Bibliography

Technical Papers, Conference Proceedings, andBooks Related to Use and Emissions of Sulfur

Hexafluoride (SF6) Gas

United States Environmental Protection AgencySF6 Emissions Reduction Partnership for Electric Power Systems

(August 2000)

(Please Note: This bibliography is provided as a service to partners andothers interested in these topics. It is not a complete bibliography of allreferences. Indeed, if you have other books, reports, or articles thatshould be added, please forward that information to the Eric Jay Dolinat dolin.eric@epa.gov, for inclusion in subsequent versions of thisbibliography)

Table of Contents:

SF6 Chemistry 3

SF6 in the Atmosphere and Global Climate Change 4

SF6 Emissions from Electric Power Systems 7

Documents Published by The Electric Power Research Institute(EPRI)

14

SF6 Emissions from Magnesium Processing (and other materialsprocessing uses)

15

SF6 Use In and Emissions from Semiconductor Manufacture 18

Use of SF6 as a Tracer Compound 20

Medical Uses of SF6 23

Measurement of SF6 25

3

SF6 ChemistryAuthor Unlisted. Sulfur Hexafluoride. Chemical Marketing Reporter. February 12,

1990. p. 30.

Air Products. SF6 - An Applications and Technical Manual. Air Products Gases andEquipment Group. 1997.

AlliedSignal. Technical Manual for Accu-Dri® Sulfur Hexafluoride. Allied SignalInc., Fluorine Specialists, 101 Columbia Turnpike, P.O. Box 1053, Morristown,NJ, 07962. 1996.

Bakwin, P.S., D.F. Hurst, P.P. Tans, and J.W. Elkins. Anthropogenic Sources ofHalocarbons, Sulfur Hexafluoride, Carbon Monoxide, and Methane in theSoutheastern United States. Journal of Geophysical Research; 102 (D13):15,915 - 15,925. July 20, 1997.

Fowler, P.W., et al. Polarisability and Dispersion Properties of SF6. ChemicalPhysics Letters; 203 (2 of 3): 189. February 19, 1993.

Harnisch, J. and A. Eisenhauer. Natural CF4 and SF6 on Earth. Geophysical ResearchLetters; 25 (13): 2,401. July 1, 1998.

Isakina, A.P., et al. Structure and Thermal Expansion of the Low-TemperaturePhase of SF6. Low Temperature Physics; 26 (4): 296. April 1, 2000.

Sullivan, D.M. Sulfur Hexafluoride: Classroom Uses for an Unusual Compound.Journal of Chemical Education; 70 (2): 100. February 1, 1993.

Tachikawa, H. The Ionization Dynamics of SF6: A Full Dimensional Direct Ab InitioDynamics Study. Journal of Physics b. Atomic, Molecular, Optics; 33 (9): 1725.May 14, 2000.

4

SF6 in the Atmosphere and Global Climate ChangeAuthor Unlisted. US Lags World in GIS Acceptance. Electrical World; 214 (2): 60.

March 1, 2000.

Author Unlisted. Industries Reducing Potent Greenhouse Gas Use. EnvironmentalScience and Technology; 32 (21): 478A. November 1, 1998.

Badr, O. (Dept. Applied Energy, Cranfield University, UK) and S.D. Probert.Atmospheric Sulfur: Trends, Sources, Sinks, and Environmental Impacts.Applied Energy; 47 (1): 1 - 67. 1994.

Betts, K.S. Worldwide Efforts Underway to Reduce SF6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions.Environmental Science and Technology; 32 (21): 487A - 488A. November 1,1998.

CIGRE 23.10, Task Force 01. SF6 and the Global Atmosphere. Electra; 164.February 1996.

Cook, E. Lifetime Commitments: Why Climate Policy-makers Can’t Afford toOverlook Fully Fluorinated Compounds. In World Resources Institute Issuesand Ideas. February 1995.

Crutzen, P.J. Global Budgets for Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases. EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment; 31 (½): 1. May 1, 1994.

de Jager, D., et al. Emission Reduction Potential and Costs for Non-CO2 GreenhouseGases in the EU-15. (Conference, publication, and date not reported.)

Dervos, C.T., and P. Vassiliou. Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6): Global EnvironmentalEffects and Toxic Byproduct Formation. Journal of the Air & WasteManagement Association; 50 (1): 137. January 1, 2000.

Geller, L.S., et al. (NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Lab, Boulder, CO)Tropospheric SF6: Observed Latitudinal Distribution and Trends, DerivedEmissions, and Interhemispheric Exchange Time. Geophysical ResearchLetters; 24 (6): 675 - 678. March 15, 1997.

Harnisch, J., et al. Regional Emission Scenarios for HFCs, PFCs, and SF6. Non-CO2Greenhouse Gases; Scientific Understanding, Control and Implementation; pp.231 - 238. 2000.

Ho, D.T., and P. Schlosser. Atmospheric SF6 Near a Large Urban Area. GeophysicalResearch Letters; 27 (11): 1679. June 1, 2000.

5

Huey, L.G., et al. Reactions of SF6- and I- with Atmospheric Trace Gases. TheJournal of Physical Chemistry; 99 (14): 5,001. April 6, 1995.

Ko, M.K.W., et al. Atmospheric Sulfur Hexafluoride: Sources, Sinks andGreenhouse Warming. J. Geophysical Research; 98 (D6):10,499 - 10,507.1993.

Kroeze, C. Fluorocarbons and Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6): A Methodology forNational Emission Inventories and Scenarios Applied to the Netherlands.Water, Air, and Soil Pollution; 107 (1 of 4): 197. October 1, 1998.

Maiss, M. and C.A.M. Brenninkmeijer. A Reversed Trend in Emissions of SF6 intothe Atmosphere? Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases; Scientific Understanding,Control and Implementation; pp. 199 - 204. 2000.

Maiss, M. and C.A.M. Brenninkmeijer. Atmospheric SF6, Trends, Sources, andProspects. Environmental Science and Technology; 32 (20): 3077. October 15,1998.

