biology · biodiversity: a progress report", by tala1 younés. news highlights the 24th iubs...

Biology International The News Magazine of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)

CONTENTS (No 24,1992)

1. Editorial

FEATURE ARTICLES

2. "Transgenic Fish: a New Technology for Fish Biology and Aquaculture", by Choy L. Hew and Zhiyuan Gong.

11. "Biodiversity amongst Microorganisms and its Relevance", by D.L. Hawksworth .and R.R. Colwell.

16. "The IUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO Programme Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity: A Progress Report", by Tala1 Younés.

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS

The 24th IUBS General Assembly Highlights: 22. - Resolutions 24. . - Three New IUBS Scientific Members 25. - 25th General Assembly 25. - IUBS Executive Committee Mem bers (1991-94).

26. IUBS Symposium on Biotechnology of Aquatic Animals. 27. COSPAR: Life Sciences Research in Space, by R.S. Young. 29. ASCEND-21. 31. Publications Review 32. Calendar of Meetings

ISSN 02532069

EDITORIAL

With the 24th General Assembly, held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1-6, September, 1991, the IUBS accomplished an important step in fostering its key role and leadership for the development of international cooperation, not only among its scientific and national members, but also with the other members of the ICSU family and the wider international community concerned in promoting life sciences for a better hurnan life.

The adoption of the "Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity" Programme, cosponsored by IUBS, SCOPE and Unesco and in collaboration with the IUMS, provides a good example illustrating the Union's concern to bring together the assets and strengths of both governmental and non- governmental organisations. The 'Progress Report' together with the paper on 'Biodiversity amongst Microorganisms and its Relevance' by D. L. Hawksworth and R.R. Colwell published in this issue of Biology International, present the goals, magnitude priority hypotheses and expected outcomes of this very important joint-venture.

Confirming this trend, the last IUBS Assembly provided another example which consists of the launching of an international network on Reproductive Biology and Aquaculture (RBA). The major aim of this network will be to to promote research and training in the area of reproductive biology and aquaculture, bringing together the IUBS, ICSU's Committees on Biotechnology (COBIOTECH) and on the Applications of Science to Agriculture, Forestry and Aquaculture (CASAFA) and the Unesco Biotechnology Action Council (BAC). The following paper on 'Transgenic Fish: a New Technology for Fish Biology and Aquaculture', by C.L. Hew and 2. Gong, highlights some of the recent findings and promises of this exciting new field for both basic research and biotechnological applications.

With the hope that al1 the Union members will join in the implementation of the Amsterdam Assembly resolutions, 1 would like to express to each and every one of the IUBS family al1 best wishes for peace, success and prosperity for 1992.

Talal Younés Exceutive Director, IUBS

Biology International No 24 (January 1992)

Transgenic Fish A New Technology for Fish Biology and Aquaculture

Choy L. Hew and Zhiyuan Gong Research Institute. Hospital for Sick Children and Departments of Clinicd Biochemistry and Biochemistry,

Banting Institute, University of Toronto, 100 CoUege Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1L5 Canada

Introduction

Gene transfer technology in creating transgenic animals and plants has become an established and powerful technique in modem biology. The transgenic mouse, in particular, has provided an interesting and valuable tool for the study of ce11 differentiation and development as well as a model for studying various human diseases and cancers (Jaenisch, 1988). In addition, our ability to transfer "novel" genes to improve the genetic makeup and phenotypic characteristics of both plants and animals are the driving forces for many biotechnology industries (Goodman et al., 1987; Pursel et al., 1989).

In the past few years, significant progress has also been made in transgenic fish studies (Maclean et al., 1987; Hew, 1989; Maclean and Penrnan, 1990; Fletcher and Davies, 199 1). It is obvious that the development of transgenic fish which are faster growing, more disease- resistant and contain many new and desirable characteristics will make a direct contribution to the improvement of aquaculture. At the same time, transgenic fish, as an experimental model is comparable to, and in many cases, superior to transgenic mice. It is the intention of the present review to highlight some of the recent findings and stimulate further study, in both the basic research and the biotechnological application in transgenic fish.

