biblical winter 2019-20 · 95 jude: the man and the early church by john polhill december 1 //...

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volume 46 number 2 winter 2019-20

POTTERY AS ABIBLICAL MOTIF

Wearing the Word

Rise of Persia inBiblical History

CURIOSITY GIVES EVI-dence of a hungry mind, don’t you think? Curiosity led

Johannes Gutenberg to look for a bet-ter way to print books. In 1454, he developed a printing press with mov-able type. Thomas Savery, an English engineer, wanted to harness the power of steam under pressure. In 1698, he pat-ented the steam engine, which helped fuel the industrial revolution. For over a decade, Benjamin Franklin had an inter-est in electricity. So in 1752 he flew a kite during a thunderstorm. Fueled by curiosity, these men, with their inventions and discover-ies, helped make the world a better place.

Born in 1802 in Turin, Italy, but raised in France, Paul-Emile Botta had planned to follow in his father’s footsteps and become a doctor. His father, Carl Botta, though, had another interest—a passion for history. Evidently this passion was contagious. As a young man, Paul-Emile decided against pursuing medicine and became intent on finding what he called “the lost cities of Assyria,” locations mentioned only in Scripture and a few ancient texts. Specifically, he wanted to find Nineveh.

Botta began digging at Kuyunjik, a village near the Tigris in present-day Iraq. The dig seasons were disappointing. One of the workers, though, told that he had found an ancient carving of a horse and rider when doing some digging at his house in a nearby village. Botta moved his team. Almost immediately, the workers began to unearth massive artifacts and ruins. Botta sent home a three-word cable: “Nineveh is found.” Unable to read cuneiform, though, Botta did not realize he was not at Nineveh. Instead, he was excavating the eighth-century palace of King Sargon II at Khorsabad, one of the captial cities of ancient Assyria. Artifacts from Khorsabad were eventually shipped to the Louvre and the British Museum, where they remain still on display.

What if Botta had not been curious? What if he hadn’t had that sense of adventure? I believe Biblical Illustrator readers want to know more, to dig deeper, to satisfy their thirst for biblical knowl-edge. Our hope is that the articles in Biblical Illustrator help satisify your curiosity and will help strengthen your faith.

Interestingly, if Botta had continued excavations at Kuyunjik, he would have discovered Ninenveh. The ruins were just a few feet below where Botta had ceased his work.

Happy digging!

About the Cover: Greek amphoriskos (small oil jar) dating from 600–575 BC; Corinthian ware. For much of the 7th and 6th centuries, Corinth was the world’s leading pro-ducer and exporter of Greek pottery. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB HOWELL/ ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO (65/4641)

G. B. Howell, Jr.Content Editor

Dwayne McCraryTeam Leader

Ken BraddyDirector, Adult Ongoing Curriculum

Michael KelleyDirector, Group Ministry

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Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay Christian Resources, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234. © 2019 LifeWay Christian Resources. For ordering or inquiries visit lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Resources Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax 615.251.5933, email [email protected], or write to the above address. Annual individual or gift subscription, $29.00. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.75 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessions in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible curriculum series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked CSB® are taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, Copy-right 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Scripture quotations marked (ESV®) are from the English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lock-man Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New International Ver-sion®, NIV®. Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New In-ternational Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.®

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Archived Biblical Illustrator articles can help as you prepare for January Bible Study. For a list of useful titles, go to lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator.

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On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 9.5 camels.

A Handbook on the Jewish Roots of the Christian Faith; Craig A. Evans and David Mishkin, eds; Hendrickson; 2019; 354 pages; softback; ISBN 978-1-68307-164-8.

Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recommend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doc-trinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within LifeWay’s doctrinal guidelines. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.

MANY CHRISTIANS recognize that Jesus was Jewish. But, how does

Jesus’ Jewishness impact believ-ers’ understanding of the Bible and the Christian faith? In order to address this question, Craig Evans (Houston Baptist University) and David Mishkin (Israel College of the Bible) have gathered fifty-two essays from twenty-four authors into a concise primer on the Jewish roots of the Christian faith. Knowledge of the Old Testament roots of Christianity can greatly enhance the believer’s faith and trust in the gospel. Jesus Himself explained how the Old Testament foretold His death, burial, and res-urrection (Luke 24:25-27,44-49).

