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Israel

Exploration

Journal

VOLUME 57 NUMBER 2JERUSALEM, ISRAEL 2007


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ISRAEL EXPLORATION JOURNAL

Published twice yearly by the Israel Exploration Societyand the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University,

with the assistance of the Nathan Davidson PublicationFund in Archaeology, Samis Foundation, Seattle, WA,Dorot Foundation, Providence, RI, and P.E.F. IsraelEndowment Funds Inc., New York

FOUNDED BY A. REIFENBERGEDITED BY M. AVI-YONAH FROM 1950 TO 1973

Shmuel Aituv and Miriam Tadmor,EditorsGloria Merker,Associate EditorJoseph Aviram,Administrative EditorTsipi Kuper-Blau,Production Editor

Editorial Advisory Board:D. Barag, O. Bar-Yosef, A. Biran,I. Ephal, Sarah Groll, B.A. Levine, A. Malamat, J. Naveh,Myriam Rosen-Ayalon

Israel Exploration Society website: www.hum.huji.ac.il/ies

All correspondence, papers for publication and books for review should be addressed to:The Editor, Israel Exploration Journal, P.O.B. 7041, Jerusalem 91070, Israel.

Copyright 2007 Israel Exploration SocietyISSN 0021-2059

The Editors are not responsible for opinions expressed by the contributors.


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VOLUM E 57 NUMB ER 2 20 07

CONTENTS

129 IRITZIFFER: The First Adam, Androgyny, and the Ain Ghazal Two-headed

Busts in Context

153 RONNYREICH, ELISHUKRONand OMRILERNAU: Recent Discoveries in the

City of David, Jerusalem

170 ITAMARTAXEL: Application-Decorated Bowls: A Cultural Characterisation

of the Pagan and Christian Population of Jerusalem in the Late Roman and

Byzantine Periods

187 GABRIELABIJOVSKY: Numismatic Evidence for the Gallus Revolt: The

Hoard from Lod

VARIA

204 ANDRLEMAIRE: New Photographs andrytorhytin the Mesha Inscription,

Line 12

208 SHULAMITHADAD: Weights from the Early Roman Period at Ramat Hanadiv

211 NOTES ANDNEWS

244 REVIEWS

Page layout by Avraham Pladot

Typesetting by Marzel A.S. JerusalemPrinted by Old City Press, Jerusalem


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ABBREVIATIONS

AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research

ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan

AJA American Journal of Archaeology

AfO Archiv fr Orientforschung

ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament3, ed. J.B. Pritchard,

Princeton, 1969BA The Biblical Archaeologist

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BT Babylonian Talmud

CAD Chicago Assyrian Dictionary

CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum

DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert

DSD Dead Sea Discoveries

EI Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies

ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel

IAA Reports Israel Antiquities Authority ReportsIEJ Israel Exploration Journal

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies

JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

KAI W. Donner and W. Rllig:Kanaanische und aramische Inschriften13,

Wiesbaden, 19621964; 15, 2002

NEAEHL The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land (English

Edition), Jerusalem, 1993PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

PT Palestinian Talmud

QDAP Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine

RA Revue dAssyriologie et dArchologie Orientale

RB Revue Biblique

RE Pauly-Wissowas Realencyclopdie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft

RQ Revue de Qumran

VT Vetus Testamentum

ZA Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie

ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palstina-Vereins

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATES

2008: $60 including postage or equivalent payable tothe Israel Exploration Society, P.O.B. 7041, Jerusalem 91070, Israel.All subscribers are entitled to a 25% reduction on the publications of the Society.Subscribers should give full name and postal address when paying theirsubscription, and should send notice of change of address at least five weeks before

it is to take effect; the old as well as the new address should be given.Single issue: $30 or equivalent.


