Big Ideas About TeachingBig Ideas

Edwin Ellis Theresa Farmer Jane Newman

Enabling students to understand big

ideas about our world is essential to an

effective democracy and, other than

basic literacy skills and social compe-

tence, is the most important kind ofknowledge we can impart to all our

children. In this age of high-stakes test-

ing and accountability, instruction in

big ideas may be more elusive than

ever. The presence and quality of bigidea instruction is affected by many

variables. In this article, we present fourbig ideas about teaching big ideas-and

along the way, challenge some mythsand misconceptions about teaching and

learning today.

Big Edka #1: S1p1 raft Mythsand PolNic Rhetoric From

Reawily

In theory, empirical evidence (research)provides reliable data that should form

the basis of our beliefs and decisions

about what to do and how to teach stu-

dents with and without disabilities. Tous, the relative influence of research is

minor when compared to the power oflong-held social beliefs and the political

rhetoric of the moment. The result is

that much of what we do is stronglyguided by myths. Here are what we

believe to be myths that are currentlyaffecting instruction (or lack of) in big

ideas.

34 a COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Myth: Good Grades = GoodLearning; Good Learning = GoodGrades

Even though we know better, most of uswho are parents experience a sense ofjoy when our children bring home a"good" report card. Those good gradeselicit a feeling that our child is learningwhat he or she needs to learn. Uponcloser examination, however, grades insecondary schools are often a functionof four things: obeying rules, complet-ing tasks on time, memorizing informa-tion for tests, and demonstrating test-taking skills.

Figure 1 shows test questions thatassess whether students memorized fac-tual information. Many students areeffective memorizers when the teacherexplicitly tells them what to study. Andmany perform considerably worse whenthey have to make decisions about what

aspects of the content they shouldattend to when memorizing for the test.Thus many students are good memoriz-ers but are poor at processing informa-tion.

Consider the questions illustrated inFigure 2. Notice that they were listed as"bonus" questions, implying that theseideas reflect incidental learning thatsome students (i.e., the gifted students)might manage to acquire, but it is con-sidered acceptable if students didn'tgain these understandings. One mightargue that these questions reflect under-standings that all students should beexpected to gain, at least to somedegree. These questions reflect bigideas, trends, or phenomena that aregenerative in nature-that is, the ideasthemselves are universal and are notunique to a specific time and place. Onemight wonder if it is better for students

Figure 1. Questions From Unit Test on Age of Exploration(Seventh Grade)

Name of Columbus' 3 ships (Nina, Pinta, Santa Maria)

Which of the 3 ships sank? (Santa Maria)

Captain of the Pinta? (Martin Pizon)

Explorer seeking the Fountain of Youth? (Ponce De Leon)

Explorer who discovered the Mississippi River? (De Soto)

Conquered the Aztecs? (Cortez)

Leader of the Aztecs? (Montezuma II)

to experience the satisfaction and vali-dation of making excellent grades whenthey are only expected to memorize triv-ia, or to make lower grades because

their understanding of the generativeidea might be less than stellar. In otherwords, is it better to know a lot of trivia

(at least long enough to score well ontests) or is it better to have some level ofunderstanding, even if somewhat erro-neous, of the generative idea?

Traditional classroom tests tend toassess knowledge as dichotomous-thatis, the answer is correct or incorrect. Inreality, only knowledge of factual infor-mation is dichotomous. All other typesof knowledge are forms of or degrees of

understanding, which fall on a continu-um ranging from sophisticated, accu-rate, and complete to superficial, erro-neous, or incomplete. Figure 3 illus-trates some of the kinds of evidence thatreflect understanding of big ideas.

Teachers should not confuse theproblems with teaching trivia with thenecessity of teaching relevant details

and facts. To have a contextual under-standing of a big idea (i.e., why the ideamatters in our world), one must have a

minimal understanding of the details ofthe context in which the idea is rele-vant. In short, students need to know

both the big idea and its components-the little ideas that make it big.