Fish as an experimental animal for transgenic studies

Fish. as an experimental animal for transgenic investigation has severai distinct and attractive features over the mammalian animals. On the positive side, a single, mature female fish can produce several dozen to several thousand eggs, providing a large number of genetically identicai materials. For example the zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio) produces 150-400 eggs, while the Atlantic salmon ( S u l ! salar) 5,000 to 12,000 and the common carp (Cyprinus capw L.) more than 100,000 (Fletcher and Davies, 1991). Egg fertilization in most fishes is extemal. Once fertilized. hatching is simple and straight forward. Unlike mammals, it does not require the implantation of the fertilized eggs into recipient mothers. The cost for operation and maintenance of fish eggs is therefore low compared to a transgenic rnice facility. In several of the experimental fish such as the zebrafish, Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) and goldfish (Carassius auratus L.), spawning can be induced by simply manipulating the photoperiod. For example the spawning for medaka and zebrafish is daily and year round under artificial conditions. These fish reach sexual maturity relatively rapidly, ranging from 2 to 3 months in the zebrafish and medaka, to one year in the goldfish. Hatching only takes 4 - 10 days in these fish. Because of their short reproductive cycles, these model fish are therefore, well suited for studies of inheritance, tissue-specific expression and developmental regulation of the transgenes (Ozato et al., 1986; Stuart et al., 1988, 1990; Powers, 1989).

Biology International No 24 (January 19921

Most of the eggs of these experimental fish have transparent cytoplasm, and are therefore relatively easy to inject. However, many of the cornmercially important fish species such as the salmonids have opaque eggs with no visible pronuclei and thus create technical difficulties for gene transfer. These fishes, in addition are seasonal or annual spawners, thereby restricting the accessibility of eggs.

Gene transfer technology in fishes

Since the pioneering work of Brinster and coworkers (Palmiter and Brinster, 1986) the direct method of microinjecting DNA into fertilized egg has k e n the most widely used method and for transferring exogenous genes to fish.

Depending on the fish species, it can be difficult to carry out injection accurately due to the opaqueness of the eggs and the presence of hard chorions. The salmon eggs, for example harden in fresh water, thus making it difficult to penetrate with glass needles. Several approaches have been reported to overcome these difficulties. These include the centrifugation of the eggs to orientate the germinal vesicles on top of the eggs (Rokkones et al., 1989), staining of the nucleus with fluorescent dyes (Yamaha et al., 1988), dechorionation by enzymatic treatments or by forceps (Zhu et al., 1985), injection of the DNA prior to ovulation (Ozato et al., 1986; Inoue et al., 1989). direct cytoplasmic injection (Chourrout et al., 1986; Dunham et al., 1987; Chong and Vielkind, 1989; Zhang et al., 1990), cytoplasmic injection via the micropyle (Fletcher et al., 1988) electroporation (Inoue et al., 1990) and more recently by sperm as carriers (Khoo et al., 199 1) .

Because of these different approaches and the nature of the fish eggs, the incorporation frequency and the egg mortality rates Vary significantly between species and investigators. This is further complicated by the range of DNA amounts injected into the eggs (from 106 to 109 copies). The resulting high concentration of foreign DNA in the eggs further complicates interpretation of the inheritance of transgenes due to its slow degradation in fishes.

In our laboratories, we have developed a protocol for the injection of DNA via the micropyle of the Atlantic salrnon eggs. With a DNA concentration of 106 copies, our swival rate is 80% of the injected samples which is identical to the noninjected controls. The incorporation frequency of the transgenes is approximately 3% (Fletcher et al., 1988; Shears et al., 1991). Al1 these direct injection methods mentioned above are time consurning and require considerable skill.