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NUMISMATIC DESCRIPTION OF THE HOARD

After determining that the assemblage was typologically homogeneous, it wasdecided to clean only about 45% of the total. All of the coins are well-preserved

2 bronzes, dated to between 348 and 355 CE.Four different emperors were documented in the hoard. The most popular issue

is that of Constantius II (337361 CE; fig. 1:14, 89); also represented are his

188 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Fig. 1. Hoard from Lod: selection of coins


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NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE FOR THE GALLUS REVOLT 189

No. Coin Obverse Reverse References

1. Constantius II,Rome, 350 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor r., pearl-

diademed, cuirassed anddraped, holding globe, theletter Abehind head

GLORIA ROMANORVMEmperor galloping r., spearing

barbarian in front of horse. In r.field: star; in exergue: RT

RIC8: 265,no. 195

2. Constantius II,Siscia, 350 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped, the letter A behindhead

CONCORDIA MILITVMEmperor standing facing, hold-ing a standard in each hand. Inleft field: A; in exergue:ASIS*

RIC8: 369,no. 273

3. Constantius II,Thessalonica,350355 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIOEmperor facing left, holdingVictory on globe and standard,spurning a seated captive. In l.

field:; in r. field: star; inexergue:*TS*

RIC8: 418,no. 168

4. Constantius II,Nicomedia,348351 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor l., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIOEmperor holding standard,facing two captives kneeling.In exergue: SMNA

RIC8: 476,no. 67

5. Constans I,Cyzicus,348350 CE

DN CONSTANS PF AVGBust of emperor l., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped, holding globe

FEL TEMP REPARATIOEmperor dragging captivefrom hut. In exergue: SMKS

RIC8: 495,no. 72

6. Constans I,

Antioch,348350 CE

DN CONSTANS PF AVG

Bust of emperor r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIO

Emperor holding phoenix onglobe and standard, standingon galley, behind him Victoryseated. In r. field: star; inexergue: ANS

RIC8: 522,

no. 131

7. ConstantiusGallus,Thessalonica,351354 CE

FL IVL CONSTANTIVSNOB CAES Bust of emperor r.,bareheaded, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIOEmperor holding phoenix onglobe and standard, standingon galley, behind him Victoryseated. In r. field: star; inexergue:*TSA

RIC8: 418,no. 175

8. Constantius II,Thessalonica,350 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped, the letter A behindhead

FEL TEMP REPARATIOEmperor spearing fallen horse-man, seated and facing theemperor. In l. field: A; inexergue: TS

RIC8: 414,no. 128

9. Constantius II,HeracleaThracia,348351 CE

DN CONSTANTIVS PFAVG Bust of emperor r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIO(FH4) Emperor spearing fallenhorseman, embracing thehorses neck. In l. field: star; inexergue: SMHA

RIC8: 434,no. 67

10. ConstantiusGallus, Alex-

andria,351354 CE

FL IVL CONSTANTIVSNOB CAES Bust of emperor r.,

bareheaded, cuirassed anddraped

FEL TEMP REPARATIO(FH3) Emperor spearing fallen

horseman, raising arm. In l.field:; in exergue: ALEA

RIC8: 543,no. 74


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brother Constans I (337350 CE; fig. 1:56), his cousin Constantius Gallus(351354 CE; fig. 1:7, 10) and Magnentius (350353 CE).2 Twelve mints andseven typological groups were identified in the hoard. The predominant coin type

is the fallen horseman, known in the numismatic literature as FH3 (horsemanraising his arm) and FH4 (horseman embracing the horses neck). From 352 to354 CE, thefallen horsemantypes were the only ones to be struck. This militarytype depicts the emperor Constantius striking down the king of the Persians, whofalls from his horse (RIC8: 35; Kent 1967). The horseman is represented in three

basic postures with some variations in facial features. The issues minted byConstantius II are the most popular type in the hoard, with coins of ConstantiusGallus appearing in fewer numbers.

Coins from the eastern mints of Cyzicus, Antioch and Constantinople arepredominant in the hoard, with fewer issues from western mints. Noteworthy arethe 25 coins minted in Rome, most of them of the emperor on galleytype (RIC8:35). This is the second type in numbers represented in the hoard, with issuesminted by Constantius II, Constans I and Constantius Gallus. In addition, thehoard includes a few coins of rather singular types, characteristic of the westernmints of the Roman Empire. All these coin types were minted until 354 CE.

