bio 3 handout
TRANSCRIPT
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BIO 3 HANDOUT
ANIMAL TISSUES
A.Epithelial tissues-lining of the surfaces-selectively permeable-regenerates (in liver andstomach the tissues are replacedevery 2-3 days)-simple epithelial cells(squamous, cuboidal, columnar)
Cheek squamous epithelial cells
Collecting ducts in the medulla
of a mammalian kidney linedwith simple cuboidal cells
Intestinal columnar cells
B.Vascular tissues
BLOOD -circulates throughout the body-carries nutrients and oxygen or
wastes-made up of different
components:
Plasma-water-containing
fluid
Platelets (thrombocytes)-function for blood clotting
White blood cells(leukocytes)- hasdifferent types(neutrophil, basophil andeosinophil) ; function forimmune response
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Neutrophil- against bacteria;inflammatory reactions
Basophil- responsible for allergic
reactions
Eosinophil- responsible for immune
response against parasites
Red Blood Cells(erythrocytes)- withhemoglobin; carrier ofoxygen
Enucleated human RBCs
Lymph (lymphocytes: T
cells and B cells) for theimmune system
T cell (blue)- attack foreign
bodies as a principal mean ofdefense
B cell (arrow)- responsible for
the production of antibodiesCONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER -with abundant matrix(extracellular materials)
-Adipose cells/ fat cells/adipocytes
important for nutrientstorage
found under the skin,bone marrow, around the
kidneys, hips and breastswithin the cells are fat
droplets (triglycerides)
incapable of dividing(increase in body weight-cells swell)
-Tendon (muscle to bone) andLigament (bone to bone)
Adipose cells
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CARTILAGE -cells: chondrocytes within thelacuna
-composed of glycoproteins:chondroitin and collagen fibers
-high tensile strength-found at (joints) surfaces ofbones
-tip of nose, pinna (ear), larynxor voice box
Chondrocytes
BONE -calcified cartilage (calciumphosphate)
-cells: osteocytes
Haversian system (bracket);Canaliculi (arrow)MUSCLE TISSUESmooth Muscle
-location: walls of blood vessels,stomach, intestines
-function: powers rhythmicinvoluntary contractions
Skeletal Muscle -location: voluntary muscles
-function: powers walking, lifting,dancing
Cardiac Muscle -location:walls of the heart
-highly interconnected cells
promote rapid spread of signalinitiating contraction
NERVE TISSUENeurons
-capable of electrochemicalevents: IMPULSES
-parts:
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Cross section of a nerve
THE GENERAL BODY PLAN OF
ANIMALS
-Kingdom animalia is the most diversegroup of organisms. One of thereasons is the differences in thegeneral body plan. Throughout theevolution of animals, their body planshave undergone many changes:Evolution of Tissues
-simplest animals like Parazoas(sponges) exist as simply aggregates
of cells with minimal intercellularcoordination.
-eumetazoa (all higher animals),
have distinct tissues with highlyspecialized cells.
Evolution of Bilateral Symmetry -sponges lack symmetry
-RADIAL symmetry- exhibited bymarine animals: Cnidarians(jellyfishes, sea anemones and corals)and Ctenophorans (combjellies).
Jellyfish sea an
Corals
-BILATERAL symmetry- right and
left mirror images; concept ofdorsal/ventral, anterior end/posterior end; allowed animals to:
-move more efficiently-have different organs
located in different partsof the body-produce 3 germ layers:ectoderm-outer coverings,mesoderm-skeleton andmuscles, and endoderm-digestive organs-cephalization
Evolution of Body Cavity
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-evolved for supporting organs, anddistributing materials- 3 kinds of body plans:Acoelomates
-no body cavity-flatworms: tapeworms, flukesand planarians
Tapeworm Liver Fluke
Planarian
Pseudocoelomates
-with a body cavity- pseudocoel-between mesoderm and
endoderm-nematodes: Ascaris
Evolution of Segmentation- subdivision of the body into
segments-advantages: (annelids) damage in
one segment is not fatal(duplication of segmentfunctions)
and in locomotion, each segmentcan move independently.
