But the only way to determine whether But the only way to determine whether the author has done so is to pay close the author has done so is to pay close attention to the context.attention to the context.

– About the only evidence available to us is About the only evidence available to us is the context, the thrust of a passage (or the context, the thrust of a passage (or the book) as a whole.the book) as a whole.

– With very few exceptions, we will find that With very few exceptions, we will find that the context support the common usage of the context support the common usage of a word rather than unfamiliar senses.a word rather than unfamiliar senses.


Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into a Specific Useinto a Specific Use

Even those who have not learned the Even those who have not learned the biblical languages can use certain biblical languages can use certain concordances (as well as other tools) that concordances (as well as other tools) that are keyed to the Greek and Hebrew are keyed to the Greek and Hebrew terms.terms.

Such a method helps us to determine the Such a method helps us to determine the “semantic range” of the word in question.“semantic range” of the word in question.

If we are aware of the possible uses of a If we are aware of the possible uses of a word, we are in a better position to decide word, we are in a better position to decide which specific use occurs in the passage which specific use occurs in the passage or passages that we are studying.or passages that we are studying.


Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into a Specific Usea Specific Use

What often happens, however, is that the What often happens, however, is that the whole complex of meanings is injected into whole complex of meanings is injected into one passage, often by noting that the word in one passage, often by noting that the word in question is used in a variety of ways in the NT.question is used in a variety of ways in the NT.

Example: (Kaiser/Silva, p. 58) Preacher Example: (Kaiser/Silva, p. 58) Preacher preaching on Heb. 12 focused on one specific preaching on Heb. 12 focused on one specific word in the chapter that had four meaningsword in the chapter that had four meanings

He ended up with a four-point outline that led He ended up with a four-point outline that led to four sermonettes with four different texts, to four sermonettes with four different texts, even though ostensibly he intented to even though ostensibly he intented to expound on Heb. 12.expound on Heb. 12.

Example: Entry on “acute” in an English Example: Entry on “acute” in an English dictionary; a non-English speaker would only dictionary; a non-English speaker would only need the last usage.need the last usage.


Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into a Specific UseWord into a Specific Use

A related problem arises when appealing to A related problem arises when appealing to grammatical facts.grammatical facts.

– Example: (Kaiser/Silva, p. 59) I Tim. 2:12 “I do Example: (Kaiser/Silva, p. 59) I Tim. 2:12 “I do not permit a woman to teach.”not permit a woman to teach.”

– Author cites a grammar that the first-person Author cites a grammar that the first-person present of the verb can be used to indicate present of the verb can be used to indicate temporary restriction.temporary restriction.

– In the example paragraph, the first part is In the example paragraph, the first part is irrelevant to the author’s point.irrelevant to the author’s point.

– Sometimes discussions of biblical texts that Sometimes discussions of biblical texts that appeal to the original languages perhaps only to appeal to the original languages perhaps only to make an impression; readers need to be make an impression; readers need to be discerning regarding whether something discerning regarding whether something substantive is being argued.substantive is being argued.


Don’t Read the Various Meanings Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into a Specific Useof a Word into a Specific Use

But the second half of the paragraph, But the second half of the paragraph, which does contain a substantive which does contain a substantive argument on the basis of Greek argument on the basis of Greek grammar.grammar.

The logic of the above author is to The logic of the above author is to look for the various attested uses or look for the various attested uses or meanings of the present tense, then meanings of the present tense, then choose one that fits the author’s choose one that fits the author’s understanding of the passage.understanding of the passage.


Don’t Read the Various Meanings Don’t Read the Various Meanings of a Word into a Specific Useof a Word into a Specific Use

The interpreter’s decision (it would The interpreter’s decision (it would seem) was merely based on a range seem) was merely based on a range of uses and was not controlled by the of uses and was not controlled by the context.context.

At best, we must say that the At best, we must say that the interpreter did not offer a contextual interpreter did not offer a contextual reason for choosing the temporally reason for choosing the temporally restricted function of the Greek restricted function of the Greek present tense.present tense.


Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Grammar and VocabularyPoints of Grammar and Vocabulary

– Very common is the tendency to Very common is the tendency to look for differences among look for differences among synonyms as a key to the synonyms as a key to the interpretation of passages.interpretation of passages.

– We can never forget, however, that We can never forget, however, that writers often use a diverse writers often use a diverse vocabulary for simple reasons of vocabulary for simple reasons of style, such as a desire to avoid style, such as a desire to avoid repetition.repetition.


Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Grammar and Vocabularyof Grammar and Vocabulary

– In these cases differences among the In these cases differences among the words are “neutralized” by the words are “neutralized” by the context.context.

– Even when an author makes a lexical Even when an author makes a lexical choice for semantic (rather than choice for semantic (rather than stylistic) reasons, it does not follow stylistic) reasons, it does not follow that our interpretation stands or falls that our interpretation stands or falls on our ability to determine precisely on our ability to determine precisely why one word was chosen rather than why one word was chosen rather than another.another.


Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Grammar and VocabularyPoints of Grammar and Vocabulary

– Important as words are, what really Important as words are, what really matters is how those words have been matters is how those words have been combined by the speaker.combined by the speaker.

Since the focus of meaning is the Since the focus of meaning is the sentence (or even the paragraph), the sentence (or even the paragraph), the specific force of any one word depends specific force of any one word depends to a large extent on the broader to a large extent on the broader context.context.

The word makes a contribution to the The word makes a contribution to the meaning of the whole sentence, but the meaning of the whole sentence, but the sentence also contributes to the specific sentence also contributes to the specific meaning of the word.meaning of the word.


Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Grammar and Points of Grammar and VocabularyVocabulary

– Languages have a built-in system Languages have a built-in system of redundancy.of redundancy.

This makes it possible for us to This makes it possible for us to understand some sentences even if a understand some sentences even if a sneeze or some other noise keeps us sneeze or some other noise keeps us from hearing one or two words.from hearing one or two words.

Similarly, we do not necessarily fail to Similarly, we do not necessarily fail to grasp the total meaning of a sermon if grasp the total meaning of a sermon if our mind wanders for a couple of our mind wanders for a couple of minutes.minutes.



– If that is the way language works, If that is the way language works, we should infer that subtle lexical we should infer that subtle lexical distinctions play only a secondary distinctions play only a secondary role in interpretation.role in interpretation.

Example: Example: agapaoagapao and and phileophileo in John in John 21:15-1721:15-17

The NIV translators distinguish “truly The NIV translators distinguish “truly love” from “love.”love” from “love.”



– A solid interpretation should be A solid interpretation should be built on much broader evidence built on much broader evidence than that. than that.

– Generally speaking, the greater the Generally speaking, the greater the weight placed on distinctions weight placed on distinctions among synonyms, the more likely among synonyms, the more likely it is that such distinctions are being it is that such distinctions are being overstated.overstated.



– If there is a danger in overstating If there is a danger in overstating lexical distinctions, what can be lexical distinctions, what can be said about grammatical ones?said about grammatical ones?

– When was the last time you could When was the last time you could not decide why a speaker or writer not decide why a speaker or writer chose a simple present tense chose a simple present tense (“How do you feel?”) rather than a (“How do you feel?”) rather than a progressive tense (“How are you progressive tense (“How are you feeling?”)?feeling?”)?



– When it comes to the Greek NT, When it comes to the Greek NT, however, students spend a great however, students spend a great deal of effort trying to interpret deal of effort trying to interpret grammatical subtleties.grammatical subtleties.

Example: Heb. 1:2 literally “in son.”Example: Heb. 1:2 literally “in son.” The presence of the definite article The presence of the definite article

does not alter the meaning of the does not alter the meaning of the clause.clause.



– The most common misuse of grammatical The most common misuse of grammatical subtlety has to do with the Greek tenses.subtlety has to do with the Greek tenses.

Part of the reason is that Greek includes a Part of the reason is that Greek includes a tense form that has been labeled tense form that has been labeled aoristaorist..

Since the term is not used when Since the term is not used when describing English, it conveys a quasi-describing English, it conveys a quasi-esoteric feeling and encourages esoteric feeling and encourages overinterpretation.overinterpretation.

Another reason is the fact that the Greek Another reason is the fact that the Greek verbs exploit “aspectual” distinctions verbs exploit “aspectual” distinctions more frequently than English verbs do.more frequently than English verbs do.



– The distinction between the English simple The distinction between the English simple past tense (“I ate”) and the imperfect (“I past tense (“I ate”) and the imperfect (“I was eating”) is an aspectual one and was eating”) is an aspectual one and corresponds more or less to a similar corresponds more or less to a similar distinction in Greek.distinction in Greek.

– The aorist tense (or better, aspect) was The aorist tense (or better, aspect) was given its name by ancient Greek given its name by ancient Greek grammarians who recognized that there was grammarians who recognized that there was something indefinite about it (the Greek something indefinite about it (the Greek word word aristosaristos means “undefined”). means “undefined”).

– Curiously, many NT interpreters view it as Curiously, many NT interpreters view it as special in some sense and greatly special in some sense and greatly exaggerate its significance.exaggerate its significance.


Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Don’t Overemphasize Subtle Points of Grammar and VocabularyGrammar and Vocabulary

In certain cases the choice of aspect (or In certain cases the choice of aspect (or some other grammatical detail) by a some other grammatical detail) by a Greek author perhaps contributes Greek author perhaps contributes somewhat to a meaning that is somewhat to a meaning that is otherwise clearly expressed in the otherwise clearly expressed in the context.context.

If so, the grammar is at best a If so, the grammar is at best a secondary support to the interpretation secondary support to the interpretation of the passage.of the passage.

However, if a proposed meaning cannot However, if a proposed meaning cannot be established apart from an appeal to be established apart from an appeal to a grammatical subtlety, chances are a grammatical subtlety, chances are that the argument is worthless.that the argument is worthless.



The biblical writers were clear The biblical writers were clear and explicit and did not expect and explicit and did not expect their readers to have to decipher their readers to have to decipher complicated linguistic riddles.complicated linguistic riddles.


SummarySummary 1. Do recognize the significance 1. Do recognize the significance

of the biblical languages for of the biblical languages for proper interpretation. (Beware proper interpretation. (Beware of reading into the Bible ideas of reading into the Bible ideas that can be supported only from that can be supported only from the English translation.)the English translation.)

2. Do keep in mind that English 2. Do keep in mind that English translations are reliable for most translations are reliable for most purposes. (It is important to purposes. (It is important to remember that the teaching of remember that the teaching of Scripture as a whole is readily Scripture as a whole is readily accessible to all believers.)accessible to all believers.)


SummarySummary 3. Do place priority on the attested 3. Do place priority on the attested

and contemporary usage of words. and contemporary usage of words. (Normally, proposed meanings are (Normally, proposed meanings are valid only if they can be confirmed by valid only if they can be confirmed by references contemporaneous with the references contemporaneous with the text.)text.)

4. Do focus on specific uses in context. 4. Do focus on specific uses in context. (Remember that (aside from puns and (Remember that (aside from puns and other types of rare allusions) other types of rare allusions) meanings other than the one specified meanings other than the one specified by the context do not normally occur by the context do not normally occur to the speaker and the audience.)to the speaker and the audience.)


SummarySummary 5. Do emphasize the context. (The 5. Do emphasize the context. (The

reason we do not have to be reason we do not have to be slavishly dependent on scholars is slavishly dependent on scholars is that the broad context of Scripture that the broad context of Scripture can be understood without a can be understood without a knowledge of technical details. knowledge of technical details. Before tackling a specific problem Before tackling a specific problem in one verse, we ought to read and in one verse, we ought to read and reread the whole chapter—indeed reread the whole chapter—indeed the whole book of which it is a the whole book of which it is a part. Surely, constant reading of part. Surely, constant reading of the Scriptures in their totality is the Scriptures in their totality is the best prescription for handling the best prescription for handling the Word aright.)the Word aright.)