This predominance of Constantius II eastern coins of the fallen horsemantypes, mostly from Antioch and Cyzicus, is not surprising, given the provenanceof our hoard. Kent summarised the hoards dating from 350353 and 353354 CE(RIC8: 81 and tables 6 and 7) as being mostly of western provenance, from the

dominions of Magnentius, and containing large percentages of coinage of thisemperor. It should be pointed out that only one coin of Magnentius was identifiedin our hoard. Kent referred to a rapid change in the character of hoards after theweight reduction of thefallen horsemancoinage (toc.2.5 gram) that took place in353354 CE. Hoards then became dominated by the new and smaller 3denomination of thefallen horsemantype and its popular imitations (RIC8: 64,81). These are completely absent from our hoard.

THE DATING OF THE DEPOSITION

Since the archaeological context of the hoard is not clear, we can only speculateabout the circumstances of its deposition. As mentioned above, the latest coins inthe hoard date from 351354/355 CE, suggesting that the hoards concealmentmight be associated with either the Gallus Revolt of 351352 CE or the 363 CEearthquake.

Lod is attested as one of the cities destroyed by the earthquake on May 19,363 CE, by theHarvard Syriac 99, an ancient source attributed to Cyril of Jeru-salem (350388 CE): Now we should like to write down for you the names of the


2 For an historical background to their reigns, seeRIC8: 318.


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towns which were overthrown: more than half Lydda and its territory(Russell 1980: 4762). Both the archaeological and numismatic evidence,however, suggest that it is improbable that the earthquake was the cause of the loss

of the hoard. According to the excavators, no indications of seismic activitiy werediscerned at the site, and in fact, there is no archaeological evidence that Diospoliswas destroyed by the earthquake (Mor 1989: 352 and n. 35). In terms of numis-matics, if the hoard was concealed close to 363 CE, the later 3 denominationsmaller module coin types, issued by Constantius II and Julian Caesar between355 and 363 CE (such as the later FEL TEMP REPARATIOfallen horseman[RIC8: 460, nos. 135, 136], SPES REIPVBLICE [RIC8: 461, nos. 149, 150] andSECVRITAS REIPVB [RIC8: 462, no. 161] coin types), should have also been

present. Since, as aforementioned, no issues dating after 351354/355 were foundin the hoard, the 363 CE earthquake is not a likely explanation for the conceal-ment of this hoard.

THE GALLUS REVOLT

A more plausible explanation for the deposition of the hoard would be relatedto the Gallus Revolt in Palestine. According to the mostly non-Jewish literarysources, the event took place during Gallus reign as Caesar in the East in351352 CE (under Constantius II). The revolt is reported to have broken out inSepphoris, spreading throughout the Galilee, and ultimately encompassing other

cities, including Lydda. According to the historical sources, three citiesSepphoris, Tiberias and Lyddawere the focal points of the revolt. The Romanarmy, commanded by Ursinicus, quickly suppressed the insurgents after presum-ably destroying several Jewish settlements.3 Historians and archaeologists haveassociated signs of abandonment or destruction in several archaeological excava-tions in Galilee to the time of this revolt. Since the 1940s, scholars have repeatedthe same historical sources and archaeological references time and again, withoutshedding any new light of the veracity of the episode. The main points raised sofar are presented here in brief, before focusing on the new information provided

by coin hoards.

1.Historical SourcesAn updated account of the historical sources related to the Gallus Revolt is given

by Mor (1989: 336341), who shows that the main problem regarding the histori-cal references is the inconsistency between Jewish and non-Jewish sources. Themost significant information comes from pagan and Christian sources, the reli-ability of which is questioned by Mor. These sources are presented in table 1.


3 For further discussion on the subject, see Lieberman 1946; Avi-Yonah 1976: 176184;Geiger 197980; Geller Nathanson 1981; 1986; Mor 1989: 335353.


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Table 1. The Gallus Revolt in pagan and Christian sources

Source Date Commentary

Aurelius Victor (LiberDe Caesaribus42:912)

360 CE Victor mentions a Jewish insurrection led byPatricius, which was suppressed by Gallus, butdoes not specify the length or place of events.The name Patricius could not be identified withany known person (Geiger 197980: 253).

