There are a ton of elements involved in life processes but thankfully, all of them can be divided into 4 main groups:

1. ______________________

2. ______________________

3. ______________________

4. ______________________ Don’t pretend you aren’t

jealous of this sweet Tee.

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Lipids

Nucleic Acids

What 3 elements comprise all carbo-hydrates and in what arrangement? • It’s important that your remember this…especially if you plan to

take the SAT!

Most carbohydrates have a common suffix. What is it?

“-ose”

Can you name some carbs? • The group that can come up with the most will

receive some carbs, too! (Just make sure you burn ‘em off, or they’ll end up on those hips!)

Game on.

Glucose

Fructose

Maltose

Sucrose

Lactose

Cellulose

Ribose

Deoxyribose

Starch

Chitin

Increasing complexity

The scientific term for a carbohydrate is a ______________________, which literally translates to sugar.

Carbs range from very simple molecules to very complex molecules. Name ‘em.

saccharide

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

The simplest sugars are referred to as monosaccharides.

What is a monosaccharide?

What does one look like?

A single-ringed carb.

Pentagonal Hexagonal

What are some examples of monosaccharides?

Glucose Dextrose Ribose

As you already know, the chemical formula of almost all carbs is a mix of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. Some sugars even have the same exact chemical formula but have different structural formulas.

Can you think of 2 monosaccharides that have the same chemical formula but a completely different structural formula?

*This will be an exam question!

GLUCOSE FRUCTOSE C

6H

12O

6

Bland taste

Hexagonal

C6H

12O

6

70X sweeter

than glucose

Pentagonal

C

C

C C

C

O

CH2OH

H

H H

OH OH

OH

OH

H

H

C

C C

C

O CH

2OH

HO2HC

OH

OH

OH H

H H

What is a disaccharide?

A 2-ringed carb (AKA, carb made of 2 monosacc’s.)

Sucrose Maltose Lactose

What is a polysaccharide?

A carb made of many

rings or monosacc’s.

Depending on their structure and the monosaccharides they’re comprised of, polysacchardies can have one of 2 functions…

…storing energy or providing structure!

FAMOUS POLYSACCHARIDES

STORING ENERGY...

In plants... In animals....

PROVIDING STRUCTURE...

In plants... In animals...

Converted to

glycogen in

humans!

Stored in muscles and

burned off during physical

activity.

Makes up cell

walls of plant

cells.

Comprises the

exoskeleton of

arthropods.

Why is it so appropriate to differentiate between the “road muffin” of a horse and the “cow pie” of a cow?

Because cows can break down

cellulose…horses cannot! (Hence, the

consistency of the dung…)

How are disaccharides built?

What is this process called?

By removing water!

“Dehydration Synthesis”or “Condensation”

The human body cannot utilize most complex carbohydrates. Instead, they have to be broken down into smaller monosaccharides. How does this work?

By adding

water!

(“Hydrolysis”)

Over _________% of all the organic compounds in your body are composed of protein. What is the main function of protein?

50

To make us 3D!

Because proteins are so numerous, there’s no way you’re going to be able to memorize all the different types. However, most proteins can be lumped into 3 categories…

1. _____________________________________

2. _____________________________________

3. _____________________________________

Membranous proteins

Enzymes

Hormones

Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?

1.) Building muscle

Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?

2.) Catalyzing rxns (using enzymes)

Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?

3.) Signaling responses

(hormones)

Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?

4.) Helping with cellular interactions

Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?

5.) Provide structure/support

Like carbs, proteins also have a basic subunit or monomer. It is called an _______________.

Similarly, just as almost all carbs have the

suffix “-ose,” almost all amino acids have the suffix ______________ with the exception of 3.

amino acid

-“ine”

How many total amino acids are there on the planet? ____

How many amino acids are

essential to human life? ____

20

9

There are 3 components to an amino acid: carboxyl group amino group “R-group”

In order to build a house, you need to stack some bricks. Think of amino acids as “bricks” and the complete protein as the “house.”

House

Bricks

Protein

Amino Acids

Amino Acid

Complete Protein

How does one build a protein? (i.e., how are amino acids linked?) • Draw a diagram to show how proteins are built!