There are basically two approachesto big idea instruction. The first is a con-

structive approach whereby the educa-tor teaches a series of pertinent littleideas that lead students to constructingan understanding of the big idea. Here,the teacher's task is not done until stu-dents demonstrate an understanding ofboth the big idea and its essential com-ponents or details. The second takes an

opposite track. Here, the big idea is firstexplained and then de-constructed asthe details supporting the ideas areidentified and understood. Unfor-tunately, teachers typically do neither.

Rather, most teach an assortment of

details and ideas that neither lead to anunderstanding of a big idea nor enablestudents to construct a big idea. Thereally scary part is that a great many"expert," highly qualified teachers donot know what the big ideas are, nor dothey have a way to access this informa-tion.

Myth: Hands On = Minds On

There are many kinds of knowledge, butthe two that are most critical to aca-

demic success are episodic knowledge(what one knows from experience, as in

"hands-on activities") and semanticknowledge (what one knows from lan-

guage or words). Episodic knowledge isgained when one observes tadpoles and

sees their different stages of metamor-phosis. Semantic knowledge is gainedwhen one reads about things that are

going on during the metamorphosis

Figure 2. Bonus Questions From Unit Test on Age of Exploration(Seventh Grade)

Competition for resources often causes powerful countries to manipulate andexploit weaker countries. Explain how this idea showed up during this age.

(BIG Idea: Throughout the ages, groups with power tend to exploit other groups inweaker positions in order to maintain their power.)

If a "lost continent" were suddenly discovered today, would the people andresources there be treated the same way as in the Age of Exploration? Why orwhy not?

(BIG Idea: Although not "politically correct," exploitation is still rampant in today'sworld.)

Do you think religion was intentionally used by countries as a way to build wealthduring the Age of Exploration? Why or why not?

(BIG Idea: Throughout the ages, groups of people have used religion as an oppor-tunity to build wealth and gain power.)

Language learning, or elaboration, isan essential ingredient to developingdeeper understandings of ideas. In theabsence of elaboration, students willmemorize what they believe they needto know for an upcoming test. The lessone elaborates on information, the lesslikely it will be remembered. Thus,many students who make reasonablygood grades actually know very little. Inshort, although hands-on experiencesare an important ingredient to learning,what makes them really powerful iswhen there is a considerable degree ofstudent elaboration of those experi-ences.

Myth: The General EducationCurriculum Is Worth Learning

The notion that all students shouldlearn the general education curriculum

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN m SEPT/OCT 2005 m 35

process that cannot be readily observedor experienced.

Popular teachers are often consid-

ered good because their instruction islargely hands-on-it's interesting, fun,and experiential. It is assumed that stu-dents are learning something duringthese experiences. In many cases, stu-dents thoroughly enjoy the activity, butthey totally do not "get it" nor gain a

deep understanding of the concept theactivity was designed to teach. This is,in part, likely because semantic andepisodic learning experiences were notsufficiently intermingled. Put anotherway, students failed to use language as

a learning tool to elaborate on the expe-rience.

(GEC) is based on the assumption thatit is worth learning. Take for example,the test questions illustrated in Figure 1(based on GEC) and the bonus ques-tions illustrated in Figure 2 (not fromGEC). Which kind of knowledge is morevaluable?

We lean heavily toward the genera-tive ideas because these ideas helplearners understand what goes on in theworld and how things occur the waythey do, and how or why they will prob-ably occur again.

A common argument is that weshould be teaching both. Yes-if we hadunlimited time, energy, and resources todo so, but the reality is that time toteach the curriculum is relatively fixed(175-200 school days per year); thereare limits to teachers' energy reservesand instructional resources are consis-tently being reduced. Teachers areunder enormous pressure to teachmore, in less time, with fewer resources,to students with widely diverse abilitiesand backgrounds. In short, there is alimit to what teachers can accomplish,so we believe they should be focusingon teaching a curriculum that has somedegree of relevance; unfortunately, thisis not always reflected by GEC.