Ammianus Marcellinus(14.2.20)

Fourthcentury CE

Marcellinus lived in Antioch and wrote exten-sively on Gallusreign. He knew Ursinicus

personally, since he was themagister equitumattached to his staff. Yet Marcellinus seems toignore the events in Palestine and recalls no

Jewish upheaval (Geiger 1979: 77).Jerome (Chronicon.282,Patrologia Latina27: 686)

Fourthcentury CE

Jerome located the revolt in Galilee, and wroteabout Jews rebelling and slaughtering Romansoldiers and other non-Jewish civilians. Therevolt was repressed, and the cities of Sepphorisand Tiberias were burnt. Many other villageswere destroyed, including Lod.

Socrates(Ecclesiastical HistoryII.33,Patrologia

Graeca67.296)

Mid-fifthcentury CE

According to Socrates, a church historian whocontinued the writing of EusebiusEcclesiasti-cal History, the revolt originated in Diocaesarea,

but Gallus prevailed against them, and razed thecity.

The interpretation of the Jewish sources is quite problematic. The PalestinianTalmud and the early midrashimcontain no direct allusion to the destruction ofsettlements during the third and fourth centuries CE. In fact, these sources aredifficult to interpret, and some of them are much earlier (Lieberman 1946: 330),and therefore cannot shed light on the revolt. The rabbinical leadership was appar-ently not involved in the revolt (Geller Nathanson 1986: 3233). Several Jewish

literary sources attributed to the Gallus Revolt and its consequences are given intable 2.

Although these talmudic references provide no direct information on theGallus Revolt, they give evidence for what seems to be the military occupation ofGalilee (and particularly Sepphoris) as a consequence of the Gallus Revolt (Avi-Yonah 1976: 178179; Mor 1989: 339341). The name Gallus is nevermentioned, but only Ursicinus, his commander. Most scholars concur that thehistorical sources do not conclusively prove the existence of a revolt againstGallus in the Galilee, with only Geller Nathanson believing that the Jewish texts

citing Ursinicus, together with the pagan and Christian references to Gallus,establish the historicity of the revolt (1981: 2627).



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Table 2. The Gallus Revolt in Jewish literary sources

Source Commentary

P. Rabbati8.29.2 An old lamentation interpreted as referring to the destruction ofcities (perhaps the Gallus Revolt), mentioning Akko, Lod,Sepphoris and Tiberias.

P. Besah1.6.60 Rabbi Eliezer, Rabbi Abba Mari and Rabbi Mattanyah arepermitted to bring bread for the troops of Ursicinus on theSabbath.

P. Megillah3, 1.74a A Jewish source regarding the burning of a Torah scroll by aRoman soldier (Ursinicus himself?) in Sennabris, Beth Yera(Lieberman 1946: 336337; Avi-Yonah 1976: 181).

P. Sheviit4, 2.35a The baking of bread was permitted on Passover at the village of

Naveh for the Roman soldiers (Avi-Yonah 1976: 181).

An explanation for the economic background of the revolt was proposed byAvi-Yonah (1976: 179), who argued that Sepphoris, Tiberias and Lod were lead-ing textile centres which suffered from oppressive economic measures taken bythe empire, such as high taxation and the employment of slaves by Jews. Mor,however, rejected the possibility that these reasons served as the economic moti-vation for the revolt, describing the mid-fourth century CE as a period of

prosperity and recovery from the disasters of the economic crisis of the third(1989: 344). Indeed, there is no evidence that over-taxation was more severe inPalestine than in the other provinces of the empire (Lieberman 1946: 341343;Mor 1989: 344). On the contrary, it was in the Roman Empires prime interest notto provoke the local population, with its high percentage of Jewish inhabitants.

2.The Archaeological EvidenceThe archaeological evidence for the Gallus Revolt is still in dispute (Mazar 1973:67; Geiger 197980: 250257; Vitto 1996: 117146). Archaeological evidence

of destructions can be quite ambiguous, since it is difficult to evaluate whetherdamage at a certain site was the result of seismic activity, military operations, orother causes.