Maiss, M. and I. Levin. Global Increase of SF6 Observed in the Atmosphere.Geophysical Research Letters; 21 (7): 569 - 572. 1994.

Mahrenholz, P. Emission Reduction Potentials for HFCs, PFCs and SF6 in Germany.Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases: Scientific Understanding, Control andImplementation; pp. 561 - 565. 2000.

Niemeyer, L. and F.Y. Chu. SF6 and the Atmosphere. IEEE Transactions on ElectricalInsulation; 27 (1): 184 - 187. February 1, 1992.

Olivier, J.G.J. SF6 from Electrical Equipment and Other Uses. BackgroundDocument for the IPCC Workshop on Good Practice in Inventory Preparation:Industrial Processes and the New Gases. Washington, DC. January 26-28, 1999.

Patra, P.K., et al. Observed Vertical Profile of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) and itsAtmospheric Applications. Journal of Geophysical Research; 102 (D7): 8,855 -8859. April 20, 1997.

Pedersen, P.H. (Danish Technological Institute) Substitutes for Potent GreenhouseGases (HFCs, PFCs, and SF6) - Status Report. 1997.

Portnyagin, Y.I., et al. Experiments with SF6 Injection in the Polar Ionosphere.Advances in Space Research; 12 (12): 121. 1992.

Ramanathan, V., et al. Climate-Control Interactions and Effects of ChangingAtmospheric Trace Gases. Reviews of Geophysics; 25: 1441 - 1482. 1987.

6

Rayner-Canham, G., and A. Hewlin. SF6: the Most Potent Greenhouse Gas.Education in Chemistry; 37 (3): 69. May 1, 2000.

Ravishankara, A.R., et al. Atmospheric Lifetimes of Long-Lived HalogenatedSpecies. Science; 259: 194. January 8, 1993.

Rinsland, C.P., et al. ATMOS/ATLAS 1 Measurements of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)in the Lower Stratosphere and Upper Troposphere. Journal of GeophysicalResearch; 98 (D11): 20,491 - 20,494. November 20, 1993.

Rinsland, C.P., et al. Infrared Spectroscopic Detection of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)in the Lower Stratosphere and Upper Troposphere. Journal of GeophysicalResearch; 95 (5): 5,577. April 20, 1990.

Strunk, M., et al. CO2 and SF6 as Stratospheric Age Tracers; Consistency and theEffect of Mesopheric SF6 Loss. Geophysical Research Letters; 27 (3): 341.February 1, 2000.

Victor, D.G. and G.J. MacDonald. A Model for Estimating Future Emissions ofSulfur Hexafluoride and Perfluorocarbons. Interim Report of the InternationalInstitute for Applied Systems Analysis. July 1998.

Victor, D.G. and G.J. MacDonald. A Model for Estimating Future Emissions ofSulfur Hexafluoride and Perfluorocarbons. Climatic Change; 42 (4): 633.August 1, 1999.

Zahn, A., et al. Fate of Long-Lived Trace Species Near the Northern HemisphericTropopause: Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Ozone, and Sulfur Hexafluoride.Journal of Geophysical Research; 104 (11): 13,923. June 20, 1999.

Zander, R., et al. Infrared Spectroscopic Measurements of the Vertical ColumnAbundance of Sulfur Hexafluoride, SF6, from the Ground. Journal ofGeophysical Research; 90 (D8): 15,447 - 15,454. August 20, 1991.

7

SF6 Emissions from Electric Power SystemsAuthor Unlisted. Diagnosing the Health of SF6 Switchgear. Transmission

&Distribution World; 52 (1): 46. January 1, 2000.

Author Unlisted. City Networks Embrace SF6 in China. Transmission & DistributionWorld; 51 (13): 26. December 1, 1999.

Author Unlisted. How to Handle Greenhouse Gas. Transmission & DistributionWorld; 51 (9): 79. October 1, 1999.

Author Unlisted. Epoxy Coating Speeds SF6 Leak Repair. Transmission &Distribution World; 51 (3): 131. March 1, 1999.

Author Unlisted. Switchgear Bellows: Key to SF6 Containment. Electrical World; 211(4): 31. April 1, 1997.

Author Unlisted. Fast SF6 Moisture Tests: A Way to Reduce Emissions. ElectricalWorld; 211 (2): 31. February 1, 1997.

Author Unlisted. Environmental Concerns for SF6 in Switchgear Unfounded. EC &M (Electrical Construction & Maintenance); 96 (2): 58. February 1, 1997.

Author Unlisted. Greenhouse Gases: How Significant an Effect Will SF6 Have onGlobal Warming? Electrical Review; 229 (2). January 23, 1996.

Author Unlisted. Custom SF6 Switchgear Replaces Oil Breakers. Electrical World;209 (8): 47. August 1, 1995.

Author Unlisted. Smart Density Monitor Cuts SF6 Breaker Maintenance. ElectricalWorld; 208 (8): 46. August 1, 1994.

Author Unlisted. ‘Slower-is-Better’ When it Comes to SF6 Maintenance. ElectricalWorld; 207 (9): 50. September 1, 1993.

Author Unlisted. Special Report: Gas-Insulated Substations, Coming Soon to YourService Area. Electrical World; 207 (9): 28. September 3, 1993.

Author Unlisted. SF6 - The Environmental Choice. Australian, Asian, and PacificElectrical World; 58 (10): 32. October 1, 1993.

Author Unlisted. The Do’s and Don’t’s of SF6. Electrical World; 206 (10): 60.October 1, 1992.

Author Unlisted. Using SF6: Time for Global Guidelines. The Electrical Review; 225(3): 32. February 7, 1992.

8

Author Unlisted. Tutorial: The Impact of SF6 Upon Power Switchgear Technology:Part 2 Switch System Implications. Power Engineering Journal; 5 (2): 95.March 1, 1991.

Author Unlisted. Is SF6 the Answer for Current Transformer Safety? ElectricalWorld; 205 (1): 41. January 1, 1991.