GEC, as it currently stands, does notmeasure up to a level warranting insis-tence that all students learn it. It tendsto not address generative ideas for sev-eral reasons. First, there is little agree-ment among content experts what thegenerative ideas are, whereas facts areless debatable and more assessable.

Second, special interest groups putenormous pressures on textbook com-panies not to have their material include

36 w COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

ideas that might be offensive to some.Texts, therefore, tend to be highlyhomogenized and devoid of honest dis-cussions of critical issues to decreasethe likelihood of rejection by sensitivemembers of selection committees orschool boards. Thus, teachers often donot have access to text informationabout generative ideas associated withthe content they are teaching. Third,U.S. education has placed so muchemphasis on memorization of trivia asthe standard for learning that few teach-ers have any sense of what the genera-

Big, "generative" ideashelp learners understand

what goes on in the worldand how things occur theway they do, and how or

why they will probablyoccur again.

EIM MM Ml Ma EM E 1 IMIEl-

tive ideas are because they never hadopportunities to learn them themselves.These individuals subsequently findthemselves on state curriculum commit-tees writing standards for their state'sGEC. To insist that all students learnGEC in its current state seems illogical,at best.

On a more optimistic note, manynational professional organizationshave developed sets of standards thatvery effectively address big ideas and

Figure 3. Indexes of Understanding Big Ideas

"* Makes many connections to other ideas.

"* Can explain how idea is affected by various phenomena.

"* Can explain impact of idea on the world.

"* Makes effective comparisons with other ideas.

"* Can summarize or explain gist of idea in own words.

"• Has sufficient knowledge of relevant facts.

• Can identify different manifestations of idea.

• Can recognize inappropriate applications or iterations of idea.

principles. For example, a consortium offour geography professional organiza-tions published a set of national stan-dards that reflect 6 big ideas and 18principles that spring from them(Geography Standards Committee,1994). These clearly define what it isabout geography that students need tounderstand.

Myth: Highly Qualified = GoodTeacher (or, at Least, BetterTeacher)

There are many merits to insisting thatour children's teachers be knowledge-able in their subject area, thus "highlyqualified" (HQ); we certainly do notwant our children to be taught erro-neous information. However, keep inmind that the information teachers areexpected to master in order to becomeHQ often suffers from the same limita-tions as discussed previously.

Parenthetically, teachers' knowledge

of their subject matter influences howthey teach it. Some do not know enoughabout the content, in spite of their HQstatus, to prioritize the information intoessential and nonessential informationto teach. These teachers are often high-ly dependent on their textbooks andteacher guides. Because they tend to besomewhat overwhelmed with trying toteach unfamiliar information, utilizinganything other than the most basicforms of pedagogy (lecturing) is oftenbeyond their capacity. Classes com-prised of students representing a rangeof ability and background knowledgeare typically provided a one-size-fits-allform of instruction.

Other teachers who lack knowledgeof their subject often disguise this bysubstituting activities and projects thatkeep students occupied with surface-level information-the notion being thatthey are allowing students to "constructtheir own understanding." Other con-

tent teachers' ability to help studentsunderstand what is essential to know ishandicapped by their abundance ofknowledge about a topic. From theirperspective, everything is relevant andessential to understand; the idea thatthe subject matter should be differenti-ated into essential-to-understand bigideas from related, but less essential-to-

know concepts and facts violates theintegrity of the subject matter. Students

in these classes are provided little assis-

tance with understanding generativeideas. Students know that the key to

success with these teachers is to secure

a study guide that lists everything theywill be expected to memorize.

Big Idea #2: Make ContentMore Learner Filendly Raliher

aMn WVAter It Down

To make the curriculum more accessiblefor students with disabilities, accommo-dations should be one of the first things

teachers should do because the expecta-

tions for learning are maintained. Incontrast, modifications should be one of

the last things teachers do becauselearning expectations are reduced.These two kinds of strategies are often

used together as if they were synony-mous when they are anything but. As a

result, expectations for learning are

almost always reduced at the onset.From our perspective, most of the

information about accommodations that

is circulated to teachers reflects lists of

relatively shallow, superficial strategies(i.e., move student to front of room,

provide a note-taker, etc.). These lists

often fail to include what we believe arethe two most robust things teachers can

do to facilitate understanding: reduceinformation processing demands and

maximize opportunities for student

elaboration.