Craig and Mishkin organized the book in four parts, using the imagery of a tree. First, “the soil” recognizes the importance of the Old Testament, the Bible of Jesus. Topics addressed in this section include Old Testament teach-ings on Israel, the nations, mes-sianic prophecies, festivals, and the temple. The second section, “the roots,” concentrates on Jesus’ Jewishness, primarily His world, His life, and His teachings. The

third part, “the trunk,” examines the Jewishness of the disciples and Paul, together with the Jewish mes-sage of resurrection. The final part, “the branches,” describes the sepa-ration of Judaism and Christianity in the Early Church period and in the Middle Ages. An impor-tant part of this last section offers hope for a mending of the ways, specifically in the interaction of Jewish and Arab believers in Jesus in modern Israel.

The book is written on a schol-arly level, but it does make acces-sible several relevant topics that will be useful for a pastor and gen-eral students in Bible study groups. The many excellent articles in the book make it difficult to single out one or two as being the best. In continuing the tree imagery of the work, my hope is that the impact of the topics in Evans and Mishkin’s book would cause the gospel wit-ness of the individual Christian, and the church, to flourish like a majestic cedar (Ps. 92:12)! I

Stephen J. Andrews is professor of Hebrew and Old Testament at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Kansas City, Missouri.

Contents

6 13

W I N T E R 2 0 1 9 - 2 0 V O L U M E 4 6 N U M B E R 2

DEPARTMENTS

2 BI Lines

3 BI the Book: A Handbook on the Jewish Roots of the Christian Faith by Craig A. Evans and David Mishkin Book review by Stephen J. Andrews

InSites (between pages 66-67) Time Line of the Latter Prophets Israel’s Natural Regions

98 Issues Gone BI

BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE

95 Jude: The Man and the Early Church by John Polhill December 1 // Session 1

17 God of the Heavens by Francis X. Kimmitt December 8 // Session 2

53 Paul at Caesarea Maritima by Roy E. Lucas, Jr. January 5 // Session 6

42 Fasting in the Old Testament Era by Janice Meier January 19 // Session 2

28 When Job Finally Repented by Christopher John Bass February 2 // Session 4

75 The Early Church’s Use of Isaiah 53 by Robert A. Weathers February 9 // Session 5

36 QuickBites: Good Grief: Mourning in the Bible February 23 // Session 7

6 Pottery as a Biblical Motif by Timothy T. Faber February 23 // Session 7

EXPLORE THE BIBLE

32 The Book of Numbers: An Overview by John L. Harris December 1 // Session 1

60 The Wilderness: The Place of Israel’s Testing by Todd Borger December 8 // Session 2

58 QuickBites: The Wise Men December 22 // Session 4

4 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2019-20

SEE RELATED BIBLE STUDY RESOURCES: www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible • www.GospelProject.com

75 45

86 Balaam: All We Know by Ken Cox December 29 // Session 5

79 Eleazar: High Priest of Israel by Tom Goodman January 5 // Session 6

49 Cities of Refuge: A Haven for the Innocent by W. Wayne VanHorn January 19 // Session 8

67 But Why THIS Land? by T. J. Betts January 26 // Session 9

InSites: Israel’s Natural Regions January 26 // Session 9

45 Wearing the Word by Jeff S. Anderson February 2 // Session 10

21 Moses’ Final Appeal: Honor the Covenant by R. Kelvin Moore February 16 // Session 12

THE GOSPEL PROJECT

24 Deportation as a Military Tactic by E. LeBron Matthews December 1 // Session 1

InSites: Time Line of the Latter Prophets Entire Quarter

90 Rise of Persia in Biblical History by Joseph R. Cathey December 15 // Session 3

72 Dreams: Fakes or Revealed Truth? by Leon Hyatt, Jr. December 29 // Session 4

13 What Happened to the Edomites? by Dorman Laird January 5 // Session 5

63 Judah in the Days of Haggai by Robert D. Bergen January 19 // Session 7

82 Zechariah: Prophet for His Time by Robert C. Dunston January 26 // Session 8

38 Nehemiah: Inspecting Jerusalem’s Walls by David M. Wallace February 9 // Session 10

10 Malachi’s Life and Times by E. Ray Clendenen February 23 // Session 12

LIFEWAY.COM/BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 5

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BSFL: Second Corinthians 4:7-18

Storage jars from Timnah (Tel Batash).