Geller Nathanson summarised the conclusions of previous scholars, such asAvi-Yonah, Mazar and Meyers, based on excavations and surveys in the Upperand Lower Galilee and the Golan that show signs of abandonment or partial orcomplete destruction: The archaeological evidence is largely indirect or circum-stantial, but seems to indicate a significant upheaval that took place in Galileeduring the mid-fourth century (Geller Nathanson 1981; 1986: 3334). She gave

several possible reasons for this upheaval: 1) the Gallus Revolt; 2) pressure fromtaxation; 3) disturbances following the reign of Julian the Apostate in 363 CE; 4)



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CE.5 These appear to be later intrusions. The hoards provenance is problematic,which casts further doubt on the reliability of the inclusion of the two latest coins.

Hoard of Caesarea synagogue.Excavations were carried out in 1962 by M. Avi-

Yonah, on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Southern BaptistTheological Seminar in Louisville KY. A hoard of 3,700 bronze coins was discov-ered near a wall on the western side of the structure (Avi-Yonah and Negev 1963;

NEAEHL: 278; M. Govaars: personal communication). No full report has beenpublished on the excavation or the hoard. An unpublished numismatic study wasundertaken by Jean-Michel Gozlan, including a descriptive catalogue of cointypes.6 The coins range between 316 361 CE. The Caesarea synagogue hoard

presents a wider selection of coin types than Lod, although most coins belong tothe FH3/FH4 fallen horseman types, like at Lod. Antioch, Alexandria and

Cyzicus mints are best represented, with very few exemplars from western mints,such as Siscia, Aquilea and Arles. As noted above, this is characteristic of hoardsfound in the East. Over 5% of the identified coins belong to Julian II, who ruled asCaesar between 355 and 360 CE.7 Gozlan established that the hoard could nothave been concealed before 355 CE and probably not after 361 CE. According tothe excavators, the synagogue was destroyed at this point. The date of the destruc-tion relied heavilyif not exclusivelyon the hoard evidence. Gozlans studyconfirms, however, that the hoard from Caesarea, unlike the Lod hoard, post-datesthe Gallus Revolt (Mor 1989: 342).

Korazim hoard.The hoard was found in Building E, north of the synagogue andpresumably built at the same time. According to Yeivin and Meshorer, the hoardincluded 400 coins, the latest dating to c. 340 CE. Meshorer noted a gap in coinageat the site betweenc. 340 and 390 CE, which he attributed to an abandonment ofKorazim after the Gallus Revolt (Meshorer 1973). Ariel re-examined the materialand published the results of 159 coins from the hoard found in the IAA (2000: 33,36). Most date from the first half of the fourth century CE, but approximately 5%

post-date 341 CE. The later coins might have been intrusive. Only two coins


5 The hoard, which has not been published, is in the Israel National Collection (IAAnos. 5401954541). The number of coins, dating and bibliographical reference givento this hoard in Waner 1998 is inaccurate (Hoard 33: 440 coins from northern Israel,dated to 300350 CE; in Lambert 1932: 5556 (this is, in fact, a hoard of Byzantinefolles).

6 We thank J.-M. Gozlan for his permission to cite the results of his study (Gozlan1986). Only 1,172 of the 3,700 coins in the hoard were available for study; 429 coinswere in a state of preservation that enabled complete identification. A total of 1,214coins are registered in the IAA (nos. 2306623418 and nos. 3027831050).

7 Of the total of 429 identified coins: 60.8% belong to Constantius II, some of them also

dated between 355 and 361; 9.0% belong to Constantius Gallus and 5.4% to ConstansI (only the relevant percentages for this discussion are cited).


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Table 3. Archaeological sites directly or indirectlyassociated with the Gallus Revolt

Site Date/Layer Commentary

Beth Shearim Stratum IIIB,third to mid-fourth centuriesCE

End of settlement and necropolis by mid-fourthcentury, due to Gallus Revolt (Mazar 1973: 7677;Avi-Yonah 1976). However, settlement continuedthrough Byzantine period and perhaps into earlyIslamic period (Vitto 1996). See discussion of coinhoard (p. 198).