Reducing Information ProcessingDemands

Many students with dual disabilities

experience language learning disabili-ties that are manifested in a variety of

ways and lead to difficulty processinginformation. These include

"* Short-term memory deficits (the stu-

dent's brain cannot hold on to the

information long enough to get it

processed).

"* Working memory deficits (the student

experiences difficulty accessing relat-

ed background knowledge or apply-ing various elaboration strategies

such as predicting, questioning, sum-marizing, imaging, and monitoring

comprehension).

Some students can use these cogni-tive processes effectively, but simplyneed more time to apply them. Anunfortunate net result is that studentsdo not appear to learn the complexinformation, so expectations are low-ered via curriculum modifications.

An alternative strategy to "dumbingdown" the curriculum is to focus onways to make the information easier toprocess by increasing its clarity(Deshler, et al., 2001; Ellis, 1997). Twoways to do this are (a) reduce the ver-biage, and (b) make the organization ofthe to-be-learned information self-evi-dent to the learner.

Reducing Verbiage. The more wordswe use to explain an idea, the more lan-guage students with language learningdisabilities must process. Complex ideasexpressed using concise and precise lan-guage is considerably easier to under-stand than when these ideas areexpressed in rambling, poorly conceptu-alized, fuzzy language. Novice teachersfrequently do not know the content wellenough to express it clearly, and contentexperts often flood students with far toomuch information than is needed todevelop a novice's understanding of thecomplex idea.

Organizing Information IntoRecognizable Patterns. Most teachersare familiar with graphic organizers, pri-marily webs and Venn diagrams. Websdepict hierarchic organizational struc-tures, whereas Venn diagrams facilitatecompare/contrast structures. Othergraphic organizers depict cause/effectrelationships and either linear or circu-lar sequences. A wealth of research hasdemonstrated their utility both as litera-cy tools and as content-learning tools.These are powerful tools presumablybecause when one processes informa-tion, the brain is engaged in an array ofcognitive processes centered aroundrelating the information to prior knowl-edge, conceptualizing how the informa-tion is structured or organized, differen-tiating supra-ordinate, coordinate, andsubordinate levels of information (sepa-rating main ideas from details) andmonitoring comprehension.

Using graphic organizers relieves thebrain from engaging in some of theseprocesses, hypothetically freeing it to

engage in the other informationprocesses required to construct mean-ing. Critical to understand is that whenthe brain does not have to work as hardto process and understand information,teachers can increase the complexity ofthe content rather than decrease it.Basic graphic organizers provide struc-tural prompts to help students under-stand the information's organizationstructure (see our Web site,www.GraphicOrganizers.com).

Conceptual and relational promptscan be embedded into graphic organiz-ers to make them even more robust.Conceptual prompts focus the students'attention on specific ways to conceptu-alize the to-be-learned information. Thewords embedded in the graphic organ-izer in Figure 4 direct students to thinkabout the topic in specific and impor-tant ways.

Basic graphic organizersprovide structural

prompts to help studentsunderstand

the information'sorganization structure.

Maximizing Opportunities For

Low-Risk Elaboration

Simply put, the more students elaborateon ideas they are learning, the betterthey develop meaningful understandingand remember them. One of the prob-lems most readily noticeable in studentswith language learning disabilities istheir struggle with elaborating ideas.They say as little as possible in class,rarely ask questions, or otherwise vol-untarily engage in class discussions.When prompted to verbalize in class,they sometimes express ideas in waysthat subject them to ridicule. As aresult, to avoid embarrassing these stu-dents as well as having the instruction-al flow stall, these students are often theleast likely to be called on in class.Thus, they are least likely to haveopportunities for developing elaboration

TEACHING EXCEPTrIONAL CHILDREN m SEPT/OCT 2005 n 37

skills (Ellis, 1998). They approach testpreparation primarily as a rote learningtask rather than an elaborative learningtask. These are the overt symptoms.