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he wrote, “We have this treasure in earthen vessels” (2 Cor. 4:7),2 Paul

was highlighting the treasure, not the believ-ers who possessed the treasure. In fact, the gospel, or as Paul described it, “the dying of Jesus” and “the life of Jesus” (v. 10) is made more glorious by the fact that it is embod-ied in the earthly vessels of flesh. Like Paul, each believer should understand himself or herself “to be a vessel that contains and conveys a message.”3 The value a Christ fol-lower has is due in part to the message he or she possesses.

Corinth was destroyed by the Romans in 146 bc. Julius Caesar rebuilt and colonized Corinth in 44 bc primarily with a motley crew of former slaves from every ethnic-ity and nationality. These “freedmen” were obsessed with honor and recognition. Against this backdrop, Paul careful-ly articulated the glory of the gospel and the humble state of humanity. He followed John the Baptist’s motto: “He [Christ] must increase, but I must decrease” (John 3:30) rather than the Corinthian ideal of exalting oneself. To this end Paul drew from Jeremiah who clearly explained that God is greater than man or any nation of men.4

The availability, and versatility of clay, or earthenware, resulted in it being so much a part of everyday life in the ancient world that—much like plastic in today’s world—it had little significance in itself. It was the means to an end,

IF PAUL WERE WRITING TO THE Corinthians today he might say, “We have this treasure in margarine tubs.” Doing so would con-trast the tubs’ expendable and inferior nature and the treasure’s incomparable value. Because he lived

in a world without plastic, though, Paul expressed the truth using a metaphor to which the ancient Corinthians could relate—earthen vessels (2 Cor. 4:7). Paul explained to the people of Corinth that believers hold the treasure of the gospel in our flawed bodies, which he likened to pottery. Paul’s mentioning earthen vessels, or pottery, was something everyone in ancient times would have understood. Because pottery was such a per-vasive part of life, other bibli-cal writers such as Job, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and John also used it as a motif to convey their messages.

AvailableAs a readily available resource, clay was inexpensive; as a raw resource, it was free. Even a child could pick up some clay and make a simple item of some sort. Clay, a pliable material, can be formed into nearly any shape the mind can imagine. As early as 4000 bc, and perhaps earlier, people were using clay for basic pottery. Over the years people used clay for making bricks, jewelry, lamps, and molds for casting metal. They used it for making figurines, idols, and cylinder seals; they also formed it into tablets on which they wrote memorials, legal documents, and receipts. Thus value was added to the clay by the intentional work of the hand.

VersatileWriting to Christians in Rome, Paul highlighted the con-cept of value being added. He explained that the potter is superior to and has total sovereignty over the vessels he makes and that some of the vessels are made for honorable uses and some for dishonorable (Rom. 9:20b-21). The value is not in the clay but in the purpose for which the worker molded it. Paul’s analogy likely reminded the reader of God creating man from the dust of the ground and of man returning to dust at death, because of sin. Indeed man was just dust (not even a “lump” of clay) until God formed him and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.1

In biblical times, the value of an earthen vessel was determined both by what it was and what it held. This was the point Paul was making to the Corinthians. When

Left: In 2008,

excavators at Shaaraim (Khirbet Qeiyafa) found an ostracon, which is a piece of pottery inscribed with ink. This inscrip-tion is possibly the earliest evi-

dence of Hebrew writing ever found. The text urges care be shown to the poor, widows, and orphans, similar to appeals found in the Bible.

Above: Potter’s wheels, stone, dating from the 14th cent. BC.


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (11/7/18)

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that You have made me as clay; and would You turn me into dust again?” (Job 10:8-9). Unlike Job, the people of Isaiah’s day were going to be shattered because of their sin:

Therefore thus says the Holy One of Israel, “Since you have rejected this word and have put your trust in oppres-sion and guile, and have relied on them, therefore this iniquity will be to you like a breach about to fall, a bulge in a high wall, whose collapse comes suddenly in an instant, whose collapse is like the smashing of a potter’s jar, so ruthlessly shattered that a sherd will not be found among its pieces to take fire from a hearth or to scoop water from a cistern.”