THE MEANING OF THE MEANING OF NARRATIVENARRATIVE

Well over one-third of the whole Bible is Well over one-third of the whole Bible is narrative.narrative.

Narrative in its broadest sense is an Narrative in its broadest sense is an account of specific space-time events and account of specific space-time events and participants whose stories are recorded participants whose stories are recorded with a beginning, a middle, and an end.with a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Unlike prose, where things are stated Unlike prose, where things are stated directly, narrative presents thing directly, narrative presents thing indirectly.indirectly.

Its style derives from the writer’s Its style derives from the writer’s selectionselection, , arrangementarrangement and and rhetorical rhetorical devicesdevices..

The last includes pivotal statements The last includes pivotal statements taken from the mouth’s of the narrative’s taken from the mouth’s of the narrative’s key figures, thereby allowing the author key figures, thereby allowing the author to make the points that reveal the focus to make the points that reveal the focus and purpose for telling the story.and purpose for telling the story.


Readers and interpreters of stories Readers and interpreters of stories sometimes become so involved in sometimes become so involved in the characters and the plot of the the characters and the plot of the narrative that they forget to narrative that they forget to consider what the message from consider what the message from God to the contemporary church is.God to the contemporary church is.

More frequently, however, we find More frequently, however, we find the opposite problem where the opposite problem where readers project some moral or readers project some moral or spiritual truth over a biblical spiritual truth over a biblical character or even, paying more character or even, paying more attention to the moral lesson than attention to the moral lesson than to the actual story itself.to the actual story itself.


Interpreting in a moralistic, exemplary Interpreting in a moralistic, exemplary fashion for every narrative passage is fashion for every narrative passage is that it destroys the unity of the that it destroys the unity of the message of the Bible.message of the Bible.

Rather than considering the whole Rather than considering the whole event, character, and episode for what event, character, and episode for what it contributes to the context in which it contributes to the context in which it is set, a subjective process of it is set, a subjective process of analogy takes over, along with an analogy takes over, along with an individualistic isolation of selected individualistic isolation of selected details that happen to fit the fancy of details that happen to fit the fancy of the interpreter’s purposes.the interpreter’s purposes.

The only cure for such abuses is to The only cure for such abuses is to come to terms with how these come to terms with how these narratives are actually being narratives are actually being presented and used by the writers of presented and used by the writers of Scripture.Scripture.


Our first job is to listen carefully Our first job is to listen carefully to the text of Scripture, including to the text of Scripture, including each narrative passage.each narrative passage.

Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The SceneThe Scene The most important feature of The most important feature of

the narrative is the scene; the the narrative is the scene; the action of the story is broken up action of the story is broken up into a sequence of scenes.into a sequence of scenes.

Each scene usually has no more Each scene usually has no more than two characters; where a than two characters; where a group is present, it tends to group is present, it tends to function as one of the function as one of the characters.characters.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The SceneThe Scene One of the most notable feature about biblical One of the most notable feature about biblical

narrative is the pervasive presence of God; narrative is the pervasive presence of God; God is often one of the two characters or the God is often one of the two characters or the voice of the prophet functions in His place.voice of the prophet functions in His place.

The interpreter must identify each of these The interpreter must identify each of these scenes, much as one would break up a long scenes, much as one would break up a long prose passage into paragraphs.prose passage into paragraphs.

It is helpful to draft a summary statement for It is helpful to draft a summary statement for each scene in the way that we might the each scene in the way that we might the theme sentence in a paragraph.theme sentence in a paragraph.

The summary should focus on the actions, The summary should focus on the actions, words, or depictions in the scene, keeping min words, or depictions in the scene, keeping min the direction author seems to be following in the direction author seems to be following in the whole sequence of scenes.the whole sequence of scenes.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The Point of ViewThe Point of View The Plot traces the movement of The Plot traces the movement of

the incidents, episodes, or actions the incidents, episodes, or actions of a narrative, usually as they of a narrative, usually as they revolve around some type of revolve around some type of conflict.conflict.

At some point, the author brings At some point, the author brings to a climax the whole series of to a climax the whole series of episodes in the various scenes, episodes in the various scenes, thereby supplying the whole point thereby supplying the whole point of view for the story.of view for the story.

This point of view forms the This point of view forms the perspective from which the whole perspective from which the whole story is told.story is told.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The Point of ViewThe Point of View The author will often place the point he The author will often place the point he

wishes to make in the form of a quotation or a wishes to make in the form of a quotation or a speech in the mouth of one of the key speech in the mouth of one of the key characters at some climactic stage in the plot.characters at some climactic stage in the plot.

Example: I Kings 17 (4 individual scenes)Example: I Kings 17 (4 individual scenes) 17:24: “Then the woman said to Elijah, ‘Now I 17:24: “Then the woman said to Elijah, ‘Now I

know that you are a man of God and the word know that you are a man of God and the word of the Lord from you mouth is the truth.’”of the Lord from you mouth is the truth.’”

The “point of view” is that God’s word was The “point of view” is that God’s word was dependable in each circumstances depicted in dependable in each circumstances depicted in the four scenes.the four scenes.

““Word of the Lord” is repeated in verses Word of the Lord” is repeated in verses 2,8,16, and 24.2,8,16, and 24.


Literary Devices in Literary Devices in NarrativeNarrative

The Point of ViewThe Point of View This feature guides us in discerning This feature guides us in discerning

what truth the author intended to what truth the author intended to convey in choosing and recording convey in choosing and recording these episodes.these episodes.

Focusing on the author’s point of Focusing on the author’s point of view depicted in the larger literary view depicted in the larger literary context can keep us from settling context can keep us from settling merely for surface “lessons” or merely for surface “lessons” or vague “blessings” as we read the vague “blessings” as we read the biblical narratives.biblical narratives.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative DialogueDialogue Everything in biblical Everything in biblical

narrative gravitates toward narrative gravitates toward dialogue.dialogue.

The theme of the passage, The theme of the passage, which the point of view which the point of view expresses, is generally expresses, is generally carried along in it forward carried along in it forward movement by dialogue.movement by dialogue.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative DialogueDialogue Rules for seeing the significance Rules for seeing the significance

of the movement of dialogue:of the movement of dialogue:1.1. The place where dialogue is first The place where dialogue is first

introduced will be an important introduced will be an important moment in revealing the character of moment in revealing the character of its speaker—perhaps more in the its speaker—perhaps more in the manner than in the substance of what manner than in the substance of what is said.is said.

2.2. Notice where the narrator has chosen Notice where the narrator has chosen to introduce dialogue instead of to introduce dialogue instead of narration. Focusing on some sharp narration. Focusing on some sharp verbal exchange between the verbal exchange between the characters, will help us to focus on characters, will help us to focus on their relation to God and to one their relation to God and to one another.another.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative DialogueDialogue Dialogue occasionally appears in the form of Dialogue occasionally appears in the form of

stylized speech, where one character repeats stylized speech, where one character repeats a part or the whole of what another character a part or the whole of what another character said. In such instances, look for slight said. In such instances, look for slight alterations, reversals of order, elaborations, alterations, reversals of order, elaborations, or deletions.or deletions.

Seldom does a narrator enter the narration Seldom does a narrator enter the narration directly in order to give a moral to the story. directly in order to give a moral to the story. Rather, the narrator often gives a Rather, the narrator often gives a summarizing speech at a particularly critical summarizing speech at a particularly critical juncture in the narrative.juncture in the narrative.

Dialogue is one of the main ways the narrator Dialogue is one of the main ways the narrator can present characterization. The narration can present characterization. The narration that surrounds such dialogue merely tends to that surrounds such dialogue merely tends to confirm what is said in the dialogue.confirm what is said in the dialogue.


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The Rhetorical DevicesThe Rhetorical Devices Biblical narrators commonly Biblical narrators commonly

relied on certain rhetorical relied on certain rhetorical devices that also appear also devices that also appear also in other kinds of prose and in other kinds of prose and poetry.poetry.

Three important ones are Three important ones are repetitionrepetition, , inclusioninclusion and and chiasmchiasm..


Literary Devices in NarrativeLiterary Devices in Narrative The Rhetorical DevicesThe Rhetorical Devices

– Repetition.Repetition.– One type of repetition uses the One type of repetition uses the

recurrence of words or short phrases.recurrence of words or short phrases.– Another links together actions, Another links together actions,

images, motifs, themes and ideas.images, motifs, themes and ideas.– The repetition of words (or even The repetition of words (or even

sentences) is especially significant.sentences) is especially significant.– Example: 2 Kings 1:3,6,16 repeat the Example: 2 Kings 1:3,6,16 repeat the

same question: “Is it because there same question: “Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are going is no God in Israel that you are going off to consult Baal-Zebub, the god of off to consult Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron?”Ekron?”

– I Kings 19:9,13: “What are you doing I Kings 19:9,13: “What are you doing here, Elijah?”here, Elijah?”



– Repetition.Repetition.– Another type of repetition in Another type of repetition in

Hebrew narrative is Hebrew narrative is “resumptive repetition.”“resumptive repetition.”

– In this type, the narrator In this type, the narrator returns the reader to the returns the reader to the original point in the story after original point in the story after developing a related incident. developing a related incident. E.g., I Sam. 19:12, 18E.g., I Sam. 19:12, 18



– Inclusion.Inclusion.– ““Inclusion” refers to a Inclusion” refers to a

repetition that marks the repetition that marks the beginning and the end of a beginning and the end of a section, thus effectively section, thus effectively bracketing or enveloping the bracketing or enveloping the marked-off material.marked-off material.

– Illustration: Exodus 6:13 and Illustration: Exodus 6:13 and 26-27.26-27.



– Inclusion.Inclusion.– What follows v. 13 is a genealogical list of What follows v. 13 is a genealogical list of

only three of the twelve sons of Jacob—only three of the twelve sons of Jacob—Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, with a more Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, with a more detailed treatment of Levi—presumably detailed treatment of Levi—presumably because that list led to Moses and Aaron.because that list led to Moses and Aaron.

– Vv. 26-27 function as an inclusion with v. Vv. 26-27 function as an inclusion with v. 13: “It was this samed Aaron and Moses to 13: “It was this samed Aaron and Moses to whom the Lord said, ‘Bring the Israelites whom the Lord said, ‘Bring the Israelites out of Egypt.’”out of Egypt.’”

– These three sons were part of previous These three sons were part of previous negative narratives—Reuben slept with his negative narratives—Reuben slept with his father’s concubine and Simeon and Levi father’s concubine and Simeon and Levi massacred the Shechemites.massacred the Shechemites.



The Rhetorical DevicesThe Rhetorical Devices– Inclusion.Inclusion.– The reader might wonder how it The reader might wonder how it

would be possible for anyone who would be possible for anyone who came from such origins to be came from such origins to be used of God.used of God.

– The point likely is that the calling The point likely is that the calling and gifts of God for leadership and gifts of God for leadership had very little to do with had very little to do with heritage, natural endowments or heritage, natural endowments or human lineage.human lineage.



– Chiasm.Chiasm.– Chiasm is a literary device named Chiasm is a literary device named

after the Greek letter after the Greek letter chichi (χ); it is (χ); it is named for the crossing, or named for the crossing, or inversion, of related element within inversion, of related element within parallel constructions.parallel constructions.

– Chiasms may involve the inversion Chiasms may involve the inversion of anything from words or clauses in of anything from words or clauses in two parallel lines of poetry to a two parallel lines of poetry to a series of dialogues or even of a series of dialogues or even of a series of chapters of narration.series of chapters of narration.

