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bilinguisme

द्वि�भा�षा�वा�दNote from “Life with 2 languages”

by Francois Grosjean1982

Nathan Quach

August 2013

Bilingualism

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Agenda1. Bilingualism in the world2. Study cases3. Outcome of Bilingualism

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Bilingualism in the World

• Bilingualism: “the regular use of 2 or more languages”o Number of existing languages: 3000 to 4000

• However, some are more important than the rest (i.e. spoken by major of world’s population)

o Number of countries: 196

• Origins:o Contact between language groups (movement of peoples)o Military conquesto Colonizationo Nationalismo Political federalismo Educationo Industrializationo Urbanizationo Intermarriage

• Can be found in almost every countries in the world

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Bilingualism in the World• Officially bilingual/multilingual countries:

o Belgium: Flemish, French and Germano Canada: English, Frencho Cyprus: Greek, Turkisho Finland: Finish, Swedisho India: Hindi, Englisho Israel: Hebrew, Arabico Singapore: Chinese, Malay, Tamil and Englisho Switzerland: Swiss German, French and Italian

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Bilingualism in the World• Monolingual countries with bilingualism:

o America:• USA: English, Spanish, Chinese, French, …• Paraguay: Spanish, Guarani• …

o Africa:• Tanzania: Swahili, English and many local languages• Ghana: English, Akan, Fanti, … (50 in total)• Lebanon: Arabic, French, English• …

o Asia: • Malaysia: Malay, Chinese• Japan: Japanese, Ainu, Chinese and Korean• Philippine: Filipino, English, Spanish• …

o Europe:• France: French, Bretons, Basques, Alsatians, Flemings, Catalans, Corsicans, Occitans and

North Africans• Great Britain: English, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, West Indian Creole• Spain: Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician and Basque• …

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Study case 1 – Japan (Military conquest & Colonization)

• Highly monolingual – Japanese (99%)• Minorities group (1%):

o Ainu: indigenous Caucasoid group from northern island of Hokkaido

o Koreans & Chinese: • brought to Japan by force (1920s-1930s)• Separated from Japanese majority

o Speak their respective languageso Attend their own schoolso Participate in their own community affairs

• Little effort from government to integrate

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Study case 2 – Germany (Immigrant labour)

• Used to be totally monolingual• Rebuilt economy after 2 world wars required cheap

labour:o Turkey, Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece and so on -> bilingualism.o However, “They (host country) called for labour but human beings arrived”:

• Temporary labour force – “unwanted jobs”, “badly paid”, “hired or fired at the whim of employers”

• Problems of integrating immigrants and their families into society:o Discouraged from settling downo Hostility from nativeo Segregationo Cultural shocko Little/no bilingual education, few courses to learn native language,

few/no radio/TV programs in the group’s languageo Lack of support for cultural and language maintenance

• Consequences: tension, grief and violence (similar cases: France, Great Britain and other industrialized nations)

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Study case 3 – African nations (Colonization & Nationalism)

• Gained independent -> select an official administrative language: o A language spoken by a linguistic group within country -> endoglossic.

• Must not favour one ethnic group over anothero Or a language from outside the nation -> exoglossic

• Colonial language (e.g. English, French…)• The need for a written medium & its international character• The fear of internal cleavage when pre-eminence is given to a local

language

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Study case 3 – African nations (cont.)

• Endoglossic examples:o Tanzania: Swahili – official language, coexists with other local

languages and English.o Any problem? No. There’re positive attitudes toward bilingualism.

• Exoglossic examples:o Zambia, Ghana: English – official languageo Senegal: 90% population speak Wolof, but official language is French

(used by minority).• Reason: French, spoken by elite class, is the key to social mobility.• Consequence: resentment, antagonism

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Study case 4 – Paraguay (Intermarriage, Colonization & Nationalism)

• Spanish, colonial language, is official languageo Government business, school, army and official matterso Used by 60% of population

• Guarani, Indian language, is national languageo Informality, rural areas, home, emotions and friendship, folk cultureo Used by 90% of populationo Recognized as important as Spanish, “a unifying force in the country”

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Study case 5 – Canada (Nationalism, Political federalism)

• Official languages: French & Englisho Only 13% of population speak both regularly

(fewer than there are in so-called monolingual African nations)

o 67% English speakingo 26% French speaking

• “Bilingual countries were created not to promote bilingualism, but to guarantee the maintenance and use of two or more languages in the same nation.”

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Study case 5 – Canada (cont.)

• Official policy of bilingualism:o Personality principle:

• Bilingualism is official throughout the country • People freely to choose language to deal with administration and

education for their children• E.g. South Africa, Canada

o Territorial principle:• Country is divided into different monolingual areas, each with its

own official language (administration & school)• E.g. Switzerland, Belgium

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Study case 5 – Canada (cont.)

• A bit of history:o Early 17th Cent: both English and French settled in Quebec, lived in

relative peace.• Some intermarriages

o 1762: in NA, 2m English settlers vs 80k French o 1763: France gave up its territories in Canada to British.

• French speaking Canadian were guaranteed civil institutions, but had little say in the running of nation or their own province (Quebec)

• English dominated economic and political life of countryo 1968-69: Official Languages Act – English & French are declared official

languages.o 1977: Chartre de la Langue Française - Quebec made French the

SOLE official language of the province.

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How is it now?

http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2013/02/28/quebecs-language-folly/

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Conclusion about Bilingual nations

• Bilingual countries were created NOT to promote bilingualism, but to guarantee the maintenance and use of two or more languages in the same nation and to help ease, when possible, tensions between the different linguistic groups

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Outcome of Bilingualism1. Prolonged Bilingualism

o Nations are made up of different separate monolingual communities with a small portion of population serving as bilingual contact between groups• Belgium, Canada, Switzerland• Language of contact is usually the dominant/prestige language

o It’s usually French-speaking Canadians who learn English than English Canadians who learn French.

o Different languages for its own internal needs• Paraguay, Switzerland, Greece, Arab-speaking countries

o Sign language and written form of the dominant oral language (Deaf people).

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Outcome of Bilingualism

2. Return to Monolingualism:o Language maintenance:

• Group has become bilingual due to military invasion/colonization, after foreign influence diminishes/is removed, reverts to original monolingualism.

o Language shift:• The first language disappears and there’s a shift to the 2nd language.• When a nation is established

o In 1876, Hungary was made an autonomous kingdom within Hapsburg empire (official languages was German). Hungarian was promoted as national language.

o In 20 year time, German-speaking group reduced from 33% of Budapest population to 14%, while number of German-Hungarian bilinguals increased.

• When a group of people migrates to another lando Result in mother-tongue displacement, either in native group or in

migration group

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Examples of Language Shift1. Egyptian language disappeared (around 18th Century)

due to Persians, Greeks, Romans and Arab who occupied part or all of Egypt at various times.

2. Welsh language o 1st language of most Welsh people for many centuries (despite English was

official language of United Kingdom). o Due to industrialization in South Wales in 19th Century which brought in a flow of

English immigrants, English slowly replaced Welsh. Today, 1% is monolingual in Welsh, 20% is bilingual and 79% is English monolingual.

3. And many Indian languages in South America that have ceased to be used when Indians shifted over to Spanish.

4. Many cases of members of the second generation of immigration being totally monolingual in English (Australia, New Zealand, Canada and USA)

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To conclude

Image from lospinosbs.com