—Isaiah 30:12-14

Similarly, the Lord illustrated His ability to build up or destroy a nation. To convey His message, God instructed Jeremiah, “Arise and go down to the potter’s house, and

not an end in itself. Its value was in its ability to serve a greater purpose. The idea that broken pieces of pottery might one day be highly valued and placed in the finest museums would have seemed as absurd to them as plastic bags being considered priceless and placed in museums would seem to us today.

DurableThe versatility of pottery is matched by its durability. As a writing surface, it is more durable than other materials such a papyrus. A clay jug will protect its contents bet-ter than a woven sack. A brick home can withstand the weather better than a wooden one. Perhaps this durability was what Paul had in mind when he wrote about being afflicted, perplexed, persecuted, and struck down; but not crushed, despairing, forsaken, or destroyed (2 Cor. 4:8-9).

In spite of this durability, though, earthen vessels are also fragile. They may shatter when dropped or when rapidly experiencing extreme changes in temperature. Sometimes being fragile was a desired trait. A terra-cotta mold for instance, would be broken in order to release the metal object it held. Further, Old Testament law called for a defiled earthenware vessel or oven to be broken rather than washed. Wooden articles, clothing, skins, or sacks were to be washed; but desecrated earthenware pieces were to be shattered (Lev. 11:31-35).

Like pottery, people can be broken. During the time of Job’s testing, he wondered if God’s intent was to break him completely. He cried out, “Your hands fashioned and made me altogether, and would You destroy me? Remember now,

Above: Overlooking the ruins of ancient Corinth. The col-umns standing to the left were part of the Temple of Apollo, who was the Greek sun god and also the patron god of musicians and poets.

Right: Terra-cotta figurine depicting Aphrodite riding on a swan; dated to the 3rd. cent. BC; likely made in Cyprus.


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p u r i f i e s himself from

anything dishonor-able, he will be a spe-

cial instrument, set apart, useful to the Master, prepared for

every good work” (2 Tim. 2:21, csb). The earlier consideration of versatility focused on how the potter formed the clay. But here the vessel, meaning the believer, plays a significant role in its own usefulness as well—he “purifies himself from anything dishonorable.” The Greek word Paul used for “puri-fy” means “to clean out thoroughly, to completely purge.”6 Paul was remind-ing Timothy that for a vessel to be useful, it must be clean. He then gave examples of those things a believer must remove from his life: youth-ful lusts, foolish speculations, and a quarrelsome spirit (vv. 22-24).

Paul’s mentioning earthen vessels in his letters is in keeping with other biblical writers’ using pottery as a motif to represent our relationship with God. They each used a common object to teach profound theologi-cal truths that guide our lives still today. Our value, as God’s vessels, comes from the hand of the potter. Ultimately, He molds us into that which is available, durable, and versatile—so that we might be “useful to the Master, prepared for every good work” (v. 21). I

1. Gen. 2:7; 3:19.2. Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from the New American

Standard Bible (NASB)3. David E. Garland, 2 Corinthians, vol. 29, The New American Commentary (Nashville:

Broadman and Holman, 1999), 220.4. See Jer. 18.5. R. E. Clements, Jeremiah: Interpretation (Louisville: Westminster John Knox,

2017), 113.6. John MacArthur, Jr., 2 Timothy: The MacArthur New Testament Commentary

(Chicago: Moody, 1995), 88.

Timothy T. Faber is assistant professor of religion at Liberty University, Online, and the director of missions for the Lake of the Ozarks Baptist Association in central Missouri.

there I will announce My words to you” (Jer. 18:2). Once there, Jeremiah observed a man at a potter’s wheel. When the potter saw the piece he was making was flawed, he began reworking the original clay. God’s message was clear, “Can I not, O house of Israel, deal with you as this potter does? . . . Behold, like the clay in the potter’s hand, so are you in My hand, O house of Israel” (v. 6). The lesson is that the Lord will bring people and nations to a point of brokenness when they become defiled.