Dehydration synthesis!

AA AA AA AA AA

peptide bond

dipeptide polypeptide

(complete protein)

OH HO

H2O

removed

Depending on how the polypeptides are arranged, they can form 4 basic structures of proteins (which, of course, have different functions): 1. Primary protein 2. Secondary protein 3. Tertiary protein 4. Quaternary

PROTEIN SHAPE ROLE

Linear

(simple chain) Nonfunctional

Folded

or

Spiraled

Nonfunctional;

structural only!

Makes up hair.

Coiled Ball Functional

(e.g., enzymes)

Group of

coiled balls Functional

(e.g., hemoglobin)

Just as proteins are built through dehydration synthesis, they are broken down by ______________________.

This disassembling of proteins is called _________________ _____________________ and can be caused by a number of factors, including…

hydrolysis

protein denaturation

1.) heat 2.) acids/bases 3.) heavy metals 4.) alcohol 5.) excessive sodium

What is a lipid?

How can you distinguish lipids from other molecules?

Any hydrophobic substance…anything

that repels water.

“Hydrocarbon” chains.

Technically, lipids are not synonymous with fats.

Lipids≠ Fats

What is a lipid then?

A CATEGORY that includes fats,

among other substances.

LIPIDS Fats Waxes Steroids

Fat-soluble Vitamins

Triglycerides

(in food)

Adipose

(in human body)

Chol-

esterol

Vitamins

A, D, E & K

Since there are 4 main types of lipids, lipids also perform a variety of functions, including, but not limited to…

1. ___________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________

5. ___________________________________________

Energy storage

Cushion/Insulation

Makes ear drum pliable

Adds strength/fluidity to PM

Maintains homeostasis!

Fats are, by far, the most notable of all the lipids.

“Fat” goes by many names. Fat tissue in the

human body is actually called ________________,

wherein, the fat that’s crammed into the food you

eat is called _________________________.

adipose

triglycerides

Label the components of a triglyceride… fatty acid

(notice, there are 3 of them)

Glycerol

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? SATURATED FATS UNSATURATED FATS

WTF? I don’t think

so...get the heck

out.

…but with the help of Olestra, you can literally make a hobby out it!

As you may have already guessed, fats (and all other lipid hydrocarbon chains) are built by ___________________________________________.

dehydration synthesis

How do you think they’re broken down? (Is there a special name for this?)

By adding

water…Duh!

However, this time it’s called

“Lipolysis.”

Steroids are, by far, the most diverse of all lipids. The most important of all steroids in humans is _________________________.

cholesterol

Steroids are also the primary structure in many lipid hormones, such as _______________________________.

testosterone

What are the 2 main functions of cholesterol?

1. ________________________________________ To add strength or fluidity to PMs

To serve as a “template” for hormones and vitamins

What are the 2 main functions of cholesterol?

2. ________________________________________________________________________________

Regardless of a steroid’s function, all steroids have one thing in common... …what is it?

They’re made of 4 ester

rings.

Recall that some vitamins (A, D, E & K) are fat-soluble lipids. What exactly is a vitamin, anyway?

Any necessary

nutrient that your

body cannot make

in sufficient

quantities.

Nucleic acids are the least diverse group of organic compounds in the human body. In fact, there are only 2 types of naturally-occurring nucleic acids on the planet:

1. ________________________________

2. ________________________________

DNA

RNA

What is DNA?

What is the shape of DNA?

Your

“genetic blueprints”

Double Helix

(“winding ladder”)

What are the 2 primary functions of DNA? 1. ____________________________ ____________________________ 2. ____________________________ ____________________________

Code for traits

(physical characteristics)

Code for RNA (the

recipe for protein)

All nucleic acids have basic building blocks (or monomers) called ___________________________.