The covert symptoms manifest inways that significantly contribute to fail-ure and subsequent lack of motivationand include inability to paraphrase,summarize, form predictions, useimagery, generate questions, and con-nect ideas to background knowledge.

Brief factual statements followed bysuccinct open-ended questions are oftenpreferable to long, extended questions.Likewise, activities that focus on help-

ing students construct concise elabora-tions are considerably more robust thanthose that seek brief answers or impre-cise elaborations (Ellis, 1997).

Big Idea #3: ScaffoldKnowiefge ComploxityWhen teaching students how to perform

a skill, process, or strategy, most teach-ers are familiar with the process of scaf-folding assistance whereby the teachergradually fades support as studentslearn to independently apply the skill.When teaching students about big

38 * COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

ideas, scaffolding knowledge is anessential tool. Here, teachers take thetime to find out what students alreadyknow, or think they know about theconcept, as well as what misconcep-tions or erroneous understandings theymay have at the onset. The teacher thenuses this background knowledge as abasis for teaching the abstract informa-tion. Likewise, they scaffold the com-plexity of the concept.

Educators need to focustheir limited time and

resources on teaching acurriculum that has somedegree of relevance for

students.0 N N 0 1 1 I I

When faced with complex conceptsfrom the general curriculum, a commoninitial reaction is to assume that stu-dents with learning problems cannot

learn such abstract information. What isoften substituted is instruction in moreconcrete concepts, or even worse, forgo-ing concept instruction and just teach-ing related factual information. In con-trast, recursively teaching the same con-cept on increasingly more sophisticatedlevels (as opposed to attempting to ini-tially teach the complex version of it)can often result in surprisingly complexand sophisticated understanding.

Big idea #4: Meaningful,Intentional LeanaingMKIWInceSThere are many paths to gaining knowl-edge of big ideas. In some instances,students need is to have someoneexplicitly explain the idea to them.However, what really makes under-standing of the idea come alive for stu-dents is to engage them in authenticlearning opportunities via structuredinquiry. The idea is to provide studentswith opportunities to conduct their owninvestigations that have an authenticpurpose.

Research has clearly demonstratedthat students who are gifted perform

Figure 4. Graphic Organizer With Content Prompts

THEORY

I II

best in these circumstances when theprojects are opened-ended, yet have adegree of structure and scaffolded assis-tance as needed. This would seem espe-cially true for students with dual excep-tionalities given their organizationalproblems. The idea is to provide enoughstructure as to enable the learner to besuccessful, yet not so much structurethat the task is stifled by directions andinflexible procedures. Generally, theseexperiences fall into interrelated cate-

gories of project-based, problem-based,and service-based learning. We collec-tively refer to these as project-basedlearning (PBL).

Essential to understand about PBL,however, is that merely creating theproject-oriented learning experience or

opportunity is insufficient. The PBLmust be intentionally linked to specificacademic standards, and there must bea way to assess whether the standardswere actually attained.

PBL focuses on student-team (orindividual) investigations and/or

applied real-life problem-solving actionsor authentic application of knowledge.Guided by content area national stan-

dards and the teacher's expertise, stu-dents target areas of interest or a com-munity need, plan and conduct investi-gations, develop and implement actionplans and then share what they have

learned with authentic audiences. Asstudents conduct investigations intocontent-area subjects, they also develop

essential skills for gathering and makingsense of information, communicating,using higher order thinking, collaborat-ing, reflecting, and self-evaluating.Perhaps most important, they experi-

ence a sense of active participation andenfranchisement with the community(Corporation for National andCommunity Service, 2002; Kauffman,1999). Figure 5 shows PBL tasks ingraphic form.