– The easiest to identify are chiasms The easiest to identify are chiasms where the same words, clauses, or where the same words, clauses, or phrases are reversed.phrases are reversed.



The Rhetorical DevicesThe Rhetorical Devices– Chiasm.Chiasm.– Example: Isaiah 11:13Example: Isaiah 11:13– aa bb c c– EphraimEphraim shall not be jealousshall not be jealous of of

JudahJudah

– aa bb c c

– and Judahand Judah shall not harassshall not harass Ephraim Ephraim



– Chiasm.Chiasm.– Chiasm, more than being merely a Chiasm, more than being merely a

superficial decorative ornament, is superficial decorative ornament, is one of the major artistic one of the major artistic conventions used for narrative in conventions used for narrative in the Bible.the Bible.

– It can be key in detecting the It can be key in detecting the author’s aims, for the main event or author’s aims, for the main event or principal ideas typically appears in principal ideas typically appears in the apex, the middle of the story.the apex, the middle of the story.

– Example: Daniel 1-7Example: Daniel 1-7



– Chiasm.Chiasm.– Intro. Daniel 1Intro. Daniel 1– A. Daniel 2 Four Gentile world empiresA. Daniel 2 Four Gentile world empires– B. Daniel 3 Gentile persecution B. Daniel 3 Gentile persecution

of Israelof Israel– C. Daniel 4 Divine C. Daniel 4 Divine

providence over Gentilesprovidence over Gentiles– C. Daniel 5 Divine C. Daniel 5 Divine

providence over Gentilesprovidence over Gentiles– B. Daniel 6 Gentile persecution B. Daniel 6 Gentile persecution

of Israelof Israel– A. Daniel 7 Four Gentile world empiresA. Daniel 7 Four Gentile world empires



– Chiasm.Chiasm.– Following the chiastic structure, the Following the chiastic structure, the

heart of the first seven chapters heart of the first seven chapters comes in Daniel 4 and 5.comes in Daniel 4 and 5.

– Daniel 4 was God’s final word to Daniel 4 was God’s final word to Nebuchadnezzar.Nebuchadnezzar.

– Daniel 5 was God’s final word to Daniel 5 was God’s final word to Belshazzar.Belshazzar.

– For all intents and purposes, these For all intents and purposes, these two kings were the beginning and two kings were the beginning and concluding kings of the Babylonian concluding kings of the Babylonian dynasty.dynasty.



– Chiasm.Chiasm.– They seem to function as an They seem to function as an

encouragement and a warning to all encouragement and a warning to all Gentile nations about the plans, Gentile nations about the plans, purposes, etc., God offers to all purposes, etc., God offers to all nations.nations.

– Daniel 2-7 was written in Aramaic, Daniel 2-7 was written in Aramaic, the lingua franca of the day.the lingua franca of the day.

– Daniel 8-12 was written in Hebrew.Daniel 8-12 was written in Hebrew.– The shift in languages may be a The shift in languages may be a

hermeneutical signal that the hermeneutical signal that the primary audience to whom each primary audience to whom each section is address also shifts at section is address also shifts at precisely those same points.precisely those same points.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Verbal LevelThe Verbal Level The analysis of structure based The analysis of structure based

on the verbal level focuses on the verbal level focuses particularly on words or phrases particularly on words or phrases that are repeated.that are repeated.

Genesis 1 “And there was Genesis 1 “And there was evening and there was morning, evening and there was morning, the first (second, etc.) the first (second, etc.) day” day” (vv. 5,8,13,19,23,31).(vv. 5,8,13,19,23,31).

Job’s four messengers (Job 1): “I Job’s four messengers (Job 1): “I am the only one who has am the only one who has escaped to tell you” escaped to tell you” (vv. (vv. 15,16,17,19).15,16,17,19).


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Verbal LevelThe Verbal Level These are forms of narrative These are forms of narrative

structure by means of structure by means of comment.comment.

Other stylistic features in Other stylistic features in addition to repetition include addition to repetition include the use of metaphors, similes, the use of metaphors, similes, and unusual constructions of and unusual constructions of the grammar or syntax.the grammar or syntax.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of Narrative TechniqueThe Level of Narrative Technique Structure at the narrative Structure at the narrative

technique level is expressed by technique level is expressed by the alternating patterns ofthe alternating patterns of

1.1. dialogue versus narrator’s dialogue versus narrator’s description;description;

2.2. narration versus description; andnarration versus description; and

3.3. comment, or even explanation and comment, or even explanation and presentation of scenes, versus presentation of scenes, versus summary of the action. The first is summary of the action. The first is the most important.the most important.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of Narrative TechniqueThe Level of Narrative Technique Narrative technique mainly affects the Narrative technique mainly affects the

rate of progress in a narrative and the rate of progress in a narrative and the question of the order of the events. question of the order of the events. (When the author uses scenic (When the author uses scenic presentation, time goes by slowly and presentation, time goes by slowly and we are thereby forced to pay close we are thereby forced to pay close attention to details to determine the attention to details to determine the direction.)direction.)

But when the author switches to But when the author switches to summary statements, then time is summary statements, then time is accelerated and the point of the accelerated and the point of the narrative may be stated more directly.narrative may be stated more directly.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of Narrative TechniqueThe Level of Narrative Technique Authors may break into their Authors may break into their

story at any point, doing so in story at any point, doing so in accord with fixed techniques.accord with fixed techniques.

One such marker is the frequent One such marker is the frequent use of flashbacks to cover the use of flashbacks to cover the background to the background to the beginning beginning of a narrative.of a narrative.

In Hebrew, these flashbacks In Hebrew, these flashbacks would be indicated by the use of would be indicated by the use of the perfect verb rather than the the perfect verb rather than the normal imperfect.normal imperfect.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of the Narrative WorldThe Level of the Narrative World The third structural level focuses The third structural level focuses

on the narrative world, that is, the on the narrative world, that is, the realm in which the story is set.realm in which the story is set.

It deals mainly with the two main It deals mainly with the two main components or contents of components or contents of narratives: characters and events.narratives: characters and events.

Characters are developed with Characters are developed with respect to their identity, their respect to their identity, their characteristics and their functions.characteristics and their functions.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of the Narrative WorldThe Level of the Narrative World Interpreters should notice the Interpreters should notice the

linkinglinking of the various characters as of the various characters as they appear in sequence in a text.they appear in sequence in a text.

Usually the character introduced Usually the character introduced second in a text becomes the first second in a text becomes the first to appear in to appear in the next link as the the next link as the narrative progresses.narrative progresses.

Following these links may provide Following these links may provide a clue as to what the author wishes a clue as to what the author wishes us to center our attention on.us to center our attention on.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of the Narrative WorldThe Level of the Narrative World The relationships of the events The relationships of the events

of a story make up the of a story make up the plotplot.. Many narratives have a single Many narratives have a single

plot. In the entire book of Esther plot. In the entire book of Esther Haman’s effort to exterminate all Haman’s effort to exterminate all the Jews takes center stage with the Jews takes center stage with Mordecai and Esther’s attempts Mordecai and Esther’s attempts to counter them taking a to counter them taking a secondary role.secondary role.

Describing the plot usually boils Describing the plot usually boils down to simply paraphrasing the down to simply paraphrasing the story.story.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of the Narrative WorldThe Level of the Narrative World Common plot devices include the Common plot devices include the

climaxclimax, the , the second climaxsecond climax and and reversalreversal..

Usually plots ascend to the climax and Usually plots ascend to the climax and then descend to a peaceful conclusion.then descend to a peaceful conclusion.

Sometimes the narrative ascends Sometimes the narrative ascends immediately to a second climax (Job immediately to a second climax (Job faced four messengers only to be faced four messengers only to be confronted by three comforters.confronted by three comforters.

The sacrifice of Isaiah in Gen. 22 and The sacrifice of Isaiah in Gen. 22 and Jacob’s return to meet Esau (Gen. 32-Jacob’s return to meet Esau (Gen. 32-33) illustrate reversal.33) illustrate reversal.


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative The Level of Conceptual ContentThe Level of Conceptual Content This element focuses on This element focuses on themesthemes, which , which

are usually expressed in short phrases, are usually expressed in short phrases, or on or on ideasideas, which come in the form of , which come in the form of complete sentences.complete sentences.

Themes set forth the central issues of Themes set forth the central issues of the narrative, while ideas point to the the narrative, while ideas point to the lesson, message or teaching found in the lesson, message or teaching found in the narrative.narrative.

Since in the majority of cases both the Since in the majority of cases both the themes and the ideas of the narrative themes and the ideas of the narrative will be merely implied, not stated will be merely implied, not stated explicitly, special care will need to be explicitly, special care will need to be exercised.exercised.

Nehemiah 4-6 an illustration of both the Nehemiah 4-6 an illustration of both the themes and ideas. (Kaiser/Silva, pp.78-themes and ideas. (Kaiser/Silva, pp.78-79)79)


Structural Levels in NarrativeStructural Levels in Narrative In summary, we can use structural In summary, we can use structural

levels tolevels to1.1. demonstrate the unity of a narrative,demonstrate the unity of a narrative,

2.2. determine the boundaries of a story,determine the boundaries of a story,

3.3. demonstrate the rhetorical or demonstrate the rhetorical or expressive values found within a text,expressive values found within a text,

4.4. understand the effect that the author understand the effect that the author wanted to have on the reader, andwanted to have on the reader, and

5.5. notice which elements of the text the notice which elements of the text the author wished to highlight.author wished to highlight.


Historical Considerations in Historical Considerations in NarrativeNarrative

While the literary genre of narrative While the literary genre of narrative encompasses much more than encompasses much more than historical report, it cannot be neglected.historical report, it cannot be neglected.

The issue is whether those persons and The issue is whether those persons and events that the writers portray as being events that the writers portray as being part of the space-time continuum part of the space-time continuum actually did live at the times they are actually did live at the times they are alleged to have lived and actually did alleged to have lived and actually did what is attributed to them.what is attributed to them.

Many modern interpreters would prefer Many modern interpreters would prefer to give the biblical narrative the title of to give the biblical narrative the title of “story,” by which they mean that it did “story,” by which they mean that it did not contain history.not contain history.



To deny the existence historical narrative To deny the existence historical narrative where the text has claimed such, much be where the text has claimed such, much be regarded as the equivalent of denying its regarded as the equivalent of denying its message.message.

In many cases the theology taught in a text In many cases the theology taught in a text rests squarely on the reality of the events rests squarely on the reality of the events occurring as they were depicted there.occurring as they were depicted there.

Should the events prove not to be true, Should the events prove not to be true, the theology that rests on them would the theology that rests on them would necessarily not be true either.necessarily not be true either.

Example: the assertion that Jesus Example: the assertion that Jesus “suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, “suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead and buried; the third day he rose dead and buried; the third day he rose again . . .” is unequivocally linked with history.again . . .” is unequivocally linked with history.



There are some narratives in which the There are some narratives in which the objective existence of the historical objective existence of the historical referent is not heremeneutically referent is not heremeneutically consequential for an adequate consequential for an adequate understanding of the passage.understanding of the passage.

Greidanus cites this point with regard Greidanus cites this point with regard to the purpose of the books of Job and to the purpose of the books of Job and Jonah.Jonah.

But the purpose of Jonah cannot be But the purpose of Jonah cannot be fully grasped without placing it against fully grasped without placing it against its historical antecedents.its historical antecedents.



In the case of Job no particular historical In the case of Job no particular historical setting is claimed by the book.setting is claimed by the book.