What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide? 1) _____________________________ 2) _____________________________ 3) _____________________________

nucleotides

a nitrogenous base

deoxyribose sugar

a phosphate

= sugar

= phosphate

bases (A, T, C or G)

Let’s think of DNA as a ladder… • What are the “rungs” or “steps” of

the DNA ladder? • What makes up the “side railing”

of the DNA ladder? • Do we have a better term for this

“side railing?”

the bases

sugars and phosphates

The “sugar-phosphate backbone”

All of the DNA in your body is made of around 6 billion total nucleotides. Just to give you a refer-ence of how huge 6 billion is…if you were to try to count to 6,000,000,000 (1 number/second) you would finish by roughly your 208th birthday

The craziest thing is…the majority of the 6 billion

nucleotides are exactly the same.

Every single nucleotide is made up of an identical molecule of deoxyribose sugar and an identical molecule of phosphate

So what, then, makes one human being different from another?

Let’s take a look.

The arrangement (or

sequencing) of the

nitrogenous bases!

How many different nitrogenous bases are there in DNA? ________

We can divide these 4 bases into 2 main categories based on structure. What are they, what is their shape, and which bases are included in each?

4

VS.

CATEGORY SHAPE BASES

Purines

2-ringed Adenine

Guanine

Pyrimidine

1-ringed Cytosine

Thymine

Adenine

Guanine

Cytosine

Thymine

How are you going to remember which bases belong to which category for the test?

“Angels and God are PURE of heart.”

“Cool Tombs belong in PYRAMIDS.”

In order to make DNA, the 2 nitrogenous bases of nucleotides must be paired. What bases pair with each other?

We call bases that pair with one another ________________________________ bases.

A—T

C—G

complementary

Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?

Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 1.)

A purine must

always pair with a

pyrmidine.

Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?

Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 2.)

Hydrogen bonding…

and

Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?

Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 3.)

30% 30% 20% 20%

“Chargaff’s Rule”...the # of As

matched the # of Ts, and so forth.

DNA is really long. Even the Y chromosome, the smallest in the entire human genome, is more than 30 million base pairs long. From end to end, DNA is about a meter long…and we have to cram it into our tiny, tiny nucleus. That’s like trying to cram a 300-meter long rope into a backpack!

So, the question remains…

*How the heck do we fit all of this DNA into a tiny little nucleus?

The answer…

By wrapping around

histone proteins

and coiling, and super-coiling into

chromosomes!

DNA “FORM” PICTURE DESCRIPTION WHEN DOES IT EXIST IN THIS FORM?

Chromatin

Loosely

packed

DNA

Interphase

(when the cell

isn’t dividing)

Chromosomes

Densely

packed

DNA

Mitosis or

Meiosis

(during cell

division)

What are genes? What do genes code for?

What do you call the part of a chromo-some where genes are located?

Sequences of nitrogenous bases.

They code for…

1. Traits

2. RNA

The gene locus.

Unfortunately, genes can also code for , which is nothing more than an

abnormality in the base sequence of genes.

DNA is so complex that it cannot just be “made” by your body from scratch. Instead, each cell is responsible for copying its DNA before dividing. • DNA replication is very complex, but let’s simplify… DNA replication requires several enzymes, but you’re required to

remember the 2 most important.

ENZYME FUNCTION

DNA

Helicase

(1) unwinds and

(2) unzips DNA

DNA

Polymerase

Adds complementary

bases to “parent” strand

Draw the process of DNA replication…

We call the process of “copying” DNA __________________________________________________ because each “daughter” strand of DNA has half of the “parent” DNA strand. In other words, we’ve conserved the parent strand—half went to one daughter strand and the other half went to the other!

semiconservative replication

Recall that one of the functions of DNA is to code for proteins. However, DNA can’t do it alone. Proteins are made outside of the nucleus, and as we’ve discussed in class, DNA never leaves the nucleus.

So, how does DNA code for proteins?

By making a copy of the

protein recipe = RNA!

DNA RNA

“-stranded” Double-stranded

Sugar Deoxyribose

Nitrogenous Bases A,T, C, G

Single-

stranded

Ribose

A, U, C, G

The process of “copying” DNA to make a strand of RNA (recipe for protein) is called ___________________________.

What enzyme is used? 1) ______________________________________

transcription

RNA Polymerase

Key

“When making

RNA, Uracil pairs with

Adenine, not Thymine!”

The process of building amino acids requires the cooperation of _______ and __________________ and is called __________________.

RNA ribosomes

translation