Author Unlisted. SF6 Load-Break Switches Assure Underground Safety. ElectricalWorld. December 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. SF6 Breakers Undergo Design Revisions. Electrical World; 204 (9).September 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. Application Criteria for SF6 and Vacuum Circuit Breakers.Electrical Engineer; 67 (7): 26. July 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. The Growth of SF6 Technology in the HV Switchgear Market.Electrical Engineer; 67 (5): 52. May 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. Manifold Cuts Time to Evacuate SF6 Breakers. Electrical World;204 (4): 60. April 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. Overhead Distribution Equipment. Electrical World; 204 (3): 5.March 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. New Customer Protected by Vacuum Switches in SF6. ElectricalWorld; 204 (2): 40. February 1, 1990.

Author Unlisted. SF6 - Revolution in Switchgear. Electrical World; 203 (12): S-7.December 1, 1989.

Author Unlisted. Switchgear at All Voltages is Moving Away from Oil. ElectricalWorld; 203 (3): 22. March 1, 1989.

Al-Bawy, I. Insulator Flashover in SF6 Under Impulse Voltage Conditions. IEEEProceedings; 138 (1): 89. January 1, 1991.

Ali, A.S., et al. Effect of Dissolved SF6 on Performance of Paper-Oil CableInsulation. Soviet Electrical Engineering; 62 (3): 69. 1991.

Arakelyan, V.G. Standardization of SF6 Insulation in Electrical Equipment. RussianElectrical Engineering; 64 (12): 34. 1993.

Barrett, S.D. 1972. The A to Z of SF6. Electric Light and Power. December 1972.

9

Beachemin, R., et al. Hydro-Quebec’s Concerns Related to Performance of SF6Circuit Breakers. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery; 8 (3): 1,123. July 1,1993.

Binns, D.F. Optical Discharge Detection in SF6-Insulated Systems. IEEETransactions on Electrical Insulation; 25 (2): 405 - 414. April 1, 1990.

Boggs, S.A. Sulfur Hexafluoride: Introduction to the Material and Dielectric. IEEEElectrical Insulation Magazine; 5 (5). September 1, 1989.

Boggs, S.A., F.Y. Chu, and N. Fujimoto (eds.) Gas-Insulated Substations. PergamonPress, New York. 1986.

Boggs, S.A. and H.H. Schramm. Current Interruption and Switching in SulphurHexafluoride. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine; 6 (1): 12. January 1, 1990.

Brady, C.E. (Carolina Power & Light Company) Failure of the Roxboro SEP Unit 4Unit Circuit Breaker. Unedited preliminary paper 8M presented at the 66thAnnual International Conference of Doble Clients. April 12 - 16, 1999.

Christophorou, L.G. (ed.) Gaseous Dielectrics. Volumes I-V, Pergamon Press, NewYork, respectively, 1978, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1987; Volumes VI and VII, PlenumPress, New York, respectively, 1990 and 1994; Volume VIII, Kluwer Academic /Plenum Publishers, 1998.

Christophorou, L.G., J.K. Olthoff, and D.S. Green. NIST Technical Note 1425 - Gasesfor Electrical Insulation and Arc Interruption: Possible Present and FutureAlternatives to Pure SF6. U.S. Department of Commerce, TechnologyAdministration, National Institute of Standards and Technology; 44 pages.November 1997.

Christophorou, L.G., J.K. Olthoff, and R.J. Van Brunt. Sulfur Hexafluoride and theElectric Power Industry. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine; 13 (5): 20 -24.September/October 1997.

Christophorou, L.G. and R.J. Van Brunt. SF6 Insulation: Possible GreenhouseProblems and Solutions. NISTIR 5685. July 1995.

CIGRE 23.10, Task Force 01. SF6 Recycling Guide - Reuse of SF6 Gas in ElectricalPower Equipment and Final Disposal. Draft 08, April 1997.

Cookson, A.H. Gas-Insulated Cables. IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation; EL-20: 859 - 890. 1985.

10

Deissner, A., et al. Dielectric Properties of N2/SF6 Mixtures for Use in GIS or GIL.IEEE Conference Publication, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; 3(467): 67. 1999.

Dredouri, A., et al. Spark Decomposition of SF6 / H2O Mixtures. IEEE Transactionson Electrical Insulation; 24 (6): 1147. December 1, 1989.

Dolin, E.J. EPA’s New Opportunity for Industry: SF6 Emissions Reduction.Electrical World; 212 (9): 36 - 37. September 1998.

Dolin, E.J. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s SF6 Emissions ReductionPartnership for Electric Power Systems: An Opportunity for Industry.Presented at the 8th International Symposium on Gaseous Dielectrics. June 2-5,1998.

Dufournet, D. (GEC Alsthom T & D) Recent Evolution of High-Voltage SF6 CircuitBreakers. Proceedings of the IEE Colloquium on Physics of Power Interruption,London, UK. IEE Colloquium Digest No. 186. 1995.

Gill, K.E. (New York State Electric and Gas Corporation) Maintenance Experienceswith BBC, Type ELF SL 5-2, 362 KV Live-Tank Circuit Breakers. Uneditedpreliminary paper 4B presented at the 66th Annual International Conference ofDoble Clients. April 12 - 16, 1999.

Gleizes, A., et al. Calculation of Net Emission Coefficient in N2, SF6, and SF6-N2 ArcPlasmas. Journal of Physics; 24 (8): 1,300. August 14, 1991.

Griffin, G.D., et al. Spark Decomposition of SF6: Chemical and Biological Studies.IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery; 4 (3): 1541. July 1, 1989.

Habedank, U. and H. Knobloch. Procedure for the Optimization of SF6 CircuitBreakers. European Transactions on Electrical Power Engineering; 2 (5): 315.September 1, 1992.

Irwin, P. Stable Dielectric—Unstable Market. Electrical World. February 1997.

Irwin, P. More Bad News from EPA: SF6 is a Greenhouse Gas. Electrical World;209: 47 - 48. October 1995.