Beth Yera Not defined Identified with ancient Sennabris. Remains ofsynagogue with two phasesRoman andByzantine (NEAEHL1: 258). Ilan (1991: 120)

suggested that building was damaged during GallusRevolt.

Caesareasynagogue

Stratum IV Constructed in fourth century; destruction dated toGallus Revolt (NEAEHL1: 278279; Levine 1995:239). See discussion of coin hoard. (p. 195)

Capernaumsynagogue

Not defined Excavators dated construction to end offourthbeginning of fifth century. Some scholars

predated construction to third century, with laterrepairs after Gallus Revolt (Geller Nathanson1981: 127128; Mor 1989: 342) or 363 CE earth-

quake (NEAEHL1: 293294). No evidence for 363CE earthquake at site (Groh 1995: 6768).Magness dated construction of synagogue not

before third quarter of the fifth century (2001:2223).

Korazim Not defined Excavator claimed Korazim was abandonedbetween 340 and 390 CE (Yeivin 1973: 157;Meshorer 1973; cf. Ariel 2000). See discussion ofcoin hoard (pp. 195, 197).

Gush Halav Period II, syna-

gogue phaseVIb, 306363CE

End of phase related to 363 CE earthquake. Latest

coin evidence until 365 CE. Magness datedconstruction of synagogue not before second halfof fifth century (2001: 16).

orvatAmmudimsynagogue

Not defined Constructed at end of thirdbeginning of fourthcenturies. No indications of sudden destruction.Site abandoned at end of fourthbeginning of fifthcentury (NEAEHL1: 5556; Levine 1982).

ammat Gader(Tell el-Hammeh)

synagogue

Second phase Probably collapsed as result of 363 CE earthquake(NEAEHL2: 566569; Sukenik 1935).


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ammathTiberias (Syna-gogue of

Severos)

Stratum IIa Dated by excavator to between the earthquakes of306 and 422 CE, with no evidence of intentionaldestruction. Coins suggest terminus in early fifth

century (Dothan 1981: 64, 66; Groh 1995: 6667;Weiss 1998: 38, 43).

Jalame Period 2,275350 CE;Period 3,351383 CE

Greatly increased activity at site after 350 CE,mostly related to glass manufacture. Drastic changeassociated with Gallus Revolt. However no struc-tural evidence that site was affected. More than halfof identifiable coins were dated to 351378 CE(Davidson Weinberg 1988: 34, 16).

Meironsynagogue

Stratum IV,250365 CE

Peak period of village life. Gradual but systematicabandonment of site attributed to socio-economic

factors (perhaps Gallus Revolt or severe taxation)or natural factors (perhaps drought of 362/363 or363 or 365 earthquakes) (Meyers, Strange andMeyers 1981). No stratified coins after 360 CE, butcoin report by Raynor and Meshorer (1988)included many later, fifth-century, coins.

Nabrateinsynagogue

Phase 2a,250306 CE;

phase 2b,306350/363 CE

Village life ended with 363 CE earthquake, perhapspreceded by unrest provoked by Gallus Revolt(NEAEHL3: 1077; Meyers, Strange and Meyers1982).

Sepphoris Not defined 1930s excavations associated partial destruction ofcity with Gallus Revolt (Yeivin 1937: 3031).Excavations at the House of Dionysos suggest that363 CE earthquake caused damage to city. (Meyers,

Netzer and Meyers 1986; Meyers, Meyers andNetzer 1987; Meyers, Netzer and Meyers 1988;Weiss and Netzer 1997; Z. Weiss: personal commu-nication). See discussion of coin hoards (p. 199).

Khirbet Shema(Teqoa) second

synagogue

Stratum IV:306419 CE

First phase of synagogue was destroyed by 306 CEearthquake, and the second phase by 419 CE earth-

quake (NEAEHL4: 13591361; Meyers, Kraabeland Strange 1976: 3339, 64, 81). Significantnumber of coins dated to 351361 CE. No coingaps until early fifth century (Hanson 1976:158162). Magness (1997: 211220) datedconstruction of synagogue during latefourthbeginning of fifth century.