Jonah is very different. One must Jonah is very different. One must appreciate the brutality of the Assyrians appreciate the brutality of the Assyrians had meant for all who had suffered so had meant for all who had suffered so mightily under that merciless war mightily under that merciless war machine.machine.

Therefore, as in most historical Therefore, as in most historical narratives one key component of the narratives one key component of the story would be lost if the historical story would be lost if the historical referent were dropped. Jonah is a case referent were dropped. Jonah is a case in point.in point.


Truth or Meaning in Biblical NarrativeTruth or Meaning in Biblical Narrative Hans Frei argued that Christians Hans Frei argued that Christians

must stop short of making any claims must stop short of making any claims about the truthfulness of the stories about the truthfulness of the stories narrated in the Bible; it was enough narrated in the Bible; it was enough to say that these narratives were to say that these narratives were meaningful.meaningful.

His position was also that “realistic His position was also that “realistic narrative” is not tied to a discussion narrative” is not tied to a discussion of either the author’s or even the of either the author’s or even the reader’s intentions.reader’s intentions.

Paul Ricoeur basically agreed.Paul Ricoeur basically agreed.


The Use of History in Historical The Use of History in Historical NarrativeNarrative

The main difference between modern The main difference between modern definitions of history and those we are using definitions of history and those we are using for biblical materials is that the Bible includes for biblical materials is that the Bible includes an interpretation of the events and people it an interpretation of the events and people it describes from a divine perspective.describes from a divine perspective.

The interpretation of narrative must give The interpretation of narrative must give priority to the literary devices and the literary priority to the literary devices and the literary structure if we are to be successful in structure if we are to be successful in interpreting this very profuse genre.interpreting this very profuse genre.

But if meaning is also to held accountable to But if meaning is also to held accountable to the criteria of truthfulness and veracity, it will the criteria of truthfulness and veracity, it will need to be ready to set that text in the need to be ready to set that text in the primary world of realities in which it purports primary world of realities in which it purports to have happened.to have happened.

The Meaning of Poetry and The Meaning of Poetry and WisdomWisdom

PoetryPoetry Approximately one-third of the OT is Approximately one-third of the OT is

written in poetic form; if printed all written in poetic form; if printed all together it would exceed in length together it would exceed in length the whole of the NT.the whole of the NT.

The best known poetry is found in the The best known poetry is found in the Psalms, followed perhaps by that in Psalms, followed perhaps by that in Proverbs and other Wisdom books.Proverbs and other Wisdom books.

Further, only seven books of the OT Further, only seven books of the OT are without any poetry: Leviticus, are without any poetry: Leviticus, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai and Malachi.and Malachi.


PoetryPoetry New Testament poetry includesNew Testament poetry includes

1.1. quotations from the ancient poets (Acts quotations from the ancient poets (Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12; I Cor. 15:33);17:28; Titus 1:12; I Cor. 15:33);

2.2. possible first-century Christian hymns (e.g., possible first-century Christian hymns (e.g., Phil. 2:5-11; I Tim. 3:16; 2 Tim. 2:11-13);Phil. 2:5-11; I Tim. 3:16; 2 Tim. 2:11-13);

3.3. passages in the mold of OT poetry: Luke’s passages in the mold of OT poetry: Luke’s Magnificat (1:46-55), Benedictus (1:68-79), Magnificat (1:46-55), Benedictus (1:68-79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), and Nunc Dimittis Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), and Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32); and(2:29-32); and

4.4. passages that have the grand and exalted passages that have the grand and exalted style of poetry, such as Jesus’ lament over style of poetry, such as Jesus’ lament over Jerusalem (Luke 13:34-35), parts of the Jerusalem (Luke 13:34-35), parts of the Upper Room Discourse (e.g., John 14:1-7), Upper Room Discourse (e.g., John 14:1-7), etc.etc.


PoetryPoetry Interpreters of the Bible are Interpreters of the Bible are

often unaware of the special often unaware of the special hermeneutical demands of hermeneutical demands of poetry.poetry.

This means that we often must This means that we often must take a much more tentative take a much more tentative attitude in interpreting biblical attitude in interpreting biblical poetry.poetry.


PoetryPoetry ParallelismParallelism Robert Lowth described three basic Robert Lowth described three basic

types of parallelism: synonymous, types of parallelism: synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic.antithetic, and synthetic.

– Synonymous parallelismSynonymous parallelism: the second : the second line of the poetic form repeats the line of the poetic form repeats the idea of the first line without any idea of the first line without any significant addition or subtraction to significant addition or subtraction to it.it.

Prov. 1:20; Gen. 4:23; Luke 1:46b-47aProv. 1:20; Gen. 4:23; Luke 1:46b-47a


PoetryPoetry ParallelismParallelism Antithetic parallelismAntithetic parallelism: the second : the second

line of poetry contrasts with, or line of poetry contrasts with, or negates, the thought and meaning of negates, the thought and meaning of the first line.the first line.

– Proverbs 10-22; Prov. 10:1; Prov. 27:6Proverbs 10-22; Prov. 10:1; Prov. 27:6 Synthetic parallelismSynthetic parallelism (more (more

problematic): although poetic lines problematic): although poetic lines may be parallel in form, they are not may be parallel in form, they are not balanced in thought or ideas as the balanced in thought or ideas as the lines in the previous two types are.lines in the previous two types are.

– Psalm 148:7-12Psalm 148:7-12


PoetryPoetry ParallelismParallelism While parallelism is the chief While parallelism is the chief

characteristic of biblical poetry, many characteristic of biblical poetry, many biblical poems exhibit a very weak biblical poems exhibit a very weak parallelism or none at all. (Also, some parallelism or none at all. (Also, some forms of Hebrew prose exhibit a forms of Hebrew prose exhibit a symmetry that could be classified as symmetry that could be classified as parallelism.)parallelism.)

Besides parallelism, other features of Besides parallelism, other features of Hebrew poetry that tend to distinguish Hebrew poetry that tend to distinguish it from prose areit from prose are

1.1. a relatively greater conciseness or a relatively greater conciseness or terseness of form andterseness of form and

2.2. a greater use of certain rhetorical devices.a greater use of certain rhetorical devices.


PoetryPoetry Conciseness or Terseness of Conciseness or Terseness of

FormForm– Poetry is divided into strophes or Poetry is divided into strophes or

stanzas.stanzas.– One of the most common features One of the most common features

used to mark off the end of a used to mark off the end of a strophe is the presence of a strophe is the presence of a refrain.refrain.


PoetryPoetry Conciseness or Terseness of FormConciseness or Terseness of Form

– Refrain is found in Ugaritic poetry and Refrain is found in Ugaritic poetry and occurs in some eighteen psalms (list, p. occurs in some eighteen psalms (list, p. 90).90).

– Example: the threefold repetition of the Example: the threefold repetition of the refrain in the continuing Psalm 42-43 refrain in the continuing Psalm 42-43 divides it into three strophes, or stanzas:divides it into three strophes, or stanzas:

Why are you downcast, O my soul?Why are you downcast, O my soul?

Why so disturbed within me?Why so disturbed within me?

Put your hope in God.Put your hope in God.

for I will yet praise him,for I will yet praise him,

my Savior and my God. (Pss. 42:5, 11; 43:5)my Savior and my God. (Pss. 42:5, 11; 43:5)



– It may be that the Hebrew word It may be that the Hebrew word selahselah may also mark the end, or may also mark the end, or some other meaningful point in the some other meaningful point in the strophe.strophe.

– It occurs 71 times in 39 psalms as It occurs 71 times in 39 psalms as well as in Habakkuk 3:3,9,13.well as in Habakkuk 3:3,9,13.

– But no one knows exactly what the But no one knows exactly what the words means or its exact poetic words means or its exact poetic function.function.



– Hebrew poetry is very elliptic.Hebrew poetry is very elliptic. It frequently drops a noun or the verb It frequently drops a noun or the verb

out of the second line leaving no parallel out of the second line leaving no parallel grammatical form to balance out the grammatical form to balance out the second line.second line.

There is a decided preference for Heb. There is a decided preference for Heb. poetry to be written generally without poetry to be written generally without conjunctions and with few temporal conjunctions and with few temporal indicators (indicators (when, then, afterwardwhen, then, afterward) or ) or logical connectors (logical connectors (thus, therefore)thus, therefore)..


PoetryPoetry Conciseness or Terseness of Conciseness or Terseness of

FormForm– Three common features of Hebrew Three common features of Hebrew

prose are rare in poetry:prose are rare in poetry:1.1. The direct-object marker The direct-object marker etet, ,

2.2. The relative pronoun ‘aser (who, which The relative pronoun ‘aser (who, which that)that)

3.3. The narrative form of the Hebrew verb The narrative form of the Hebrew verb (the conjunction “and” plus the (the conjunction “and” plus the imperfect tense.imperfect tense.


PoetryPoetry Rhetorical DevicesRhetorical Devices Hebrew poetry (like all poetry) is rich in Hebrew poetry (like all poetry) is rich in

the use of imagery and figures of the use of imagery and figures of speech.speech.

Three particular characteristics:Three particular characteristics: ChiasmChiasm Emblematic symbolismEmblematic symbolism Climactic (or staircase) parallelismClimactic (or staircase) parallelism These devices can server as clues These devices can server as clues

signaling the presence of poetry and signaling the presence of poetry and alerting the interpreter to be on the alerting the interpreter to be on the lookout for any special nuances the lookout for any special nuances the author intended to convey.author intended to convey.


PoetryPoetry Rhetorical DevicesRhetorical Devices Emblematic symbolism. One line Emblematic symbolism. One line

takes the form of a smile or a takes the form of a smile or a metaphor as a figurative illustration of metaphor as a figurative illustration of the same statement.the same statement.

– Prov. 11:22; Prov. 25:25; Psalm 42:1Prov. 11:22; Prov. 25:25; Psalm 42:1 Climactic Parallelism. The poet Climactic Parallelism. The poet

repeats a group of two or three words repeats a group of two or three words in two—sometimes three or four—in two—sometimes three or four—successive lines.successive lines.

– Ps. 92:9; 93:3; 96:1-2aPs. 92:9; 93:3; 96:1-2a


PoetryPoetry Figures of SpeechFigures of Speech These devices appear in poetry, These devices appear in poetry,

as well as narrative, prophecy, as well as narrative, prophecy, the letters, and all other genres.the letters, and all other genres.

There are questions that can be There are questions that can be asked of a text that can serve as asked of a text that can serve as guidelines for determining when guidelines for determining when an author has departed from the an author has departed from the strictly literal sense.strictly literal sense.


PoetryPoetry Figures of SpeechFigures of Speech

1.1. Is there a mismatch between the subject and the Is there a mismatch between the subject and the predicate, such as in the statement “God is our predicate, such as in the statement “God is our Rock”?Rock”?

2.2. Does the predicate attribute to the subject actions Does the predicate attribute to the subject actions that are not possible in the real world, such as “the that are not possible in the real world, such as “the mountains clapped their hands”?mountains clapped their hands”?

3.3. Is a colorful word immediately followed by a word Is a colorful word immediately followed by a word that defines or restricts it, such as “we are dead” that defines or restricts it, such as “we are dead” directly followed by the phrase “in our trespasses directly followed by the phrase “in our trespasses and sin”?and sin”?

4.4. Might there be a reason for a figure of speech at Might there be a reason for a figure of speech at this point in the text in order to give it a more this point in the text in order to give it a more dramatic emphasis, a heightened feeling, or to dramatic emphasis, a heightened feeling, or to make it more memorable?make it more memorable?

5.5. Is the feature I identified as a figure of speech Is the feature I identified as a figure of speech identifiable in other contexts?identifiable in other contexts?