Isaac, L.T., et al. Optical Fibre-Based Investigations of Contact Travel, GasPressure, and Particle Concentration in SF6 Puffer Circuit Breakers. IEEEProceedings - Generation, Transmission, and Distribution; 146 (5): 453.September 1, 1999.

Ito, S. and Y. Miura. Large SF6 Transformers for Urban Japan. Modern PowerSystems; 12 (3): 37. March 1, 1992.

11

Ivey, A. and B. Baldwin. (Public Service Company of New Mexico) MaintenanceExperience with Brown Boveri 362 KV Type ELF SL5-2, Live Tank SF6Circuit Breakers. Unedited preliminary paper 4C presented at the 66th AnnualInternational Conference of Doble Clients. April 12 - 16, 1999.

James, D.R., et al. Investigation of S2F10. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine; 9 (3):29. May 1, 1993.

Kielmann, F., et al. SF6/N2 Mixtures for Explosion-Protected Motors. IEEEConference Publication, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; 3(467): 252. 1999.

Koch, H, and A. Schuette. Gas Insulated Transmission Lines for High PowerTransmission Over Long Distances. Electric Power Systems Research; 44 (1):69. January 1, 1998.

Koutsoubis, J.M., et al. Triggered Switch Performance in SF6, Air, and an SF6/AirMixture. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science; 27 (1): 272. February 1, 1999.

Kuritsyn, V.V., et al. Outlook for Use of SF6 Tank Circuit Breakers. Soviet ElectricalEngineering; 61 (10): 18. 1990.

Landry, M. Dielectric Withstand and Breaking Capacity of SF6 Circuit Breakers atLow Temperatures. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery; 3 (3): 1,029. July 1,1988.

Mardikyan, K. Breakdown Strength of Air, SF6, and a Mixture of Air Plus SF6Containing a Small Amount of SF6. European Transactions on ElectricalPower; 9 (5): 313. September 1, 1999.

Morgan, J.D. Impulse Breakdown of Covered Cylinders in SF6 and SF6-GasMixtures. IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation; 23 (3): 467. June 1,1988.

Morrison, H.D., et al. (Ontario Hydro Technologies). A Utility Perspective on SF6 GasManagement Issues. (Conference, publication, and date not reported.)

Morrow, R., and J.J. Lowke. Electrical Breakdown in Air and in SF6. AustralianJournal of Physics; 48 (3): 453. 1995.

Okubo, H., et al. Insulation Design and On-Site Testing Method for a Long Distance,Gas Insulated Transmission Line (GIL). IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine;14 (6): 13. November 1, 1998.

Onal, E., et al. Breakdown Characteristics of N2 Containing 0.125 % of SF6. IEEEConference Publication, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; 3(467): 305. 1999.

12

Pecastaing, L., et al. Investigation of Breakdown Characteristics of N2, SF6, andSF6/N2 Mixtures Under Pressure. IEEE Conference Publication, Institute ofElectrical and Electronics Engineers; 3 (467): 224. 1999.

Pradayrol, C., et al. Production of SO2F2, SOF4 (SOF2 +SF4), S2F10, S2OF10, andS2O2F10 in SF6 and (50-50) SF6-CF4, Mixtures Exposed to Negative Caronas.Journal of Physics, d: Applied Physics; 30 (9): 1,356. May 7, 1997.

Pradayrol, C., et al. Spark Decomposition of SF6 and SF6 + 50% CF4 Mixtures.Journal of Physics, d: Applied Physics; 29 (7): 1941. July 14, 1996.

Preisegger, E., et al. Life Cycle Assessment: Electricity Supply Using SF6Technology. Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases; Scientific Understanding, Controland Implementation; pp. 393 - 399. 2000.

Qui, Y. and F.L Xiao. Dielectric Strengths of SF6, SF6/N2, and SF6/CO2 UnderDifferent Electrode Surface Conditions. Conference Publication (Unspecified);363: 186. 1992.

Qiu, Y., and E. Kuffel. Comparison of SF6/N2 and SF6/CO2 Gas Mixtures asAlternatives to SF6 Gas. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical; 6 (6):892. December 1, 1999.

Ryan, H.M., and G.R. Jones. SF6 Switchgear. Published by Peter Peregrinus for theInstitution of Electrical Engineers, London. 1989.

Shugg, W.T. Handbook of Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials. SecondEdition, IEEE Press, New York. 1995.

Smeets, R.P.P. and W.A. van der Linden. The Testing of SF6 Generator CircuitBreakers. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery; 13 (4): 1,188. October 1,1998.

Tong, L.Z., et al. Investigation of Gas Discharge Phenomena in a SF6 CircuitBreaker. IEEE Conference Publication, Institute of Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers; 3 (467): 112. 1999.

Thuries, E., et al. Breaking New Ground in SF6 Technology. Modern Power Systems;13 (1): 43. January 1, 1993.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Electrical Transmission and DistributionSystems, Sulfur Hexafluoride, and Atmospheric Effects of Greenhouse GasEmissions. Final Conference Proceedings. August 9 - 10, 1995.

13

Van Brunt, R.J. and J.T. Herron. Fundamental Processes of SF6 Decomposition andOxidation in Glow and Carona Discharges. IEEE Transactions on ElectricalInsulation; 25 (1): 75. February 1, 1990.

Varivodov, V.N. Sulfur Hexafluoride: State of the Art and Outlook. Soviet ElectricalEngineering; 62 (12):17. 1991.

Vishnevskii, Y.I., et al. Sealed High-Voltage Units with SF6 Insulation for High-Voltage Testing of Factory Assembled Switchgear with Measurement ofCharacteristics of Partial Discharges. Soviet Electrical Engineering; 62 (11):48. 1991.

Yamada, T., et al. Partial Discharge and Breakdown Characteristics in SF6/N2 GasMixtures with an Extremely Small Amount if SF6 Gas. IEEE ConferencePublication, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; 3 (467): 75. 1999.

Yanabu, S. SF6 Insulation and its Application to High-Voltage Equipment. IEEETransactions on Electrical Insulation; 26 (3): 358. June 1, 1991.