UsefulThere is hope, though, for the defiled. Concerning the mes-sage to Jeremiah of God reworking the impure clay into another vessel, “We may discern in this feature of the anal-ogy a positive message of hope indicating that God could begin to fashion his people Israel anew.”5

Using the analogy of a large house to picture the church, Paul wrote to Timothy and spoke of it containing vessels made of gold, silver, wood, and clay. He indicated that the vessels made of wood and clay were dishonorable or impure. Paul, though, gave hope for such a vessel, “So if anyone

Above: Mud brick stamped with the cartouche of Ramesses II; from Thebes. Mud bricks were used for the walls and storerooms sur-rounding Egyptian temples. Some were stamped with the name of the king respon-sible for the con-struction.

Left: Restoration specialist working in the archaeo-logical museum in Corinth is piecing together pottery fragments.


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This is also the case with Obadiah, about whom nothing is known but his name, which means “servant of Yahweh.” Habakkuk’s identity is also a mystery; we know only that he lived during the time of the Chaldeans.

Jewish tradition is split between those who affirmed “Malachi” as the prophet’s name and those who con-sidered it another name for Ezra. We might ask, however, if Ezra wrote

THE PROPHET MALACHI spoke to the hearts of a troubled people whose circumstances of insecurity, skepticism, and disappointments are similar to

those God’s people often face today. The book contains a message that must not be overlooked by those who wish to encounter the Lord and His kingdom and to lead others to a similar encounter. Malachi offers to discour-aged, disenchanted, and even bitter people the hope of faith that can only be in a God who hears and has acted on our behalf and will act for us when He comes for us “with healing in his wings.” He came once in Jesus Christ; believers look forward to His coming again.

His IdentitySome scholars believe the Book of Malachi is anonymous, that the term Malaki is just a title or pseudonym. They base this partly on the unusual nature of the name “Malachi,” which

means “My messenger” (Hebrew malak can mean “messenger” or “angel”), which occurs with that meaning in Malachi 3:1. Why would parents name their son, “My mes-senger”? It may have been a short-ened form of Malachiah, “messenger of Yahweh.” Similarly, the prophet Micah’s name is a shortened form of either Mikael (Michael), “who is like God?” or Mikayahu, “who is like Yahweh?” (1 Kings 22:8).

The Book of Malachi gives no iden-tifying information about its writer.

B Y E . R A Y

C L E N D E N E N

TGP: Book of Malachi

Right: Persian coin, the gold Daric, dated to 450 BC. “Daric” comes from “dara,” which means, “king.” Darius introduced this coin during his reign. The Daric is one of the few coins the Old Testament men-tions. Taxation was oppressive

to those under Persian rule.

Right: Angel fig-ure from the ruins of the Roman city of Hieropolis in modern Turkey.

“But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings.”M A L A C H I 4 : 2 , C S B


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in the reign of Darius I (521–486 bc) or Xerxes (486-465 bc).

His SituationOther Persian-appointed gov-ernors were probably in charge between Zerubbabel and Nehemiah.6 Nehemiah responded with anger to the merciless exploitation of the poor by the Jewish “nobles and officials” (Neh. 5:6-7). He and his “associates” had not eaten “the food allotted to the governor,” although “the gover-nors who preceded me had heavily burdened the people, taking from them food and wine as well as a pound of sil-ver. Their subordinates also oppressed the people” (vv. 14-15, csb). During the time between Darius’s death and

Nabonidus in 551 bc;2 (3) existence of a temple (1:6-14; 2:3-4,11; 3:3,8-10), rebuilt in 515 bc; (4) the term pechah, “governor” (1:8), which had politi-cal connotations only in the postex-ilic period;3 (5) parallels between issues Malachi faced and those of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 5; 12–13), who arrived in Judah in 458 and 445 bc; (6) Malachi’s lack of concern for the Sabbath, suggesting a time significantly ear-lier than Nehemiah (Neh. 9:14; 10:31; 13:15-22);4 (7) linguistic typology dat-ing Malachi between 515 and 475 bc;5

and (8) Malachi’s context of financial insecurity, religious skepticism, and apathy, indicating a significant time after 515 bc. Thus, Malachi would fit

the book, why would he hide his name from such a book of prophecy? The reference to “my messenger” in Malachi 3:1 may be a play on the prophet’s name, as “Who is a God like you?” is on the prophet Micah’s name (Mic. 7:18). The discovery of a jar handle in Arad, dating from the late monarchy, with the name Malachi on it shows that Malachi was actually a Hebrew name.1