The electroporation technique for gene transfer is attractive because of its simplicity of operation, excellent reproducibility and the fact that the experirnental conditions can easily be modified to fit individual fish species. Furthermore, this method is well suited for mass gene transfer considering the large number of fish eggs which are available. Both sperm and fertilized eggs have been electroporated (Inoue et al., 1990, Muller et al., 1991). The mortality rate of earlier reports in electroporated eggs is high (-70%) and the integration frequency modest (5%). However, significant improvement up to 60-80% integration has been reported at the Second International Marine Biotechnology Conference in Baltimore, 1991 (D. Powers, persona1 communication). The viability of sperm from various species of fish following electroporation differs significantly, thus electroporation conditions will have to be examined criticaily and optimized. Recent reports using sperm as a direct carrier for gene transfer in fish, similar to the situation in mice, remains controversiai. It has yet to be established whether this can be duplicated in other laboratories and whether applicable to other species of fish.

Biology International No 24 [Januay 1992)

Transgenic fish in aquaculture

Any gene transfer technology which decreases mortality rates, enhances growth rates, delays sexual maturation and decreases the cost of producing farmed fish will be beneficial to the aquaculture industry. Due to the limited number of genes of well defmed function that are available, most of the investigations, at present only focus on gene transfer of growth hormone and antifreeze protein genes. The results of these studies are described below.

(a) Growth hormone gene transfer studies

One of the obvious applications in transgenic fish is the production of 'super' fish which grow larger and faster. Since food consumption is a major cost in aquaculture, the shortening of production period will be a major benefit. For the past few years, many laboratories have had considerable success in producing transgenic fish with a GH gene insert (Table 1).

Table : Production of transgenic fish with GH gene insert

Gene Construct Fish Species Size Increase Inheritance References

mMT-hGH loach, carp 3-4 fold YG Zhu et al., 1985, 1986 Zhu, 1991

SV40-hGH rainbow trout ND Yes Chourrout & al., 1986 Guyomard et al.. 1989

mMT-hGH channel catfish ND ND Dunham et al.. 1987 mMT-hGH Atlantic saimon ND ND Rokkones et al., 1989 RSV-tGH carp 20% Yes Zhang et al., 1990 AFP-sGH Atlantic salrnon 4-6 fold ND Du et al.. 1992

ND = Not determined

Zhu et al. (1985, 1986) were the first to report the successful production of transgenic fish using a mouse metallothionein promotor-human growth hormone gene construct (rnMT-hGH). The transgenics were 3-4 fold larger than the controls. On the other hand, Zhang et al. (1990) using the RSV-trout GH cDNA insert, showed only a 20% increase in size. This smaller increase, is presumably due to the lack of the signal sequence in the GH gene insert. Using the promotor from the ocean pout antifreeze protein and the GH cDNA clone from chinook salmon, Du et al. (1992) was successful in producing transgenic salmon. A number of these transgenics are 4 to 6 fold larger than the controls.

Several other reports including Chourrout et al. (1986), Dunharn et al. (1987), Penman et al. (1988), Rokkones et al. (1989) and others have utilized either mouse metallothionein or viral promotors linked to a mammalian GH gene. However, the analysis were camed out at the early stages of embryogenesis or at hatching. No enhancement of growth was rated in these fish.

(b) Antifreeze protein gene transfer

Salmonids, and most other commercially important fish freeze to death if they corne into

contact with ice, or ice crystals, at temperatures below -0.7'~. Fish species that inhabit the icy waters of polar regions do so by synthesizing antifreeze proteins (AFP) to protect them from

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freezing (De Vries, 1984; Davies and Hew, 1990; Hew and Yang, 1992). The production of stable lines of freeze resistant salmon and other species will greatly facilitate the development of aquaculture in many regions where the only limiting factor is the freezing temperatures. The antifreeze protein genes from winter flounder has been successfully incorporated into the Atlantic salrnon (Fletcher et al., 1988). Research to date indicates stable genomic integration and low levels of expression of winter flounder AFP genes in a small number (approx 3%) of salrnon developed from microinjected eggs. Inheritance of the AFP gene by offspring (FI) from crosses between transgenic and wild-type salmon revealed that the transgenic founders (Fo) were germ-line mosaics. Low levels of AFP could be detected in the blood of ail of these uansgenic offspring (FI). Approximately 50% of the progeny produced by crosses between uansgenic F1 and wild-types contained the AFP genes (Shears et al., 1991). These results demonstrate that stable germ-line transformed Atlantic salmon can be produced using gene transfer techniques.