Yoshida, T., et al. V-t Characteristics of SF6 Gas During Lightning Surges.Electrical Engineering in Japan; 119 (4): 1. 1997.

14

Documents Published by The Electric Power ResearchInstitute (EPRI)

EPRI. Condenser On-Line Leak-Detection System. Report Number: EPRI AP-101840-V3P2; Vol. 3. December 1995.

EPRI. Considerations for Conversion or Replacement of Medium-Voltage Air-Magnetic Circuit Breakers Using Vacuum or SF6 Technology. ReportNumber: EPRI TR-106761; 40 pages. December 1996.

EPRI. Condenser Leak-Detection Guidelines Using Sulfur Hexafluoride as a TracerGas. Report Number: EPRI CS-6014; 104 pages. September 1988.

EPRI. Characterization of Arc Byproducts of Sulfur Hexafluoride and PolymericConstruction Materials. Report Number: EPRI EL-5089; 152 pages. April1987.

EPRI. Evaluation of Sulfur Hexafluoride and Helium for Steam Generator LeakLocation. Report Number: EPRI NP-5008; 80 pages. January 1987.

EPRI. Gases Superior to SF6 for Insulation and Interruption. Report EPRI EL-2620.September 1982.

Moore, T. Seeing SF6 in a New Light. EPRI Journal, Summer 1999. pp. 26 - 31.

15

SF6 Emissions from Magnesium Processing (and othermaterials processing uses)

Author Unlisted. Magnesium Producers Vow to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions.Environmental Science and Technology; 33 (23): 489A. December 1, 1999.

Author Unlisted. Conserving SF6 in Magnesium Melting Operations. FoundryManagement and Technology; 126 (6): 39. June 1, 1998.

Author Unlisted. New Gas Mixtures Improve Foundry Environment. Foundry TradeJournal; 162 (3,381): 944 - 945. November 18, 1988.

Bradley, N.L. and P.S. Frederick. Injection Molding of Thixotropic Magnesium:Update. Proceedings of the 46th Annual World Magnesium Conference;Dearborn, MI, May 16 - 19, 1989. pp. 63 - 65. (Citation included because thismagnesium casting technology does not use SF6.)

Busk, R.S., and R.B. Jackson. Use of SF6 in the Magnesium Industry. Proceedings ofthe 37th Annual World Conference on Magnesium, International MagnesiumAssociation. June 8 - 11, 1980.

(The) Cadmus Group, Inc. Information on SF6 Uses and Substitutes. Memorandumprepared for the U.S. EPA under Contract Number 68-W6-0050. July 3, 1998.

(The) Cadmus Group, Inc. Use of SF6 as a Protective Cover Gas in the MagnesiumCasting Industry. Final Report prepared for the U.S. EPA under ContractNumber 68-W6-0050. December 12, 1997.

Carnahan, R., R. Kilbert, and L. Pasternak. 1994. Advances in Thixomolding. 51stWorld Magnesium Conference. May 17 - 19, 1994.

Clow, B.B. (International Magnesium Association) Magnesium Industry Review.Advanced Materials and Processes; 150 (4). October 1996.

Couling, S.L. Use of Air/CO2/SF6 Mixtures for Improved Protection of MoltenMagnesium. Proceedings of the World Magnesium Conference Sponsored by theInternational Magnesium Association, Oslo, 1979. pp. 54 - 57.

Couling, S.L. and T.E. Leontis. Improved Protection of Molten Magnesium withAir/CO2/SF6 Mixtures. Magnesium Research Center, Battelle ColumbusLaboratories, Columbus, OH. Light Metals, 1980. pp. 997 - 1009.

Couling, S.L., F. Bennett, T.E. Leontis. Fluxless Melting of Magnesium. MagnesiumResearch Center, Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, OH. Light Metals;1: 545 - 560. 1977.

16

Ellerton, K. (AlliedSignal Corporation) Recent Developments and the Outlook forGlobal Sulfur Hexafluoride. Proceedings of the 54th Meeting of theInternational Magnesium Association. Toronto, Canada. June 8 - 10, 1997. pp.17 - 19.

Erickson, S.C. A Process for the Injection Molding of Thixotropic Magnesium AlloyParts. Proceedings of the 44th Annual World Magnesium Conference, Tokyo,May 17 - 20, 1987. pp. 39 - 45.

Fine, H.A. Thermodynamic Analysis of the Role of Sulfur Hexafluoride in theMagnesium Casting Process. Draft 1. February 1997.

Fruehling, J.W. Protective Atmospheres for Molten Magnesium. University ofMichigan, Ph.D. Dissertation. 1970.

Gjestland, H., P. Bakke, H. Westengen, (Norsk Hydro) and D. Magers (HydroMagnesium). Gas Protection of Molten Magnesium Alloys: SO2 as aReplacement for SF6. Undated.

Gjestland, H. and D. Magers. Progress to Eliminate SF6 as a Protective Gas inMagnesium Die Casting. Presented at Europaische ForschungsgemeinschaftMagnesiumguss e.V. Session 6. Magnesiumguss Abnehmerseminar andAutomotive Seminar. September 30 - October 1, 1998.

Gjestland and Magers. Practical Usage of Sulphur Hexafluoride for Melt Protectionin the Magnesium Die Casting Industry. pp. 83 - 85. 1996.

Hanawalt, J.D. Practical Protective Atmospheres for Molten Magnesium. MetalsEngineering Quarterly, November 1972. pp. 6 - 10.

Hanawalt, J.D. SF6 - Protective Atmosphere for Molten Magnesium. 8th SDCEInternational Die Casting Exposition and Congress, March 17 - 20, 1975. pp. 2 -5.

Hanawalt, J.D. Protective Atmospheres for Molten Magnesium: Gaseous InhibitorsSF6 and CO2. The Metallurgical Society of AIME, Paper Number F71-2.Undated.