His EraAlthough missing any direct histori-cal references, Malachi contains some chronological clues: (1) Malachi’s placement with other postexilic books; (2) reference to a devastated Edom (1:3-4), which fell to Babylonian King

Left: A bronze leg that was part of a throne found near Samaria; dates to 6th–4th centuries BC. The legs, which are fashioned to represent a lion’s paws, resemble ones found on the royal thrones of the kings of Persia. They may have

belonged to the throne of the gov-ernor of Samaria. Malachi 1:8 speaks of a pechah, trans-lated “governor,” a term that had sig-nificance only dur-ing the post-exilic period.

Below: Partial remains of the Royal

Palace at Persepolis, which is located in present-day Iran. In the foreground is the Gate of All Nations; in the background is the Apandana Palace. Darius began con-struction on the palace at Persepolis about 518 BC; con-struction, though,

took more than a century. The Gate of All Nations was actually a grand hall measuring over 80 feet long. Once he came to the throne, Xerxes had his name carved on all of the main entrances to the hall. The palace complex included a

military headquar-ters, housing for the royal family and visiting dignitaries, reception halls, and stables. Alexander the Great destroyed the city in about 331 BC. Malachi’s ministry likely occurred during the reign of either Darius or Xerxes.


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Judean Archive,” Qedem: Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology 4 (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1976), 5–7, 11–13, 30–36; Carol L. Meyers and Eric M. Meyers, Haggai, Zechariah 1–8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987), 12–15.

7. Ephraim Stern, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, Volume 2: The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods (732–332 B.C.E.) (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 356.

8. Herodotus, Histories 3.89–95.9. See Jacob M. Meyers, Ezra, Nehemiah, vol. 14,

Anchor Bible Commentaries (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965), 34, 150; Rainer Kessler, The Social History of Ancient Israel: An Introduction (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008), 140.

10. Richard N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran (München, Germany: C.H. Beck’she, 1984), 129; Edwin M. Yamauchi, “Two Reformers Compared: Solon of Athens and Nehemiah of Jerusalem,” in The Bible World, ed. Gary A. Rendsburg et al. (New York: Ktav, 1980), 270.

11. Fox, A Message from the Great King, 20.

E. Ray Clendenen is senior edi-tor of Bible and reference publish-ing at LifeWay Christian Resources, Nashville, Tennessee.

the spiritual and moral apathy that Malachi addressed.

His MessageMost of the people had lost faith, including the priests, who were just going through the motions, thus contributing to the people’s indifference to God. The people felt the Lord had not been faith-ful to care for His people, so they were selfishly taking care of them-selves with no sense of responsibility or regard for one another (Mal. 3:14).

God used Malachi to remind them first of God’s faithful love (1:2-5; 3:6). The rest of his message stresses God’s loving and holy character, His unchanging and glorious purposes for his people, and their responsibilities to Him and to each other. I

1. Richard S. Hess, The Old Testament: A Historical, Theological, and Critical Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 702.

2. Bradley L. Crowell, “Nabonidus, As-Sila‘, and the Beginning of the End of Edom,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 348 (Nov., 2007): 75–88.

3. Andrew E. Hill, Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 78.

4. R. Michael Fox, A Message from the Great King: Reading Malachi in Light of Ancient Persian Royal Messenger Texts from the Time of Xerxes (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015), 17.

5. Hill, Malachi, 82–83.6. Nahman Avigad, “Bullae and Seals from a Post-exilic

Nehemiah’s governorship, the people of Judah lacked strong leadership and thus failed to obey national and religious laws.7

Persia turned out to be as oppressive an overlord as any the Jews had faced. In addition to enemy opposition and crop failure (Mal. 3:11), the people of Judah were under severe financial strain due to Persian taxation. Herodotus lists the annual taxes due from each of Darius’s twenty satrapies at an astounding 14,560 talents of silver, or around 400–500 tons.8 Ezra 4:13 mentions three different kinds of taxes people were paying in the time of Artaxerxes I (464-424 bc).9 The impoverished peo-ple had to go in debt to buy food and also “to pay the king’s tax on our fields and vineyards” (Neh. 5:3-4, csb; see Ezra 6:8). Interest rates on loans went from about twenty percent in the time of Cyrus to forty or fifty percent by the end of the fifth century bc.10

After Darius’s death, the people of Judah and other provinces would surely have been severely disheartened at the speed and ease with which his son Xerxes put down revolts, reestablished control, and clamped down on his empire.11 This could partially explain

Left: Modern Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice; shown is the slaughter pit atop of Mount Gerizim. Malachi spoke of God’s people offering blemished and unacceptable sacrifices.