PoetryPoetry Figures of SpeechFigures of Speech

The most frequently observed The most frequently observed types: figures of comparison, types: figures of comparison, addition or fullness of addition or fullness of expression, expression,

relation or association, relation or association, contrast and omission.contrast and omission.


PoetryPoetry Figures of ComparisonFigures of Comparison Simile. An expressed or formal comparison Simile. An expressed or formal comparison

between two things or two actions in which between two things or two actions in which one is said to be “as,” or “like” the other. one is said to be “as,” or “like” the other. (Isa. 55:10-11)(Isa. 55:10-11)

Metaphor (more difficult, but more Metaphor (more difficult, but more frequent). A figure of speech where the frequent). A figure of speech where the comparison is unexpressed or merely comparison is unexpressed or merely implied.implied.

– An idea is carried over from one element to An idea is carried over from one element to another without directly saying that one is “like” another without directly saying that one is “like” or “as” the other.or “as” the other.

– Example: Jesus referring to Herod Antipas, said Example: Jesus referring to Herod Antipas, said “Go tell that fox” (Lk. 13:32)“Go tell that fox” (Lk. 13:32)


PoetryPoetry Figures of ComparisonFigures of Comparison

– There are three parts in every There are three parts in every simile or metaphor:simile or metaphor:

1.1. The subject or item being illustrated The subject or item being illustrated by the image,by the image,

2.2. The image of the direct or implied The image of the direct or implied comparison,comparison,

3.3. The point of the direct or implied The point of the direct or implied comparison and similarity.comparison and similarity.

– Caution (Kaiser/Silva, p. 94)Caution (Kaiser/Silva, p. 94)


PoetryPoetry Figures of ComparisonFigures of Comparison

– Parable and Allegory. When a Parable and Allegory. When a simile is extended into a story, it simile is extended into a story, it becomes a parable; when a becomes a parable; when a metaphor is extended into a story, metaphor is extended into a story, it becomes an allegory.it becomes an allegory.

– One of the more memorable One of the more memorable biblical allegories is the one on biblical allegories is the one on marital fidelity in Proverbs 5:15-23.marital fidelity in Proverbs 5:15-23.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Addition or Fullness of Figures of Addition or Fullness of

ExpressionExpression Pleonasm. This figure involves a Pleonasm. This figure involves a

redundancy of expression used in redundancy of expression used in order to obtain a certain effect on the order to obtain a certain effect on the mind of the listener or reader.mind of the listener or reader.

Gen. 40:23 says the chief cupbearer Gen. 40:23 says the chief cupbearer “did not remember Joseph; he forgot “did not remember Joseph; he forgot him.”him.”



ExpressionExpression Paronomasia. It involves a fullness of Paronomasia. It involves a fullness of

expression by repeating words that are similar expression by repeating words that are similar in sound, but not necessarily similar in sense in sound, but not necessarily similar in sense or meaning in all cases, for often the similar or meaning in all cases, for often the similar sounding words are used merely to achieve a sounding words are used merely to achieve a certain effect.certain effect.

Example: Example: tohu wabohutohu wabohu, “waste and void.” , “waste and void.” (Gen. 1:2)(Gen. 1:2)

Panti pantote pasanPanti pantote pasan, “in all things always , “in all things always having all sufficiency” (2 Cor 9:8)having all sufficiency” (2 Cor 9:8)

It is not intended to be construed as having a It is not intended to be construed as having a meaning apart from the other word.meaning apart from the other word.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Addition or Fullness of ExpressionFigures of Addition or Fullness of Expression

Hyperbole. A conscious exaggeration or a type of Hyperbole. A conscious exaggeration or a type of overstatement in order to increase the effect of overstatement in order to increase the effect of what is being said.what is being said.– Example: Ps. 6:6; Matt. 5:29; Example: Ps. 6:6; Matt. 5:29;

Judges 7:12Judges 7:12 Hendiadys. Using two words when only one thing Hendiadys. Using two words when only one thing

is being referred to.is being referred to.– Gen. 19:24 Hebrew literally says Gen. 19:24 Hebrew literally says

that “it rained down fire and brimstone.”that “it rained down fire and brimstone.” The NIV acknowledges the hendiadys, translating The NIV acknowledges the hendiadys, translating

“burning sulfur” (or it could be “brimstone that “burning sulfur” (or it could be “brimstone that was on fire”).was on fire”).

John 1:17 where “grace and truth” may simply be John 1:17 where “grace and truth” may simply be “God’s gracious truth.”“God’s gracious truth.”



ExpressionExpression Hendiatris. Three words are used to express a Hendiatris. Three words are used to express a

single concept.single concept. John 14:6 Jesus says, “I am the way, the truth, John 14:6 Jesus says, “I am the way, the truth,

and the life,” probably meaning that he was the and the life,” probably meaning that he was the one, true, living way to the Father.one, true, living way to the Father.

Daniel 3:7 Nebuchadnezzar commanded that Daniel 3:7 Nebuchadnezzar commanded that “all the people, the nation, and the languages” “all the people, the nation, and the languages” (literal translation) should fall down and worship (literal translation) should fall down and worship the image he had set up.the image he had set up.

Languages do not fall down and worship; the Languages do not fall down and worship; the figure is a hendiatris in which “the people of figure is a hendiatris in which “the people of every nation and language” were required to every nation and language” were required to bow down.bow down.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Relation and AssociationFigures of Relation and Association – Metonymy. Because figures of speech Metonymy. Because figures of speech

are based on some type of are based on some type of resemblance or relation that different resemblance or relation that different objects bear to one another, it is objects bear to one another, it is possible to express a cause when the possible to express a cause when the effect is intended, or to substitute one effect is intended, or to substitute one noun for another noun closely noun for another noun closely associated with it.associated with it.

– To refer to the U.S. military To refer to the U.S. military establishment by the building that establishment by the building that houses it, the Pentagon, is a houses it, the Pentagon, is a metonymy.metonymy.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Relation and AssociationFigures of Relation and Association – Luke 16:29 says the rich man’s Luke 16:29 says the rich man’s

brothers had “Moses and the brothers had “Moses and the Prophets”—i.e., the books written Prophets”—i.e., the books written by Moses and the Prophets.by Moses and the Prophets.

– 2 Sam. 7:16 David’s “house” and 2 Sam. 7:16 David’s “house” and “throne” stand for his dynasty and “throne” stand for his dynasty and family line and his kingship.family line and his kingship.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Relation and AssociationFigures of Relation and Association – Synecdoche. The figure by which Synecdoche. The figure by which

the whole can be substituted for the whole can be substituted for the part, or a part for the whole.the part, or a part for the whole.

Luke 2:1 says that “all the world” was Luke 2:1 says that “all the world” was to be taxed, meaning, of course, “the to be taxed, meaning, of course, “the entire Roman world.”entire Roman world.”

Matt. 12:40 uses the formula “three Matt. 12:40 uses the formula “three days and three nights,” but does not days and three nights,” but does not intend to signify a full 72 hours intend to signify a full 72 hours anymore than I Sam. 30:12.anymore than I Sam. 30:12.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Relation and AssociationFigures of Relation and Association – Synecdoche. The figure by which Synecdoche. The figure by which

the whole can be substituted for the whole can be substituted for the part, or a part for the whole.the part, or a part for the whole.

There the Egyptian answers “three There the Egyptian answers “three days and three nights” and then days and three nights” and then added, “and today is the third day.”added, “and today is the third day.”

Judges 12:7 Jephthah was buried “in Judges 12:7 Jephthah was buried “in the cities of Gilead.” The NIV correctly the cities of Gilead.” The NIV correctly renders it, “[he] was buried in a town renders it, “[he] was buried in a town of Gilead.”of Gilead.”


PoetryPoetry– Figures of ContrastFigures of Contrast– Irony. Using words to convey the Irony. Using words to convey the

opposite of their literal meaning. It opposite of their literal meaning. It is most frequently used in contexts is most frequently used in contexts where one might also find sarcasm where one might also find sarcasm or ridicule as well.or ridicule as well.

2 Sam. 6:20 Michal (David’s wife) 2 Sam. 6:20 Michal (David’s wife) scoffed, “How the king of Israel has scoffed, “How the king of Israel has distinguished himself today . . .”distinguished himself today . . .”

Job 12:1 tells his so-called friends, Job 12:1 tells his so-called friends, “Doubtless you are the people, and “Doubtless you are the people, and wisdom will die with you!”wisdom will die with you!”


PoetryPoetry– Figures of ContrastFigures of Contrast

Litotes. A form of understatement Litotes. A form of understatement that affirms a statement by negating that affirms a statement by negating its contrary.its contrary.– Acts 21:39 Paul says “I am a Jew, Acts 21:39 Paul says “I am a Jew,

from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of no no ordinary cityordinary city.”.”

– Gen. 18:27 Abraham belittled Gen. 18:27 Abraham belittled himself (he was only “dust and himself (he was only “dust and ashes”) in order to magnify the ashes”) in order to magnify the greatness of God.greatness of God.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of ContrastFigures of Contrast

Euphemism. This form of contrast Euphemism. This form of contrast appears in the substitution of a appears in the substitution of a gentler, more pleasant and modest gentler, more pleasant and modest expression for a word that is more expression for a word that is more disagreeable, harsh or indelicate.disagreeable, harsh or indelicate.– We prefer to refer to the “bathroom” rather We prefer to refer to the “bathroom” rather

than using the word “toilet.” So Judges than using the word “toilet.” So Judges 3:24 and I Sam. 24:3 refer to a man 3:24 and I Sam. 24:3 refer to a man “covering his feet” as a euphemism for “covering his feet” as a euphemism for defecating, because his garments would defecating, because his garments would fall around his feet as he stooped down.fall around his feet as he stooped down.

– Acts 2:39 and Eph. 2:13 refer to the Acts 2:39 and Eph. 2:13 refer to the Gentiles without using the word—“all/those Gentiles without using the word—“all/those who are afar off/away.”who are afar off/away.”


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Omission. Figures of Omission. – Often the text omits certain words or Often the text omits certain words or

expressions, leaving the sense to be expressions, leaving the sense to be supplied by the reader.supplied by the reader.

– Zeugma. This form yokes two subjects or Zeugma. This form yokes two subjects or objects together with one verb in which objects together with one verb in which the verb actually functions appropriately the verb actually functions appropriately for only one of the two subjects or objects. for only one of the two subjects or objects. Many of these have been clarified by Many of these have been clarified by supplied verbs in most modern supplied verbs in most modern translations, so they would show up only translations, so they would show up only in literal rendering of the Hebrew or Greek in literal rendering of the Hebrew or Greek text.text.


PoetryPoetry– Figures of Omission. Figures of Omission. – Ellipsis. This is the larger category. In Ellipsis. This is the larger category. In

this case an incomplete statement must this case an incomplete statement must be filled out in order to finish the thought.be filled out in order to finish the thought.

– There may be ellipses of everything from There may be ellipses of everything from the subject, the verb, a pronoun, to the subject, the verb, a pronoun, to whole clauses.whole clauses.

– The last kind can be illustrated in 2 The last kind can be illustrated in 2 Thess. 2:3, where the introductory Thess. 2:3, where the introductory injunction “Don’t let anyone deceive you injunction “Don’t let anyone deceive you in any way” is followed by the statement in any way” is followed by the statement “for [that day will not come] until the “for [that day will not come] until the rebellion occurs and the man of rebellion occurs and the man of lawlessness is revealed, the man doomed lawlessness is revealed, the man doomed to destruction” (NIV). Brackets indicate to destruction” (NIV). Brackets indicate the omitted phrase.the omitted phrase.