Heffron, J.F. and D. Saha. Practical Aspects of Using Sulfur Hexafluoride in FluxlessMelting of Magnesium and its Alloys. Presented at the Meeting of the NorthAmerican Die Casting Association, Cleveland, Ohio, October 18 - 21, 1993.

Hydro Magnesium. Diecaster Bulletin: Fluxless Melting of Magnesium. Issued byHydro Magnesium and Prepared by the Magnesium Material Technology Center,Research Center, Porsgrunn. June 25, 1997.

17

International Magnesium Association (IMA). Technical Committee Report onRecommended Practices for the Conservation of Sulfur Hexafluoride inMagnesium Melting Operations. 1998.

Krishnan, S.S. (Hindustan Aeronautics) Magnesium Founding—Hazards to theEnvironment and How to Combat It. 41st Indian Foundry CongressTransactions, New Dehli, India. February 25 - 28, 1993. pp. 351 - 356.

Lockwood, Lloyd. Dow Chemical U.S.A. Recommended Practice for Melting HighPurity Magnesium Alloys. Sponsored by the Technical Committee InternationalMagnesium Association. Undated.

Luo, A., and J. Plourde. Minimizing SF6 Usage and Looking for Alternatives.Institute of Magnesium Technology, Inc. Work Proposal No. PC-7. July 28,1995.

Magers, D. (Norsk Hydro) Practical Usage of SF6 for Melt Protection in the DieCasting Industry. Annual Meeting of the International Magnesium Association.Ube City, Japan. 1996.

North American Die Casting Association. Pollution Prevention Practices. (Author anddate unavailable.)

Opalovsky, A.A, and E.U. Lobkov. Interaction of Sulphur Hexafluoride with Metals.Journal of Fluorine Chemistry; 2 (4): 349 - 359. 1972/1973.

Parker, S.P. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Physics. Second Edition. 1993. pp. 950 -989. (Section on particle accelerators with reference to use of SF6.)

Petrovich, V.W. and J.S. Waltrip. Flux-free Refining of Magnesium Die-Cast Scrap.Light Metals, 1989.

Schemm, G. Sulfur Hexafluoride as Protection Against Oxidation of MagnesiumMelts. Giesserei 58 (19): 558 - 565. September 23, 1971.

Slepian, R.M., et al. (Westinghouse Science and Technology Center, Pittsburgh) NewMolten Metal Delivery System for Cold Chamber Die Casting Introduced.Die Casting Engineer; 37 (6). November-December 1993.

Vondrak, J., et al. The Incorporation of SF6 into Graphite and Other Materials.Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communications; 63 (1): 57. January 1,1998.

Waite, P. and D. Bernard. Recent Experience with the Use of Sulphur Hexafluoridefor Aluminum Fluxing. Proceedings of the 119th TMS Annual Meeting,Anaheim, CA. February 18 - 22, 1990. pp. 775 - 784.

18

SF6 Use In and Emissions from Semiconductor Manufacture

Buel, S. Semiconductor Makers to Help in Fight Against Global Warming. San JoseMercury News. December 12, 1997. p. C1.

Casady, J.B., et al. Surface Roughness of Reactive Ion Etched 4H-SiC in SF6/O2 andCHF3/H2/O2 Plasmas. Journal of the Electrochemical Society; 145 (4): L58.April 1, 1998.

Chabert, P., et al. High-Rate Etching of 4H-SIC using a SF6/O2 Helicon Plasma.Applied Physics Letters; 76 (16): 2310. April 17, 2000.

Chabert, P., et al. Investigation of an SF6 Helicon Plasma. Journal of Vacuum Scienceand Technology; 16 (1): 78. January 1, 1998.

Coquel, J-M., et al. Electron-Stimulated Reaction of C-60 with a Model Etching Gas,SF6. Journal of Applied Optics; 84 (8): 4603. October 15, 1998.

Garrity, M.P., T.W. Peterson, J.F. O’Hanlon. Particle Formation Rates in SulfurHexafluoride Plasma Etching of Silicon. J. Vacuum Science & Technology; 14(2): 550. 1996.

Khan, F.A., and I. Adesida. High Rate Etching of SiC Using Inductively CoupledPlasma Reactive Ion Etching in SF6-Based Gas Mixtures. Applied PhysicsLetters; 75 (15): 2268. October 11, 1999.

Mansano, R.D., et al. Anisotropic Inductively Coupled Plasma Etching of Siliconwith Pure SF6. Thin Solid Films; 343/344: 378. April 1, 1999.

Noding, M., et al. Diagnostics of SF6 Plasmas by Energy-Resolved MassSpectrometry: Influence of the Electrode Material on Internal PlasmaParameters. Surface and Coatings Technology; 111 (1): 51. January 10, 1999.

Popov, C., et al. Chemical Vapour Deposition of BC2N Films and Their Laser-Induced Etching with SF6. Thin Solid Films; 312 (1 of 2):99. January 14, 1998.

Scofield, J.D., et al. Oxygen-Free Dry Etching of Alpha-SiC Using Dilute SF6:Ar inan Asymmetric Parallel Plate 13.56 MHz Discharge. Applied Physics Letters;73 (1): 76. July 6, 1998.

Seaward, K.L., et al. Surface Contamination and Damage from CF4 and SF6Reactive Ion Etching of Silicon Oxide on Gallium Arsenide. Journal ofElectronic Materials; 19 (4): 385. April 1, 1990.

So, M.S., et al. Fast, Smooth, and Anisotropic Etching of SiC Using SF6/Ar. Journalof Vacuum Science & Technology; 17 (5): 2055. September 1, 1999.

19

Stanley, A.E., L.M. Ludwick, D.White, D.E. Andrews, and S.E. Godbey. SulfurHexafluoride: Optimal Use as a Gas-Phase, Infrared Sensitizer. AppliedSpectroscopy; 46 (12): 1,866 -1,868. 1992.

Vondrak, J., et al. The Incorporation of SF6 into Graphite and Other Materials.Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communications; 63 (1): 57. January 1,1998.