Below: The Stela of Nabonidus (ruled 556-539), who was the last ruler of the Neo-Babylonian

Empire. The prominent crescent moon in front of the king indicates his devotion to the moon god, Sin. Nabonidus became almost monotheistic in his devotion to Sin, which meant excluding the other gods of the Babylonian pan-theon. Nabonidus annexed Edom as part of his king-dom in 551 BC.


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MOSES’ FINAL APPEALH o n o r t h e C o v e n a n t

B y R . K e l v i n M o o r e

ETB: Deuteronomy 30:1-10,19-20


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ITYword is also interspersed

throughout the Pentateuch (Genesis–Deuteronomy).5

MessageBeing a gifted preacher, Moses knew his hearers recognized and understood the covenant nomen-clature. He, therefore, spoke in the vernacular. Heightening the sig-nificance of the covenant concept, Deuteronomy 30:19-20 records the final words of Moses’ final sermon.

Recorded in verses 11-16, Moses revealed the Word of the Lord:

This command that I give you today is certainly not too difficult or beyond your reach . . . . the mes-sage is very near you . . . . I have set before you life and prosper-ity, death and adversity . . . . I am commanding you today to love the Lord your God, to walk in his ways, and to keep his commands, statutes, and ordinances, so that you may live.

—Deuteronomy 30:11,14,15,16

Unfortunately, history reveals the Hebrews failed woefully in their attempt to be faithful to the Lord’s demands as read in covenant(s). Moses knew this all too well and communicated the Word of God additionally:

But if your heart turns away and you do not listen and you are led astray to bow in worship to

his hearers of the covenant between them and God. The Hebrews defined their relationship to God through covenants.2 A covenant is defined as, “a pact, treaty, alli-ance, or agreement between two parties of equal or unequal author-ity.”3 Thus a covenant could be established between parties of equal authority such as kings or between parties where one had authority greater than the other—such as a king and a vassal.

Genesis 6:18 records the first use of the Hebrew word translated “covenant” in the Old Testament. God commanded Noah to con-struct an ark in order to escape the pending mass destruction from a flood. God promised to save Noah, his family, and “all the living creatures” (Gen. 6:19).4 But, what would this escape mean for Noah and the earth if God did not also promise the possibil-ity of a relationship with Him? God made Noah that promise in the form of a covenant: “I will

establish my covenant with you” (v. 18). In the aftermath of the flood, God prom-ised both His presence and that He would never

again destroy the earth by water (9:9-17). God com-

municated these promises, clearly, in the form of a covenant. Genesis 9:9-17 uses the word “cove-nant” seven times. This

THE BOOK OF Deuteronomy records three sermons Moses preached on the plains

of Moab.1 The book begins with the Israelites preparing to cross the Jordan River and conquer the prom-ised land. Prior to that monumental event, Moses, nearing the end of his life, preached these sermons to remind the Hebrews of God’s mighty acts and to encourage them to be faithful to Him. Doubtless, Moses understood, while the promised land offered the Hebrews freedom and opportunities, it also posed tremen-dous challenges, temptations, and even threats. Some of these threats, the Philistines and Baalism for examples, jeopardized their very existence. Deuteronomy 34 records Moses’ death and burial. Deuteronomy consti-tutes, in essence, Moses’ Last Will and Testament. What would be Moses’ final message and final appeal?

CovenantWithin these three ser-mons, Moses reminded

Overlooking the plains of Moab, facing west from atop Mount Nebo.

Above: This bronze and gold foil figure, likely El-the head of the Canaanite pantheon, dates to

the 14th–13th cen-turies BC and was discovered in Israel. The Canaanites believed that fig-ures such as this one could embody the essence and power of the god they represented.