KhirbetSumaqasynagogue

Phase 1 Synagogue erected in third century, destroyeddeliberately during fourth or early fifth century,

perhaps due to local disturbances or political perse-cution by Christians or due to Samaritan Revolt(Dar and Mintzker 1995: 157165).


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belong to the FH3/FH4fallen horsemantypes, relating to the time of the GallusRevolt. In fact, considering the huge output of these issues throughout the empire,more coins of these types should be expected if the hoard was indeed deposited as

a result of the revolt. Ariels re-examination, which also considered Kloetzlisfinds (1970), does not support Meshorers attribution of the gap and concealmentof the hoard to the Gallus Revolt, although it does not exclude it. In our opinion,the date of the deposit of the Korazim hoard cannot be determined conclusively.

Beth Shearim hoard.A hoard of some 1,200 coins was discovered in an ashlayer in room 8 of Building B, north-west of the synagogue, buildings that weredestroyed by fire (stratum IIIB). According to Mazar: The coins belong to thefirst half of the fourth century A.D. and the series ends with Constantius II. Thehoard includes not a single coin struck by Gallus or any other ruler from the

middle of the fourth century. We may infer that the building, together with thewhole city, was destroyed by Gallus in consequence of the Jewish revolt in theyear 352 (Mazar 1942: 196197; 1973: 67, 16, 1819 and n. 13). According toVitto, however, Beth Shearim is not mentioned among the places involved in theGallus Revolt, nor among the sites destroyed by the 363 CE earthquake. In heropinion, Beth Shearim probably experienced a period of decline by the mid-fourth century CE, but this was certainly not connected to the Gallus Revolt, andthe settlement continued to flourish long afterwards (Vitto 1996: 138).

The hoard from Beth Shearim was recently re-examined by the author.8 The

picture that arises from the extant 616 poorly preserved bronze coins is similar tothe hoard from Korazim. The bulk is dated from the last quarter of the thirdcentury to the 30s of the fourth century CE. There are, however, a number of latercoins: a FEL TEMP REPARATIO of the hut type, dated to Constans I (348350CE), a wornfallen horseman of Constantius II (of the 2denomination, roughlydated between 346 and 355 CE); a SALVS REIPVBLICAE Victory draggingcaptive coin (dated 383395 CE); a CONCORDIA AVGGG cross, dated to395408 CE) and finally, a worn coin dated to the second half of the fourthfifth

centuries. Even if we consider that many coins were lost, if the hoard was indeed

concealed because of the Gallus Revolt, more contemporary FEL TEMPREPARATIO coin types would be expected, and the later coins would have to be

excluded as intrusive. Like the Korazim hoard above, because of the small

number of FEL TEMP REPARATIO coin types and late material, the date of

deposit of the hoard cannot be determined with any certainty, and the evidence

from the Beth Shearim hoard cannot contribute to a discussion on the Gallus

Revolt.


8 The unpublished hoard is located in the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew

University of Jerusalem. I am grateful to Prof. D. Barag, who permitted me to checkthe coins.


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Sepphoris hoard.A hoard discovered in the occupation phase of the House ofDionysos at Sepphoris contained 48 coins (Meyers, Netzer and Meyers 1988:92).9 None were later than 346 CE, with the exception of a single coin of

Constantius Gallus (FEL TEMP REPARATIO FH3, IAA 82043), dated to351354 CE, perhaps indicating the deposition date of the hoard. The excavatorsconcluded that the mansion was destroyed by the earthquake in 363 CE (Meyers,Meyers and Netzer 1987: 277), as they discovered no evidence of fire or destruc-tion related to the Gallus Revolt (Weiss and Netzer 1997: 10). This is in contrast tothe historical sources, which refer explicitly to the destruction of Sepphoris by thesuppressors of the revolt. On the contrary, they claim that the archaeologicalremains indicate that the earthquake of 363 CE devastated the city.

Qarin hoard.A huge deposit ofc. 9,000 bronze coins, was discovered under abeaten-earth floor in a large courtyard in complex C of the village at Qarin (stra-tum V).10 The occupation of this structure continuedwith many architecturalchangesuntil the eighth century CE. While only a selection of 150 coins fromthe hoard has so far been cleaned and identified, the excavator correctly noted thatthe hoard includes numerous coins of Julian II dated to 355361 CE (NEAEHL:1223).11 Consequently, the Qarin hoard cannot be related to the Gallus Revolt.