Wang, S., et al. Deep Reactive Ion Etching of Lead Zirconate Titanate Using SulfurHexafluoride Gas. Journal of the American Ceramic Society; 82 (5): 1339. May1, 1999.

Wu, J., J.D. Parsons, D.R. Evans. Sulfur Hexafluoride Reactive Ion Etching of (111)Beta SiC Epitaxial Layers, Grown on (111) TiC Substrates. J.Electrochemical Society; 142 (2): 669. 1995.

20

Use of SF6 as a Tracer Compound

Author Unlisted. Advanced Tracer Technique Enhances Leak Detection. Power; 136(10): 112. October 1, 1992.

American Society for Testing and Materials. E741-83. Standard Practice forMeasuring Air Leakage Rates by the Tracer Dilution Method. AmericanSociety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. 1983.

Brown, R., et al. The Use of SF6 in Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Studies.Journal of Geophysical Research; 80: 3393 - 3398. 1975.

Clark, J.F. et al. SF6-3He Tracer Release Experiment: A New Method ofDetermining Longitudinal Dispersion Coefficients in Large Rivers.Environmental Science and Technology; 31 (1): 308. January 1, 1997.

Cole, J.J. and N.F. Caraco. Atmospheric Exchange of Carbon Dioxide in a Low WindOligotrophic Lake Measured by the Addition of Sulfur Hexafluoride.Limnology and Oceanography; 43 (4): 647. June 1, 1998.

Deitz, R.N. The Use of Sulfur Hexafluoride in Atmospheric Transport and DiffusionStudies. Journal of Geophysical Research; 80 (24): 3,393 - 3,398. 1975.

Demin, A.I., et al. Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) Injection at Altitudes of the IonosphericE and F1 Regions. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy; 31 (5): 712. 1991.

Denning, A.S., et al. Three-Dimensional Transport and Concentration of SF6. AModel Intercomparison Study. Tellus, Series B, Chemical and PhysicalMeteorology; 51 (2): 266. April 1, 1999.

Dillion, K.S., et al. The Use of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) as a Tracer of Septic TankEffluent in the Florida Keys. Journal of Hydrology; 220 (3/4): 129. August 9,1999.

Drivas, P.J. and F.H. Shair. A Tracer Study of Pollutant Transport and Dispersion inthe Los Angeles Area. Atmospheric Environment; 8: 1,150 - 1,163. 1974.

Griffith, D.A., et al. Observations of Ground-Released Sulfur Hexafluoride TracerGas Plumes in Two Utah Winter Storms. Journal of Weather Modification; 24(1): 49. April 1, 1992.

Hampl, V. Evaluation of Industrial Local Exhaust Hood Efficiency by a Tracer GasTechnique. American Industrial Hygiene Association; 45 (7): 485 - 490. July1984.

21

Hibbs, D.E., et al. Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Tracer Studies in Streams. ASCEJournal of Environmental Engineering; 124 (8): 752 - 760. August 1, 1998.

Kalliokoski, P., et al. The Tracer Gas Technique—A Useful Tool for IndustrialHygiene. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment Health; 6 (2): 123 - 130.June 1980.

Lamb, B.K., et al. Development of Atmospheric Tracer Methods to MeasureMethane Emissions from Natural Gas Facilities and Urban Areas.Environmental Science and Technology; 29 (6): 1,468. June 1, 1995.

Maiss, M., L.P. Steele, R.J. Francey, P.J. Fraser, R.L. Langenfelds, N.B.A. Trivett, and I.Levin. Sulfur Hexafluoride - A Powerful New Atmospheric Tracer.Atmospheric Environment; 30 (10/11): 1,621 - 1,629. 1996.

Manzini, E., and J. Feichter. Simulation of the SF6 Tracer with the MiddleAtmosphere MAECHAM4 Model: Aspects of the Large-Scale Transport.Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres; 104 (24): 31097. December 27,1999.

Marik, T. and I. Levin. A New Tracer Experiment to Estimate the MethaneEmissions from a Dairy Cow Shed Using Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6). GlobalBiogeochemical Cycles; 10 (3): 413 - 418. 1996.

Olschewski, A., U. Fischer, M.Hofer, and R. Schulin. Sulfur Hexafluoride as a GasTracer in Soil Venting Operations. Environmental Science and Technology; 29(1): 264 - 266. 1995.

Philippe, J-B., and A. Poisson. Gas Transfer Experiment on a Lake (KerguelenIslands) Using 3He and SF6. Journal of Geophysical Research; 105 (1): 1177.January 15, 2000.

Prior, M.G., et al. Use of Sulfur Hexafluoride and a Three-Dimensional SamplingGrid for Evaluation of Inhalation Chamber Performance. Journal of theAmerican Industrial Hygiene Association; 49 (11): 591 - 592. November 1988.

Schwartz, S.E., D.F. Leahy and S. Fink. Aircraft Release of Sulfur Hexafluoride as anAtmospheric Tracer. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association; 35 (5):555 - 557. 1985.

Tingey, D.T., et al. The Carbon Dioxide Leakage from Chambers Measured UsingSulfur Hexafluoride. Environmental and Experimental Botany; 43 (2): 101.April 1, 2000.

22

Ulyatt, M.J., et al. Accuracy of SF6 Tracer Technology and Alternatives for FieldMeasurements. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research; 50 (8): 1329.1999.

Upstill-Goddard, R.C., et al. Gas Transfer Velocities in Lakes Measured with SF6.Tellus; 42B: 364 - 377. 1990.

Wanninkhof, R., et al. Gas Exchange-Wind Speed Relation Measured with SulfurHexafluoride on a Lake. Science; 227: 1224 - 1226. 1985.

Wilson, R.D. and D.M. Mackay. The Use of Sulfur Hexafluoride as a ConservativeTracer in Saturated Sandy Media. Groundwater; 31 (5): 719 - 724. 1993.

Winberry, W.T., et al. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of AirPollutants in Indoor Air. Prepared by Engineering-Science for the EPAAtmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Branch. Draft, September1989.