PBL provides a format for imple-menting several very powerful instruc-tional principles, including differentiat-ing instruction, scaffolding instruction,

and facilitating socially constructedknowledge. This approach fosters the

development in students of a sophisti-cated understanding of content-areasubjects, as well as development of

effective and efficient strategies forinformation-gathering and processing;communicating; critical, analytical, andcreative thinking; collaborating; goalsetting; and self-evaluating.

In addition to helping studentsdevelop specific skills and knowledgerelated to standards from the statecourse of study, PBL teachers empha-size the following:"* Using effective task-specific strategies

that get the job done in an effectiveand efficient manner.

"* Employing effective collaboration

strategies and work habits."* Maintaining a commitment to quality

at all levels of project work andresults (Ellis & Farmer, 2005; also,refer to Figure 5).

In teaching big ideas to any students,you must know where you want to go,you must want to get there, and youmust be willing to do what is necessaryto make it happen. Be persistent, showcommitment, and use multiple strate-gies to encourage your students. Thedepth of their learning may surprise anddelight you.

RelernessCorporation for National and Community

Service. (2002). Students in service toAmerica: A guidebook for engagingAmerica's students in a lifelong habit ofservice. Washington, DC: Author.

Deshler, D., Schumaker, J., Lenz, K.,Bulgren, J., Hock, M., Knight, J., & Ehren,B. (2001). Ensuring content-area learningby secondary students with learning dis-

Figure 5. Project-Based Learning Tasks

PLANNINGo Anticipating tasks.o Setting goals.o Making commitments.

INVESTIGATINGInvestigate topic orproblem usingmultiple sourcesof information.

Consolidating, synthesizing &organizing information for apresentation.

Conducting an experiment togenerate new information.

Designing an invention to solvea problem.Providing a service to meet asocial need.

DEVELOPING & IMPLEMENTING ACTION PLANS"o Planning tasks."o Establishing priorities & responsibilities."o Defining quality indicators for each task."o Specifying timelines.

COMMUNICATING OUTCOMESClearly communicate results of project to authentic audience.

EVALUATINGEffectiveness of ..."o Planning strategies"o Investigation strategies"o Communication strategiesQuality of ..."o Presentation"o Permanent products"o Service provided

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN s SEPT/OCT 2005 m 39

abilities. Learning Disabilities Research &Practice, 16(2), 96-108.

Ellis, E. S. (1997). Watering-up instructionfor adolescents with mild disabilities: Part1-The knowledge dimension. Remedialand Special Education, 18(6), 326-346.

Ellis, E. S. (1998). Watering-up instructionfor adolescents with mild disabilities: Part2-The affective dimension. Remedial andSpecial Education, 19(2), 91-105.

Ellis, E. S., & Farmer, T. (2005). Make sensestrategies. Lillian, AL: Masterminds, LLC.

Geography Standards Committee. (1994).National geography standards. Washing-ton, DC: National Geographic Society.

Kauffman, J. (1999). Commentary: Today'sspecial education and its messages fortomorrow. Journal of Special Education,32(4), 244-254.

Edwin Ellis (CEC AL Federation), Professor,Department of Interdisciplinary TeacherEducation, University of Alabama,71zscaloosa. Theresa Farmer (CEC ALFederation), a recent Alabama Teacher of theYear, and a Project Specialist for the AlabamaDepartment of Education State ImprovementGrant, Montgomery, Alabama. JaneNewman (CEC AL Federation), AssistantProfessor, Gifted and Talented Education,University of Alabama, Riscaloosa.

Address correspondence to Edwin Ellis atDepartment of Interdisciplinary TeacherEducation, University of Alabama, 223Graves Hall, Tiscaloosa, AL 35487-0232(e-mail: EEllis@bamaed.ua.edu).

Information about the Make Sense Strategies,an instructional model designed for teachingbig ideas and thinking skills, can be found atwwv. GraphicOrganizers.com.

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 38,

No. 1, pp. 34-40.

Copyright 2005 CEC.

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