Hoard of unknown provenance.The latest coins of a hoard ofc. 1,200 bronzecoins was donated to the Kadman Pavilion of the Eretz-Israel Museum, Tel Aviv

(Waner 1998: hoard no. 52), According to a reference in Alon,12

the latest coinsare attributed to Constantius Gallus, dated to 359361 CE; the deposition of thehoard is therefore related to the Gallus Revolt, given as 361 CE. This dating is,of course, erroneous. The hoard contains approximately 1,000 coins of FELTEMP REPARATIOfallen horsemantypes of Constantius II, a few belonging toConstantius Gallus and 92 coins dated to Julian II (60 coins are FEL TEMPREPARATIO fallen horseman types and 32 are SPES REIPVBLICE dated to355361 CE).13 Consequently, as with most of the other hoards, this find post-dates the events relating to the Gallus Revolt.


9 Both unpublished hoards are registered at the IAA coin department (IAA8200082043 and IAA 8204482152).

10 The excavations were directed by A. Killebrew, on behalf of the IAA.11 Recent cleaning of coins, however, has revealed one example of a coin of Valens

(GLORIA ROMANORVM 8), dated to 364367 (J. Betlyon: personal communica-tion). This discovery might ultimately change the entire dating for the deposition ofthe hoard.

12 A Hoard of Roman Coins of the Fourth Century CE (no author),Alon3/2 (1968), p. 55(Hebrew). The hoard was donated to the museum by a dealer from Bethlehem, whoclaimed it was discovered in Idna, south-west of Hebron.

13 My thanks are extended to C. Meir, curator of the Kadman Pavilion, for this informa-tion.


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CONCLUSIONS

As once stated by Magness with regard to the use of datings of earthquakes (1997:219), what we have here is another example of poorly founded interpretations,

which are repeatedly quoted until they become facts. The Gallus Revolt, which,since the 1940s, has been attributed to various hoards, has become a resilient factthat appears difficult to controvert.

As shown above, contrary to what is generally accepted today in the scholarlyliterature, none of the eight hoards cited by Safrai and Waner as related to theGallus Revolt are indeed associated with it with certainty. Only two of thesehoardsKorazim and Beth Shearimmight possibly be related to the GallusRevolt, and even their attribution to this event is with serious reservations. But thefact that hoards such as Korazim, Beth Shearim or the one from northern Pales-

tine have coins no later than c. 340 CE does not automatically indicate that thesites where these hoards were found had been destroyed during a campaign byGallus against rebels. Moreover, Waner and Safrais statement (2001: 76) thatmost of the hoards were discovered in ancient synagoguesa context that wouldsupport the Gallus Revolt interpretationis inaccurate. Only twothe hoards ofCaesarea and Korazimare definite synagogue deposits. The detailed evidenceshows that Waner and Safrais conclusions, which were drawn from the numis-matic material, were overstated. Consequently, no historical conclusionsregarding the veracity of the Gallus Revolt may be drawn.

As shown in this article, the hoard from Lod is, in fact, the only hoard from thisregion that may corroborate the Gallus Revolt, since its latest coins fall within arange corresponding to this event. Even in this case, however, one must becautious about drawing far-reaching conclusions, since the limited excavatedcontext of the hoard provided no evidence that could relate to an uprising or mili-tary campaignsuch as evidence of fire or violent destruction. Even if we assumethat the historical sources regarding Lodwhich suggest that the city participatedin the Gallus Revolt and suffered from its suppresionare well founded (seeabove), this hoard would be the only testimony to provide archaeological and

numismatic support for the effects of the revolt. While this does not necessarilyinvalidate Liebermans conclusions regarding the authenticy of the evidenceconcerning the Gallus Revolt, it may have been a local and marginal event infourth-century Jewish history, encouraged by a group of Sepphorean Jews(described by Avi-Yonah as a band of zealots; 1976: 178179), which had nofurther consequences, since most of the population was not involved.

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