-SegmentationMETAMERISM: eachsegment is similar to the other(somites/metameres).
TAGMATIZATION:segments fused into functionalgroups (tagmata)
clitellum Pheretima (earthworm)
Linkia (starfish)
Penaeus (shrimp)
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Periplaneta Americana
Bufomarinus
ORGAN SYSTEMS
THE PROTECTIVE AND
SUPPORT SYSTEMS OF
ANIMALS
Main functions: to provide support,protection and enable movement ofdifferent skeletal forms:
Hydrostatic Skeleton -exhibited by mollusks andnematodes/ worms
-pressurized fluid incompartments and by using themuscles surrounding thesecompartments, the animal changes
shape and produces movement(peristaltic movement - squeezingother segments while allowing othersto relax)
Exoskeleton -skeletons which encases theorganisms body
-exhibited by insects,crustaceans and spiders
-composed of CHITIN (light,strong for protection and reduction of
water loss);-can be calcified for further
strengthening
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Euplectella(Venus basket) the skeleton is made up of silica
Endoskeleton -found within the body of the animal
-vertebrates (bones) and echinoderms (ossicles) calcium rich-2 sections: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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Types of Digestive Tracts (Guts)Incomplete Gut
-single opening: mouth
-Planarian, Cnidarian,
Nematodes-gastrovascular cavity: mouth,pharynx, intestine
-extracellular digestion:circulation of food by diffusion
-no specialization of partsComplete Gut -two openings: mouth and anus
-with specialization of parts:
pharynx-draws in food with asucking action
gizzard- thick muscular walls forchurning and grinding of food
cloaca- storage of undigestedmaterials, urine, and products ofthe reproductive system
cecum- with bacteria; aids thedigestion of cellulose; located atthe beginning of the largeintestine; more prominent inruminants/ herbivores
accessory organs:-liverproduces bile (greensolution that emulsifies fats)-gall bladderstores andconcentrates bile-pancreas release digestiveenzymes and bicarbonate buffersto aid digestion
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EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Planaria/ Flat worms -PROTONEPHRIDIA (tubules)which branchout into bulb-like FLAME
CELLS -cilia within the flame cells drawin fluids from the body
-the wastes are expelled throughexcretory pores that open outside thebodyAnnelida/ Round worms -NEPHRIDIA (tubules) obtain fluidfrom body cavity by filtration ofNEPHROSTOMES- pore for urine
excretion (urine is diluted; NaCl isreabsorbed)-in Mollusks (kidney) and
Crustaceans (antennal glands)- urineproduced from filtration; ions arereclaimed by reabsorptionInsects -MALPHIGIAN TUBULES whichbranch off anterior to the hindgut
-waste products and potassium
ions are secreted into tubules by activetransport-most water and K+ are
reabsorbed; dry waste productexcreted from the rectumVertebrates -kidneyNEPHRONSNITROGENOUS WASTES:Ammonia- can be toxic to cells;
released in a diluted form by bonyfishes and tadpolesUrea- excreted by adult amphibians,mammals; soluble in water and can beexcreted in large amounts; frombloodstream to liver, then kidneys andexcreted as urine
Uric acid- from reptiles, birds andinsects; slightly soluble in water; insolid form, excreted with little water(helps in reduction of water loss)
In most mammals, there is an enzyme:URICASE which convert uric acid toallantoin, a less toxic substance, buthumans, apes, and Dalmatian dogs donot have it. The excessive deposits ofuric acid can cause: Gout.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
3 principal functions of C.S.:
Transportation nutrients and oxygenRegulation transport of regulatoryhormonesProtection blood clotting and immunedefenseTypes of Circulatory SystemsFor Cnidarians, Flatworms/ Planarianswhich have two layers of body wall,have direct contact with the external
environment that transport can occurby diffusion.Open Circulatory System
-exhibited by mollusks andarthropods
-no distinction between thecirculating fluid (blood) andextracellular fluid (interstitialfluid/lymph): HEMOLYMPH
-heart is a muscular tube which
pumps hemolymph through a networkof channels and cavities in the body-fluid drains back to the central
cavity