ConclusionConclusion Figures of speech will always prove Figures of speech will always prove

to be a rich source of insights, calling to be a rich source of insights, calling our attention to something the writer our attention to something the writer wants to highlight.wants to highlight.

The interpreter, however, must be The interpreter, however, must be careful with figures of comparison to careful with figures of comparison to avoid creating more comparisons avoid creating more comparisons than the one(s) the writer intended.than the one(s) the writer intended.

With figures of relation, contrast With figures of relation, contrast addition or omission care must be addition or omission care must be taken to retain as much of the point taken to retain as much of the point that is being made as contextual that is being made as contextual constraints and range of usage will constraints and range of usage will dictate.dictate.


Wisdom LiteratureWisdom Literature– The books known as Wisdom The books known as Wisdom

Literature express the writers’ Literature express the writers’ concern that we order our lives concern that we order our lives according to God’s own order in the according to God’s own order in the world.world.

– ““The whole duty of man is to fear The whole duty of man is to fear God and keep his commandments” God and keep his commandments” (Eccl. 12:13)(Eccl. 12:13)

– Those who choose to despise divine Those who choose to despise divine wisdom and discipline are bluntly wisdom and discipline are bluntly labeled fools (Prov. 1:7).labeled fools (Prov. 1:7).


Wisdom LiteratureWisdom Literature– In addition to Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes In addition to Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes

and Song of Songs, Catholic scholarship and Song of Songs, Catholic scholarship includes the Apocryphal books includes the Apocryphal books Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sirach) and the Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sirach) and the Wisdom of Solomon in the Wisdom Wisdom of Solomon in the Wisdom Literature.Literature.

– To this list Jews and Christians usually To this list Jews and Christians usually add certain psalms that display the same add certain psalms that display the same literary style or the same thematic literary style or the same thematic material as Wisdom Literature. These material as Wisdom Literature. These psalms generally display the following psalms generally display the following features characteristic of Wisdom features characteristic of Wisdom Literature:Literature:


Wisdom LiteratureWisdom Literature1.1. Alphabetic acrostics (successive verses Alphabetic acrostics (successive verses

begin with successive letters of the begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet)Hebrew alphabet)

2.2. Numerical sayings (“six things the Lord Numerical sayings (“six things the Lord hates; yea, seven . . .”)hates; yea, seven . . .”)

3.3. ““Blessed” sayingsBlessed” sayings4.4. ““Better” sayings (“better the little the Better” sayings (“better the little the

righteous have than the wealth of many righteous have than the wealth of many wicked”)wicked”)

5.5. Comparisons and admonitionsComparisons and admonitions6.6. Addresses of father to sonAddresses of father to son7.7. The use of proverbs, similes, rhetorical The use of proverbs, similes, rhetorical

questions, and phrases such as “listen to questions, and phrases such as “listen to me”me”


Wisdom LiteratureWisdom Literature– Usually classed as Wisdom psalms Usually classed as Wisdom psalms

are: 1, 19b, 32, 34, 37, 49, 78, are: 1, 19b, 32, 34, 37, 49, 78, 111, 112, 119, 127, 128, and 133.111, 112, 119, 127, 128, and 133.

– Hebrew Wisdom is really a Hebrew Wisdom is really a composite with many subgenres.composite with many subgenres.


The ProverbThe Proverb– Proverbs are brief sayings that are Proverbs are brief sayings that are

memorable, embody the wisdom of memorable, embody the wisdom of many, possess a fullness of meaning many, possess a fullness of meaning with a wide application, and have a bit of with a wide application, and have a bit of a kick or bite them them to ensure their a kick or bite them them to ensure their saltiness and continued usefulness.saltiness and continued usefulness.

– They are found in practically all parts of They are found in practically all parts of the Bible.the Bible.

– By their nature and form, proverbs are By their nature and form, proverbs are generalized statements that cover the generalized statements that cover the widest number of instances, but in no widest number of instances, but in no case are they to be taken as a set of case are they to be taken as a set of unbending rules that must be applied in unbending rules that must be applied in every case without exceptions.every case without exceptions.


The ProverbThe Proverb– On the contrary, one is able to pit On the contrary, one is able to pit

proverb against proverb, both in our proverb against proverb, both in our culture and sometimes in scripture.culture and sometimes in scripture.

– ““He who hesitates is lost” versus He who hesitates is lost” versus “Look before you leap.”“Look before you leap.”

– Proverbs 26:4-5 Proverbs 26:4-5 Do not answer a fool according to his folly,Do not answer a fool according to his folly, or you will be like him yourself.or you will be like him yourself. Answer a fool according to his folly,Answer a fool according to his folly, or he will be wise in his own or he will be wise in his own

eyes.eyes.


The ProverbThe Proverb– The writer has pointed to two The writer has pointed to two

scenarios in which the wise person scenarios in which the wise person would be instructed if he applied would be instructed if he applied truth wisely.truth wisely.


The SayingThe Saying– Sayings typically are statements Sayings typically are statements

that not what does or does not take that not what does or does not take place from time to time.place from time to time.

– Again, they are not to be taken as Again, they are not to be taken as fixed rules. They may be fixed rules. They may be didacticdidactic or or experientialexperiential..

– Didactic—Prov. 14:31 “He who Didactic—Prov. 14:31 “He who oppresses the poor shows contempt oppresses the poor shows contempt for their Maker, but whoever is kind for their Maker, but whoever is kind to the needy honors God.”to the needy honors God.”


The SayingThe Saying– Experiential (describing situations Experiential (describing situations

that are apt to come up often but that are apt to come up often but have not fixed rules)—Prov. 17:28 have not fixed rules)—Prov. 17:28 “Even a fool is thought wise if he “Even a fool is thought wise if he keeps silent, and discerning if he keeps silent, and discerning if he holds his tongue.”holds his tongue.”

– Often these sayings are grouped Often these sayings are grouped around one topic (e.g., Proverbs 1-around one topic (e.g., Proverbs 1-9 returning time and again to the 9 returning time and again to the contrast of Madame Folly and Lady contrast of Madame Folly and Lady Wisdom).Wisdom).


The RiddleThe Riddle– The riddle is designed to puzzle and to The riddle is designed to puzzle and to

perplex the listener or reader in order perplex the listener or reader in order initially to obscure and hide some initially to obscure and hide some parts of its meaning, thereby testing parts of its meaning, thereby testing the skill of those who attempt to solve the skill of those who attempt to solve it.it.

– The best-known riddle in the Bible is in The best-known riddle in the Bible is in Judges 14:14 (not in Wisdom sections).Judges 14:14 (not in Wisdom sections).

Out of the eater, something to Out of the eater, something to eat;eat;

out of the strong, something out of the strong, something sweet.sweet.


The RiddleThe Riddle– The Queen of Sheba was one of those who The Queen of Sheba was one of those who

came to Solomon’s court “to test” him with came to Solomon’s court “to test” him with riddles and hard questions (I Kings 10:1).riddles and hard questions (I Kings 10:1).

– ““To understand a proverb and an enigma; To understand a proverb and an enigma; the sayings and riddles of the wise” (Prov. the sayings and riddles of the wise” (Prov. 1:6) was one of the purposes for Solomon’s 1:6) was one of the purposes for Solomon’s writing the book of Proverbs.writing the book of Proverbs.

– There are NT riddles as well: Rev. 13:18 There are NT riddles as well: Rev. 13:18 asks whether anyone has insight; if so, “let asks whether anyone has insight; if so, “let him calculate the number of the beast, for him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666.it is man’s number. His number is 666.

– Some riddles are obviously still just that, a Some riddles are obviously still just that, a riddle. Prov. 26:10 is translated in various riddle. Prov. 26:10 is translated in various ways.ways.


The AllegoryThe Allegory– An allegory is an extended metaphor—An allegory is an extended metaphor—

just as the parable is an extended simile.just as the parable is an extended simile.– The allegory contains its interpretation The allegory contains its interpretation

within itself; in metaphor and allegory within itself; in metaphor and allegory the things signified is identified with the the things signified is identified with the image itself.image itself.

– Christians and salt are seen as one for Christians and salt are seen as one for the sake of the metaphor, “You are the the sake of the metaphor, “You are the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13).salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13).

– Jesus and the vine are linked as one for Jesus and the vine are linked as one for the moment in John 15:1: “I am the true the moment in John 15:1: “I am the true vine, and my Father is the gardener.”vine, and my Father is the gardener.”


The AllegoryThe Allegory– When expanded into a narrative with When expanded into a narrative with

more details, the figure becomes an more details, the figure becomes an allegory.allegory.

– Prov. 5:15-23 is an extended Prov. 5:15-23 is an extended metaphor.metaphor.

– This allegory encourages sexual This allegory encourages sexual intimacy amid marital fidelity with intimacy amid marital fidelity with the image of drinking water from the image of drinking water from one’s own cistern or well.one’s own cistern or well.

– The key is v. 18, “Rejoice in the wife The key is v. 18, “Rejoice in the wife of your youth.”of your youth.”


The AllegoryThe Allegory– At first it appears that the line is At first it appears that the line is

out of place, but when the writer out of place, but when the writer continues in v. 19, “May her breast continues in v. 19, “May her breast satisfy you always, may you ever satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love,” it is be captivated by her love,” it is clear that it is an allegory.clear that it is an allegory.

– Another striking allegory is Eccl. Another striking allegory is Eccl. 12:1-7 where the imagery depicts 12:1-7 where the imagery depicts the effect of advancing years.the effect of advancing years.


The AdmonitionThe Admonition– This subgenre is specially associated This subgenre is specially associated

with the Egyptians.with the Egyptians.– Admonitions appear in either a positive Admonitions appear in either a positive

form (commands) or a negative form (commands) or a negative expression (prohibitions).expression (prohibitions).

– Normally a motivational clause is Normally a motivational clause is attached explaining why the injunction is attached explaining why the injunction is being issued and citing the results that being issued and citing the results that will follow.will follow.

– Prov. 23:3 admonishes, “Do no crave Prov. 23:3 admonishes, “Do no crave [the ruler’s] delicacies, for that food is [the ruler’s] delicacies, for that food is deceptive.”deceptive.”


The DialogueThe Dialogue– The book of Job is the obvious The book of Job is the obvious

example of the extensive use of example of the extensive use of dialogue in Wisdom literature—the dialogue in Wisdom literature—the dialogue between Job and his dialogue between Job and his “friends.”“friends.”

– Other Scripture portion that Other Scripture portion that demonstrate weak affinities with demonstrate weak affinities with dialogue are Prov. 5:12-14; 7:13-dialogue are Prov. 5:12-14; 7:13-21; 8:4-36.21; 8:4-36.


The OnomasticaThe Onomastica– Some have theorized that passages like Some have theorized that passages like

Job 28 or Job 38, along with Psalms 104 Job 28 or Job 38, along with Psalms 104 and 148, perhaps arose in part from lists and 148, perhaps arose in part from lists on various topics.on various topics.

ConclusionConclusion– Each subgenre will call for an adjustment Each subgenre will call for an adjustment

in the interpretive strategy for the text.in the interpretive strategy for the text.– Perhaps more practical skill is required in Perhaps more practical skill is required in

determining the exact character and determining the exact character and scope of this type of literature than that of scope of this type of literature than that of any other biblical form.any other biblical form.

– Use context whenever it will help in Use context whenever it will help in clarifying the background for any of the clarifying the background for any of the differing forms.differing forms.

The Meaning of the The Meaning of the GospelsGospels

Most readers might agree that Most readers might agree that the specific story of the Good the specific story of the Good Samaritan need not represent a Samaritan need not represent a factual event; the truth Jesus factual event; the truth Jesus taught with that parable stand, taught with that parable stand, irrespective of its historicity.irrespective of its historicity.