23

Medical Uses of SF6

Ai, E., et al. Current Patterns of Intraocular Gas Use in North America. (JournalUncertain); 111 (3): 331 - 332. March 1993.

Duerksen, J.S., et al. A Nationwide Survey of the Use of Perfluoropropane andSulfur Hexafluoride. American Journal of Ophthalmology; 108 (2): 195 - 196.August 15, 1989.

Forte Jr., V.A., et al. Blood Oxygen Saturation Measured in the Presence of aMixture of Cyclopropane, Sulfur Hexafluoride, and Ethane. EuropeanJournal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Health; 75 (1): 68. 1997.

Friedrichsen, E.J., et al. Storage of Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas. Ophthalmic Surgery; 24(1): 62. January 1993.

Gardner, T.W., et al. A Survey of Intraocular Gas Use in North America. (JournalUncertain); 106 (9): 1,188 - 1,189. September 1988.

Gates, G.A. Sulfur Hexafluoride Therapy. Archives of Otolaryngology; 109 (6): 357.June 1983.

Gault, J.A. and I.M. Raber. Repair of Descemet’s Membrane Detachment withIntacameral Injection of 20% Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas. Cornea; 15 (5): 483 -489. 1996.

Griffiths. M.F., et al. Toxic Effects After Laser Decomposition of Intraocular Gases.Lancet; 2 (8,574): 1,517. December 26, 1987.

Harada, K., et al. Use of Sulfur Hexafluoride, SF6, in the Management of thePostpneumonectomy Pleural Space. Respiration; 46 (2): 201 - 208. 1984.

Hikichi, T., et al. Posterior Vitreous Detachment Induced by Injection of Plasminand Sulfur Hexafluoride in the Rabbit Vitreous. Retina; 19 (1): 55. 1999.

Humayun, M.S., et al. The Rate of Sulfur Hexafluoride Escape from a PlasticSyringe. (Journal Uncertain); 107 (6): 853 - 854. June 1989.

Iwaoka, H., et al. Determination of Percent Body Fat by the Newly Developed SulfurHexafluoride Dilution Method and Air Displacement Plethysmography.Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology (Tokyo); 44 (4): 561 - 568.1998.

Kraut, A., et al. Pulmonary Effects of Acute Exposure to Degradation Products ofSulphur Hexafluoride During Electrical Cable repair Work. British Journalof Industrial Medicine; 47 (12): 829 - 832. December 1990.

24

Larsson, A., et al. Measurement of Lung Volume by Sulfur Hexafluoride WashoutDuring Spontaneous and Controlled Ventilation: Further Development of aMethod. Anesthesiology; 67 (4): 543 - 550. October 1987.

Mahmood, M.N., et al. Detachment of Descemet’s Membrane. Journal of Cataractand Refractive Surgery; 24 (6): 827. June 1, 1998.

Mourgharbel, M., F.H.J. Koch, T. Böker, and M. Spitznas. No Cataract Two Yearsafter Pneumatic Retinopexy. Ophthalmology; 101 (7): 1,191 - 1,194.

Ostlund, A., et al. Relative Narcotic Potency and Mode of Action of SulfurHexafluoride and Nitrogen in Humans. Journal of Applied Physiology; 76 (1):439. January 1, 1994.

Pilling, K.J., et al. Inhalation of Degraded Sulphur Hexafluoride Resulting inPulmonary Oedema. Journal of Societal and Occupational Medicine; 38 (3): 82- 84. Autumn 1988.

Prisk, G.K., A.R. Elliott, H.J.B. Guy, S. Verbanck, M. Paiva, and J.B. West. Multiple-breath Washing of Helium and Sulfur Hexafluoride in SustainedMicrogravity. J. Applied Physiology; 84 (1): 244 - 252. 1998.

Sakaguchi, H., et al. Sulfur Hexafluoride does not Escape from Plastic SyringesCapped with Fine Needles. Retina; 18 (3): 281 - 283. 1998.

Schneider, M., M. Arditi, —B, Barrau, J. Brochot, A. Broillet, R. Ventrone, and Y. Feng.BR1: A New Ultrasonic Contrast Agent Based on Sulfur Hexafluoride-filledMicrobubbles. Investigative Radiology; 30 (8): 451 - 457. 1995.

Thome, U., et al. Comparison of Lung Volume Measurements by Antero-PosteriorChest X-ray and the SF6 Washout Technique in Mechanically VentilatedInfants. Pediatric Pulmonology; 26 (4): 265 - 272. October 1, 1998.

Uyama, T., et al. Intractable Chest pain in a Patient Whose Postpneumonectomywas Managed with Sulfur Hexafluoride. Surgery Today; 23 (9): 807 - 809.1993.

25

Measurement of SF6

Author Unlisted. Laser-Generated Acoustic Emission Detects Gas Leaks. LaserFocus World; 34 (2): 38. February 1, 1998.

Boudon, V., et al. High-Resolution Jet-Cooled Spectroscopy of SF6: The v2 + v6Combination Band of 32SF6 and the v3 Band of the Rare Isotopomers.Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy; 192 (2): 359. December 1, 1998.

Hashmonay, R.A., et al. Emission Rate Apportionment from Fugitive Sources UsingOpen-Path FTIR and Mathematical Inversion. Atmospheric Environment; 33(5): 735. 1999.

Kawamura, M., et al. Sensing of Decomposition Products in SF6 by Use of a CornerCube Prism Coated with a Dye Film as an Optical Sensor Head. JapaneseJournal of Applied Physics; 36 (7A): 4517. July 1, 1997.

Nagaseki, K., et al. Mass Spectrometric Observation of Decomposition Products SFx(x=1,2) in SF6 Discharge at 13.56 MHz. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics;32 (2): 967. February 1, 1993.

Olthoff, J.K., et al. Detection of Trace Disulfur Decafluoride in Sulfur Hexafluorideby Gas Chromatography / Mass Spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry; 63 (7):726.

Soppart, O., et al. Ion Mobility Spectrometry for On-Site Sensing of SF6Decomposition. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical; 7 (2): 229.April 1, 2000.