As they were about to enter the land of Canaan, Moses warned God’s people not to be “led astray to bow in worship to other gods and serve them” (Deut. 30:17, CSB).

Left: Dated to the 15th–16th centuries BC, this Hittite cov-enant treaty was excavated at Bogazkoy, the cap-ital of the ancient Hittite Kingdom.


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ ISRAEL MUSEUM/ JERUSALEM (139/B/2317)

a foundational work on understanding covenants see George E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Pittsburg: Presbyterian Board of Colportage of Western Pennsylvania, 1955).

3. Trent C. Butler, “Covenant,”in Holman Bible Dictionary (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 1991), 308.

4. All Scripture quotations are from the Christian Standard Bible (CSB).

5. Not an exhaustive list but see Gen. 15:18; 17:2,4,7,9,10,11,13,14,19,21; 31:44; Ex. 6:4; 19:5; 31:16; 34:10; Lev. 2:13; 24:8; 26:9; Num. 10:33; 14:44; 25:13; Deut. 4:13; 5:2; 8:18; 9:9; 17:2; 29:1,9,12,14,21,25; 31:9,16,20,25,26; 33:9.

6. For an additional reference to covenant witnesses see Deut. 4:26 and Isa. 1:2.

7. Dating approximately 1400–1200 BC and 850–650 BC respectively; see Butler, “Covenant,” 308.

R. Kelvin Moore is university pro-fessor in the School of Theology and Missions at Union University, Jackson, Tennessee.

What greater witnesses could God summon other than “heaven and earth”? Heaven constituted the limitless and earth constituted the tangible. Should the Hebrews fail in their covenant commit-ment to the Lord, they would be without excuse and condemned by undeniable witnesses.

God’s covenant did not end with the Old Testament period. Jeremiah prophesied of the coming of a new covenant (Jer. 31:31-34).

This covenant would be unlike “the covenant I made with their ancestors . . . I will put my teaching within them and write it on their hearts. I will be their God, and they will be my people” (Jer. 31:32,33). Christians have for centuries inter-preted Jesus as the source of this new covenant. Moses’ final sermon to the Hebrews resonates in the contemporary: choose life! I

1. See Deut. 1:5: “Across the Jordan in the land of Moab, Moses began to explain this law, saying . . .” (CSB). For the sermons, see chapters 1–4, first sermon; 5–28, second sermon; and 29–30, third sermon.

2. The Hebrews had related to God through covenants for hundreds of years by the time Moses preached. For

other gods and serve them, I tell you today that you will certainly perish and will not prolong your days in the land you are entering to possess across the Jordan.

—Deuteronomy 30:17-18

One can almost hear the preacher/pastor Moses imploring his hear-ers to “Choose life so that you and your descendants may live, love the Lord your God, obey him, and remain faithful to him. For he is your life” (vv. 19-20).

WitnessesAccountability can be a powerful motivation. Moses informed and warned the Hebrews that God would hold them accountable to this covenant relationship and punish them if they failed to live up to their agreement. In order to provide accountability, God pro-vided observers: “I call heaven and earth as witnesses against you today” (v. 19).6

Hebrew covenants did have parallels in the Old Testament world, especially in the Hittite and Assyrian Empires.7 A cove-nant party would choose a reliable witness who would not neglect or abandon their covenant responsi-bilities. In regards to witnesses in Deuteronomy 30, both the Hittites and Assyrians listed witnesses to their covenants, including their gods, heaven, earth, mountains, riv-ers, springs, seas, winds, and clouds.

Above: Synagogue mosaic from Khirbet Wadi Hamam, near the Sea of Galilee; dated 3rd–4th centuries AD. The scene depicts a battle between a giant and sol-diers armed with swords, shields, and lances. Some soldiers are wounded or dead. To the

right is a fleeing cavalryman. The scene is thought to depict Samson fighting either the Philistines or the Israelites. The Aramaic donor inscription reads: “...son of Shimona and...made this mosaic at their own expense.” The Philistines were a perennial threat to the Israelites.


biblical winter 2019-20 · 95 jude: the man and the early church by john polhill december 1 //...

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