Why not approach the rest of Why not approach the rest of the material in the Gospels the the material in the Gospels the same way?same way?


Most readers might agree that the Most readers might agree that the This way of reading the Gospels and This way of reading the Gospels and Acts—or at least some of the Acts—or at least some of the narrative material in them—is narrative material in them—is attractive to many people, including attractive to many people, including a minority of evangelical scholars, a minority of evangelical scholars, because it frees them from having to because it frees them from having to worry about historical discrepancies.worry about historical discrepancies.

Those who have given up belief in Those who have given up belief in the supernatural but wish to continue the supernatural but wish to continue being identified as Christians find a being identified as Christians find a way out of their dilemma here.way out of their dilemma here.


Such a solution faces two major Such a solution faces two major problems—one theological and one problems—one theological and one literary.literary.

– Theological. Biblical faith has a historical Theological. Biblical faith has a historical character at its very foundations; in character at its very foundations; in contrast to other religions, this feature is contrast to other religions, this feature is one of its mot significant distinctives.one of its mot significant distinctives.

– Silva: Trying to affirm the religious Silva: Trying to affirm the religious teachings while rejecting the Bible’s teachings while rejecting the Bible’s historical claims would be the equivalent historical claims would be the equivalent of claiming allegiance to the Declaration of claiming allegiance to the Declaration of Independence while disavowing, as of Independence while disavowing, as antiquated, the principle of political antiquated, the principle of political freedom.freedom.


Literary. When reading any kind Literary. When reading any kind of literature, nothing is more of literature, nothing is more important than doing justice to important than doing justice to its character.its character.

– Winston Churchill, when writing his Winston Churchill, when writing his History of the English Speaking History of the English Speaking PeoplesPeoples, intends to describe a , intends to describe a factual event, the historical referent factual event, the historical referent is very much part of his meaning.is very much part of his meaning.

– For the reader to ignore or reject For the reader to ignore or reject that intent is destroy the writing.that intent is destroy the writing.


In the case of the Gospels, every In the case of the Gospels, every indication we have is that the indication we have is that the writers expected their writers expected their statements to be taken as statements to be taken as historical.historical.

– Luke in particular, as he begins Luke in particular, as he begins both Luke and Acts, makes that both Luke and Acts, makes that purpose quite explicit (Lk. 1:1-4 purpose quite explicit (Lk. 1:1-4 and Acts 1:1-3).and Acts 1:1-3).

– And, other writers give no clue that And, other writers give no clue that their intent is different.their intent is different.


The reason many students of the The reason many students of the Bible believe they can downplay the Bible believe they can downplay the historicity of the NT narratives is historicity of the NT narratives is that they do not always conform to that they do not always conform to the patterns of modern history the patterns of modern history writing.writing.

Therefore, if we want to do justice to Therefore, if we want to do justice to the literary character of the Gospels the literary character of the Gospels and Acts, we must not only take and Acts, we must not only take note of their historical character but note of their historical character but also of some additional features.also of some additional features.


Note how the gospel of John expresses its Note how the gospel of John expresses its aim: “Jesus did many other miraculous signs aim: “Jesus did many other miraculous signs in the presence of his disciples, which are in the presence of his disciples, which are not recorded in theis book. But these are not recorded in theis book. But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name” believing you may have life in his name” (John 20:31).(John 20:31).

The author had more in mind than the The author had more in mind than the reporting of facts; he wanted to change the reporting of facts; he wanted to change the lives of his readers.lives of his readers.

But John hardly minimizes the historical truth But John hardly minimizes the historical truth of his narrative: “The man who saw it has of his narrative: “The man who saw it has given testimony, and his testimony is true” given testimony, and his testimony is true” (19:35).(19:35).

On the other hand, it would be a mistake to On the other hand, it would be a mistake to appreciate other aspects of the gospel that appreciate other aspects of the gospel that may have affected its composition.may have affected its composition.


It is not a history textbook—much It is not a history textbook—much less a biography—in the usual sense.less a biography—in the usual sense.

– Nothing is said about Jesus’ birth or Nothing is said about Jesus’ birth or childhood.childhood.

– In spite of some chronological In spite of some chronological references, we read most of the gospel references, we read most of the gospel with only a vague sense of its time with only a vague sense of its time setting.setting.

Almost one-third of the book (chaps. Almost one-third of the book (chaps. 13-19) is devoted the last twenty-13-19) is devoted the last twenty-four hours of Jesus’ life.four hours of Jesus’ life.

The style is interesting; in John (but The style is interesting; in John (but not in the other gospels), Jesus not in the other gospels), Jesus speaks the way John writes.speaks the way John writes.


These and other features cause us to These and other features cause us to understand that the historical understand that the historical trustworthiness of the Gospels is not to be trustworthiness of the Gospels is not to be described in terms of modern historiography, described in terms of modern historiography, which stresses clear and strict chronological which stresses clear and strict chronological sequence, balanced selection of material, sequence, balanced selection of material, verbatim quotations, etc.verbatim quotations, etc.

Gospel writers select the events of Jesus’ life Gospel writers select the events of Jesus’ life and teachings, guided not by and teachings, guided not by comprehensiveness but by their purpose in comprehensiveness but by their purpose in writing.writing.

They arrange the material not always on the They arrange the material not always on the basis of sequential order but with a view to basis of sequential order but with a view to impress upon the readers certain specific impress upon the readers certain specific truths.truths.


If Matthew had given every detail If Matthew had given every detail moderns expect, with the exhaustive moderns expect, with the exhaustive precision necessary to answer all precision necessary to answer all potential problems, his narrative potential problems, his narrative would have been impossibly long and would have been impossibly long and the impact of his message would the impact of his message would have been swallowed by an have been swallowed by an information overload.information overload.


Some scholars, eager to demonstrate Some scholars, eager to demonstrate the historicity of Jesus and his work, the historicity of Jesus and his work, try to get “behind” the Gospels and try to get “behind” the Gospels and reach the authentic Jesus.reach the authentic Jesus.

That implies that what matters That implies that what matters is what Jesus “really” said as opposed is what Jesus “really” said as opposed to what the gospels report him as to what the gospels report him as saying.saying.

If Luke paraphrases one of If Luke paraphrases one of Jesus’ teachings, it is Luke’s account Jesus’ teachings, it is Luke’s account of those words—not the historian’s of those words—not the historian’s reconstruction of what Jesus “really” reconstruction of what Jesus “really” said—that is inspired.said—that is inspired.


Example: Differing accounts of the story Example: Differing accounts of the story of the rich young ruler by Matthew, of the rich young ruler by Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Kaiser/Silva, pp. 108-9)Mark, and Luke (Kaiser/Silva, pp. 108-9)

If we make all three Gospels say the If we make all three Gospels say the same thing, we may miss a very same thing, we may miss a very important point Matthew wants to get important point Matthew wants to get across.across.

Careful study may demonstrate that the Careful study may demonstrate that the changes Matthew introduced are not changes Matthew introduced are not intended to deceive, nor are they the intended to deceive, nor are they the result of careless error. Rather he is result of careless error. Rather he is interpreting under divine inspiration, the interpreting under divine inspiration, the significance of Jesus’ encounter with the significance of Jesus’ encounter with the rich young ruler.rich young ruler.


It is not an accident that God gave us It is not an accident that God gave us four four gospels, even though there is gospels, even though there is much overlap among them.much overlap among them.

The life and message of Jesus is so The life and message of Jesus is so rich that we need more than one rich that we need more than one perspective.perspective.

It is misguided to overlook the gospel It is misguided to overlook the gospel differences on the one hand or to try differences on the one hand or to try to minimize them on the other.to minimize them on the other.

We should rather focus on those We should rather focus on those distinctives and appreciate what distinctives and appreciate what each writer is try to tell us.each writer is try to tell us.


History or theology?History or theology? Is a false question. The gospel Is a false question. The gospel

writers are both historians and writers are both historians and theologians.theologians.

They recount the facts, but they They recount the facts, but they also interpret them so that we also interpret them so that we may believe.may believe.


ParablesParables– There are some obvious reasons by There are some obvious reasons by

Jesus might have chosen to use Jesus might have chosen to use parables.parables.

– They are simple and interesting, so They are simple and interesting, so that a general audience could that a general audience could follow easily.follow easily.

– They deal directly with the realities They deal directly with the realities of daily life so a reader can of daily life so a reader can “identify.”“identify.”

– They have a way of disarming They have a way of disarming those who would be offended by those who would be offended by their message (2 Sam. 12:1-10)their message (2 Sam. 12:1-10)


ParablesParables– QuestionsQuestions

If they are so simple, why has there If they are so simple, why has there been so much debate over them and been so much debate over them and such a vast body of scholarly literature such a vast body of scholarly literature written about them?written about them?

How can Jesus commend the dishonest How can Jesus commend the dishonest behavior of the crafty steward (Lk. 16-behavior of the crafty steward (Lk. 16-1-15)?1-15)?


ParablesParables– We need “hermeneutical skills” to We need “hermeneutical skills” to

understand the parables no less understand the parables no less than we need them for than we need them for appreciating other parts of appreciating other parts of Scripture.Scripture.

– In addition, Jesus’ use of parables In addition, Jesus’ use of parables reflects certain theological concern reflects certain theological concern that cannot be ignored.that cannot be ignored.


ParablesParables The theological Significance of the ParablesThe theological Significance of the Parables

– Responding to the disciples’ question Responding to the disciples’ question about the parable of the sower, Jesus about the parable of the sower, Jesus make a statement is one of the most make a statement is one of the most difficult in the Gospels: “The secret of difficult in the Gospels: “The secret of the kingdom of God has been give to the kingdom of God has been give to you. But to those on the outside you. But to those on the outside everything is said in parables ao that everything is said in parables ao that ‘they may be ever seeing but never ‘they may be ever seeing but never perceiving, and ever hearing but never perceiving, and ever hearing but never understanding; otherwise they might understanding; otherwise they might turn and be forgiven!’” (Mark 4:11-12, turn and be forgiven!’” (Mark 4:11-12, quoting Isa. 6:9-10).quoting Isa. 6:9-10).


ParablesParables The theological Significance of the The theological Significance of the

ParablesParables– He appears to be saying that his He appears to be saying that his

purpose for telling parables to purpose for telling parables to those who do not belong to his those who do not belong to his group of disciples was the same group of disciples was the same (retributive) purpose behind the (retributive) purpose behind the call of Isaiah—to harden their call of Isaiah—to harden their hearts in unbelief.hearts in unbelief.



ParablesParables– It appears to be incompatible with Jesus’ It appears to be incompatible with Jesus’

desire and mission to seek and save the lost.desire and mission to seek and save the lost.– One can’t imagine that Jesus would One can’t imagine that Jesus would

deliberately undermine his own preaching of deliberately undermine his own preaching of the gospel.the gospel.

– It is important to note that in God’s call to It is important to note that in God’s call to Isaiah, taking the words at face value would Isaiah, taking the words at face value would not imply that the whole of Isaiah’s ministry not imply that the whole of Isaiah’s ministry should be characterized in those terms.should be characterized in those terms.

– Similarly, one should not infer that the words Similarly, one should not infer that the words in Mark 4:11-12 describe the in Mark 4:11-12 describe the exclusive exclusive reason for Jesus’ use of parables.reason for Jesus’ use of parables.



ParablesParables– What was Jesus’ mission? While he was What was Jesus’ mission? While he was

a baby Simeon declared that the child a baby Simeon declared that the child was “destined to cause the falling and was “destined to cause the falling and rising of many in Israel” (Luke 2:34).rising of many in Israel” (Luke 2:34).