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Closed Circulatory System -exhibited by annelids(invertebrates) and all vertebrates
-circulating fluid (blood) isenclosed in blood vessels
a-artery(away from the heart); b-capillary; c-vein (back to the heart)
Earthworm-dorsal vessel contracts to
function as pump-blood is pumped through 5 small
connecting arteries which function aspumps to a ventral vessel (transportposteriorly until it re-enters dorsalvessel
Fishes-have true chamber-pump heart: sinusvenosus and atrium (collection chambers);ventricle and conus arteriosus(pumpingchambers)
Toad heart has three chambers: rightand left atria, and a ventricle.Amphibian and Reptile Circulation2 types:Pulmonary Circulation
-heart to lungs, then back to heart-pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary
vein-heartSystemic Circulation
-heart to body organs, then back toheart
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Mammalian and bird hearts are four-chambered.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Fishes have gills wherein water passes from the gill arch and over the filaments.Water always passes the lamellae in an opposite direction of blood flow. The successof the gills operation is dependent on the countercurrent flow of blood and water.
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In amphibian lungs, each lung is an outpouching of the gut. It is filled with air by thecreation of a positive pressure inside the buccal cavity. Their lungs are not asefficient as the lungs of other terrestrial vertebrates because they lack structuresthat would increase the surface area of the lungs for gas exchange.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Evolution of the Nervous System. Animals exhibit a progressive elaboration of organized nerve cordsand the centralization of complete responses in the front end of the nerve cord. This evolutionaryprocess is known as CEPHALIZATION.
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Evolution of Vertebrate Brain. In sharksand other fishes, the hindbrain is predominant,which primarily is used to process sensory
information. For amphibians and reptiles, theforebrain is more dominant as the cerebrumbecomes bigger. It is devoted to associativeactivity. In birds and mammals, especiallyhumans, the largest portion of the brain is thecerebrum.
Reflex Action
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
An adult insect emerging from an old cuticle
Insects exoskeleton cannot expand as theorganism grows, this is the reason they undergomolting. This process is initiated to occurbecause of hormones released by endocrineglands.
References:Raven et. al. 2005. BIOLOGY. 7th ed.
McGraw Hill Company. Boston.
Mader S.S. 1998. BIOLOGY. 6th ed.
McGraw Hill Company. Boston. Pp
716-912.
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Anatomy of Planarians
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
-all animals have a DIPLONTIC life cycle,the only haploid cells are the SEX CELLSor GAMETES-reproduction is very essential for thesurvival of species and the creation ofdiversity (variation).2 types:ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION -involves 1 parent (samegenotype: no variation)
-exhibited by:
FlatwormsTRANSVERSEFISSION
CnidariansBUDDING fromparent
Echinodermscut to form newindividuals
InsectsPARTHENOGENESIS(females produce offspringsfrom unfertilized eggs
Some fishesSEQUENTIALHERMAPHRODISM (protogyny-female at first, then change toa male; protoandry- male thenbecomes a female)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
-fusion of two gametes-variation is achieved: exchange
of genetic content2 types of FertilizationEXTERNAL FERTILIZATION -many gametes released in water
-animal sperm must swim to eggsINTERNAL FERTILIZATION -for animals that lay shelledeggs/ have a period of internal
embryonic development-for terrestrial animals which
can enable their sperm to swim withoutdrying out
-males have special organs usedfor transferring sperm: process:COPULATION
-gametes are produced inGONADS by the process calledGAMETOGENESIS which occurs when theorganism is sexually matured
-sperm cell / spermatozoaproduction SPERMATOGENESIS
-egg cell/ ova productionOOGENESIS
-FERTILIZATION: activation ofthe egg (entry of sperm) + AMPHIMIXIS(fusion of egg and sperm nuclei)