– In other words, Christ is both cornerstone In other words, Christ is both cornerstone and a rock of stumbling (Rom.9:32-33).and a rock of stumbling (Rom.9:32-33).

– In Mark 3 we are told that some In Mark 3 we are told that some Pharisees, enraged at Jesus’ healing on Pharisees, enraged at Jesus’ healing on the Sabbath, began to plot his death.the Sabbath, began to plot his death.



ParablesParables– In this context, we can see that the In this context, we can see that the

parables serve the purpose of parables serve the purpose of discriminating among those who heard discriminating among those who heard Jesus.Jesus.

– These stories do not “create sin” in the These stories do not “create sin” in the hearts of otherwise innocent people.hearts of otherwise innocent people.

– Rather, the parables, when address to Rather, the parables, when address to those who have set themselves against those who have set themselves against the Lord, become instruments of the Lord, become instruments of judgment.judgment.


ParablesParables Any attempt to interpret the parables Any attempt to interpret the parables

without into account this (the above) factor without into account this (the above) factor will fail to do justice to Jesus’ teaching.will fail to do justice to Jesus’ teaching.

There is another theological point to be There is another theological point to be made with regard to Jesus’ use of parables.made with regard to Jesus’ use of parables.

According to Matt. 13:35, this method of According to Matt. 13:35, this method of teaching was a fulfillment of prophecy.teaching was a fulfillment of prophecy.

““I will open my mouth in parables, I will I will open my mouth in parables, I will utter things hidden since the creation of the utter things hidden since the creation of the world” (Psalm 78:2).world” (Psalm 78:2).


ParablesParables

The main point seems to be that The main point seems to be that Jesus’ parables fulfill God’s Jesus’ parables fulfill God’s eternal plan to reveal his truth to eternal plan to reveal his truth to his people.his people.

Secondarily, these words suggest Secondarily, these words suggest a close relationship between a close relationship between creation and redemption; God’s creation and redemption; God’s truths are, as it were, “built into” truths are, as it were, “built into” the created order.the created order.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the The Historical Setting of the

ParablesParables The parables must be understood The parables must be understood

historically, that is, by identifying historically, that is, by identifying the specific situation in which the specific situation in which they were used.they were used.

For example, the parable of the For example, the parable of the prodigal son in Luke 15 has often prodigal son in Luke 15 has often been used evangelistically.been used evangelistically.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the The Historical Setting of the

ParablesParables Luke gives us the historical setting Luke gives us the historical setting

specifically: “But the Pharisees and the specifically: “But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law muttered, ‘This man teachers of the law muttered, ‘This man welcomes sinners and eats with them’”welcomes sinners and eats with them’”

(vv. 1-2).(vv. 1-2). Jesus proceed to tell three parables—the Jesus proceed to tell three parables—the

lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost (prodigal) son—to those who were (prodigal) son—to those who were complaining.complaining.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the ParablesThe Historical Setting of the Parables While the conversion of the Pharisees would While the conversion of the Pharisees would

naturally have been part of the aim in telling naturally have been part of the aim in telling the stories, it is clear that Jesus is using those the stories, it is clear that Jesus is using those stories primarily to rebuke them.stories primarily to rebuke them.

The finder of the sheep and of the coin The finder of the sheep and of the coin experienced great joy, yet the Pharisees experienced great joy, yet the Pharisees complain rather than rejoice when a sinner is complain rather than rejoice when a sinner is “found.”“found.”

The story of the lost son functions as a The story of the lost son functions as a powerful climax; the elder son represents the powerful climax; the elder son represents the grumbling Pharisees, who are unable to share grumbling Pharisees, who are unable to share in the joy of God and the angels in heaven.in the joy of God and the angels in heaven.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the ParablesThe Historical Setting of the Parables Attention to the historical setting also Attention to the historical setting also

includes sensitivity to the cultural includes sensitivity to the cultural background of the parables.background of the parables.

Inevitably, modern western readers Inevitably, modern western readers miss some of the nuances of the miss some of the nuances of the story.story.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the ParablesThe Historical Setting of the Parables ““Give me my share” in that setting likely Give me my share” in that setting likely

would have been interpreted as a wish for would have been interpreted as a wish for his father’s death; it would have caused a his father’s death; it would have caused a rift with the family and with the town.rift with the family and with the town.

Another detail is the fact that the elder Another detail is the fact that the elder brother would have been expected to do all brother would have been expected to do all he could to reconcile his brother to the he could to reconcile his brother to the father; not only does he not, he even father; not only does he not, he even accepts his own share of the inheritance.accepts his own share of the inheritance.


ParablesParables The Historical Setting of the ParablesThe Historical Setting of the Parables In the Middle East a mature man is In the Middle East a mature man is

expected always to walk slowly and with expected always to walk slowly and with dignity; in doing so the father humbles dignity; in doing so the father humbles himself and becomes a powerful picture of himself and becomes a powerful picture of God’s grace.God’s grace.

While the primary meaning of the parable While the primary meaning of the parable does not change on the basis of such does not change on the basis of such cultural details, they give us insight into the cultural details, they give us insight into the “overtones” of the story that add greatly to “overtones” of the story that add greatly to our understanding of Jesus’ teaching.our understanding of Jesus’ teaching.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables Biblical writers present historical Biblical writers present historical

events from a particular angle; in doing events from a particular angle; in doing so, they interpret the events for us.so, they interpret the events for us.

We should be interested not only in We should be interested not only in their function during the ministry of their function during the ministry of Jesus but also in the way they are used Jesus but also in the way they are used by the gospel writers.by the gospel writers.

Under divine inspiration they bring to Under divine inspiration they bring to bear the teaching of Jesus on the later bear the teaching of Jesus on the later situation in the churches.situation in the churches.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables A careful study of this feature sheds light A careful study of this feature sheds light

on how we may use the parables as well.on how we may use the parables as well. Matthew in particular arranged his material Matthew in particular arranged his material

in a thematic way and seems to make a in a thematic way and seems to make a special effort to apply the words of Jesus to special effort to apply the words of Jesus to the churches to which he is writing.the churches to which he is writing.

It is evident that Matthew is concerned It is evident that Matthew is concerned about the lack of genuine commitment about the lack of genuine commitment among some Christian groups, and so the among some Christian groups, and so the theme of true verse false discipleship theme of true verse false discipleship becomes a major emphasis in the gospel.becomes a major emphasis in the gospel.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables Matthew relates the parable of the Matthew relates the parable of the

laborers in the vineyard (20:1-16).laborers in the vineyard (20:1-16). This story too is a weapon by which This story too is a weapon by which

Jesus rebukes his opponents from Jesus rebukes his opponents from complaining about God’s grace to complaining about God’s grace to sinners.sinners.

This parable then strongly resembles This parable then strongly resembles the main point of the parable of the the main point of the parable of the prodigal son.prodigal son.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables Matthew, however, applies it to the church Matthew, however, applies it to the church

by the way he places the story in the by the way he places the story in the context of the gospel as a whole.context of the gospel as a whole.

At the end of chap. 19 he had related the At the end of chap. 19 he had related the incident of the rich young ruler.incident of the rich young ruler.

After Jesus’ comments at the end of the After Jesus’ comments at the end of the incident, Peter expressed his commitment incident, Peter expressed his commitment to discipleship and Jesus responded that to discipleship and Jesus responded that true disciples will receive many blessings true disciples will receive many blessings and inherit eternal life.and inherit eternal life.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables He then ended with the saying, “But He then ended with the saying, “But

many who are first will be last, and many who are first will be last, and many who are last will be first” (v. many who are last will be first” (v. 30).30).

By placing the parable of the laborers By placing the parable of the laborers immediately after that incident and immediately after that incident and repeating the saying of 19:30 at the repeating the saying of 19:30 at the end of the parable, Matthew appears end of the parable, Matthew appears to be teaching the church lessons on to be teaching the church lessons on grace and discipleship.grace and discipleship.


ParablesParables The Literary Context of the ParablesThe Literary Context of the Parables In summary, a careful study of the In summary, a careful study of the

parables involves not only seeing parables involves not only seeing them in the historical context of them in the historical context of Jesus’ ministry but also Jesus’ ministry but also understanding how they function in understanding how they function in the narrative of each gospel.the narrative of each gospel.

The writers were not journalists who The writers were not journalists who avoided interpreting the facts, but avoided interpreting the facts, but preachers whose own presentation of preachers whose own presentation of Jesus’ work is an essential key in our Jesus’ work is an essential key in our appreciation of the biblical text.appreciation of the biblical text.


ParablesParables He Taught Them with AuthorityHe Taught Them with Authority The use of parables, while the most The use of parables, while the most

distinctive feature in Jesus’ method of distinctive feature in Jesus’ method of teaching, was hardly the only one.teaching, was hardly the only one.

One of the most striking descriptions One of the most striking descriptions of Jesus’ ministry was the comment of Jesus’ ministry was the comment that “the people were amazed at his that “the people were amazed at his teaching, because he taught them as teaching, because he taught them as one who had authority, not as the one who had authority, not as the teachers of the law” (Mark 1:22; cf. teachers of the law” (Mark 1:22; cf. Matt. 7:28-29).Matt. 7:28-29).

For most this verse seems to speak For most this verse seems to speak about the power of Jesus’ divine about the power of Jesus’ divine personality.personality.


ParablesParables He Taught Them with AuthorityHe Taught Them with Authority But it is important to note that Mark But it is important to note that Mark

in speaking of Jesus’ authority, in speaking of Jesus’ authority, contrasts Jesus’ teaching with that of contrasts Jesus’ teaching with that of “the teachers of the law.”“the teachers of the law.”

Much of rabbinic teaching consisted Much of rabbinic teaching consisted of setting against each other the of setting against each other the opinion of leading sages, sometimes opinion of leading sages, sometimes without clear resolution.without clear resolution.

Not only Jesus’ teaching style, Not only Jesus’ teaching style, however, but the very substance of however, but the very substance of his message was different.his message was different.


ParablesParables He Taught Them with AuthorityHe Taught Them with Authority A basic feature of rabbinic thought is A basic feature of rabbinic thought is

the emphasis on the twofold Torah: the emphasis on the twofold Torah: the written law (the Hebrew Bible, the written law (the Hebrew Bible, especially the five books of Moses) especially the five books of Moses) and the oral law (the traditions of the and the oral law (the traditions of the elders).elders).

The oral law could be viewed to some The oral law could be viewed to some extent as an interpretation and extent as an interpretation and application of the written law, yet application of the written law, yet much of it consisted of debates much of it consisted of debates dealing with technical legal questions, dealing with technical legal questions, which led to the development of new which led to the development of new regulations.regulations.


ParablesParables He Taught Them with AuthorityHe Taught Them with Authority Ironically, many of these regulations had Ironically, many of these regulations had

the effect of blunting the force of the the effect of blunting the force of the biblical commandments.biblical commandments.

In the opinion of some scholars, Matt. 5 In the opinion of some scholars, Matt. 5 presents Jesus as a new Moses who, from a presents Jesus as a new Moses who, from a mountain, delivers the law of the kingdom mountain, delivers the law of the kingdom to his people. Even the beatitudes that to his people. Even the beatitudes that introduce this passage arouse our introduce this passage arouse our expectations about the newness of Jesus’ expectations about the newness of Jesus’ work.work.

Truly Jesus “taught them as one who had Truly Jesus “taught them as one who had authority, not as the teachers of the law”!authority, not as the teachers of the law”!

biblical interpretation bi 5301. who needs hermeneutics? definition: the discipline that deals with...

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