These transgenic salmon, due to the low level of AFP expression observed are not yet freeze resistant. Experiments are now in progress to boost the AFP level using different approaches.

(c) Development of an "al1 fish" gene construct

The aims of transgenic fish in aquaculture is to increase food production for human consurnption. It is vital that the foreign DNA used for gene transfer must not post any potential hazards to hurnan health, no matter how remote the possibility is. It is unwise to use, for example viral promotors, and human growth hormone in aquaculture. It is recommended that every attempt should be made to construct safe "ail f ish gene constructs (both the promotor and the gene of interest) for these purposes. For exarnple, in the study of enhanced growth by gene transfer it is relatively straight forward to clone fish growth hormone genes. Fish GH genes are now available in several laboratories.

There are, however, only a limited number of fish gene promotors that have been characterized. The protarnine promotor (Jankowski and Dixon, 1987), because of its testis- specificity, may have limited usage. The rainbow trout metallothionein promotor (Zafarullah et

al., 1988), requires heavy metals such as ~ n + ~ , ~ a + ~ for induction. Two other promotors J3 actin and AFP have been utilized by Liu et al., (1990) and Du et al., (1992). The AFP promotor in particular, is attractive due to its liver-predominant expression and the absence of these genes in most fish species, thus making its detection easy and without interference by the expression of endogenous genes.

Future directions

Much exciting progress has been made in the past few years. Transgenic fish will undoubtedly become increasingly popular as an experimental approach to the study of their biology. Based on our present success, several areas worthy of continued investigation are briefly discussed as follows:

(a) Zmprovement in gene transfer and detection techniques

Major progress has already been made in gene transfer technology, notably the application of electroporation. Nonetheless, the success has been limited to only a few experimental fishes. Experiments in improving the integration frequency, survival rate and ease of operation for many cornrnercially important fish species should be emphasizcd such that a mass gene transfer technique for large scale production of transgenic fish useful in aquaculture can be developed.

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Similarly, the use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) will improve the sensitivity and simpliQ the screening protocols used to detect transgenes.

(b) Development of fish embryonic stem cells (ES) and other chromosome set manipulation techniques.

One of the areas of great potential is the use of embryonic stem cells (Robertson, 1987; Westphal, 1989) in association with transgenic animal research. This approach has been successfully utilized in creating transgenic/chirneric mice, however it is still in its early stage of development in fish (Collodi et al., 1991). In addition as a separate, independent approach to produce transgenic animals, ie. after introduction and selection of foreign genes in ES cells and subsequent injection into the blastocyst, the ES cells offers a means for homologous gene targeting . The chromosome set manipulation such as the production of triploids, gynogenesis and androgenesis etc., are important techniques with direct applications to transgenic fish studies. The propagation of isogenic transgenic fish lines and the production of sterile fish are two obvious useful applications. Except for the salmonids, the use of these techniques have yet to be established in many other species of fish.

(c) Improvement in promotor gene constructs

Except for metallothionein, most of the fish promotors such as B actin and AFP are not yet laiown to be regulatable. Although the development of an "al1 f ish gene construct is a sound approach, the choice of fish promotors is at present rather lirnited . A new generation of gene constructs which are regulatable both in terms of timing and expression level should be developed. It is obvious that extensive promotor analysis should be carried out with both the 13 actin and AFP genes as well as several other potential candidate genes such as albumin and vitellogenin. Several of the cis-acting sequences such as the steroidretinoic acid/thyroid hormone response elements (Evans, 1988) might be utilized to provide inducibility/suppression of the transgenes. The inclusion of suitable regulatory elements in gene constructs should generate predictable, efficient and desirable expression.

(d) Development of model fish to study gene regulation

Gene transfer is not only an important tool to improve fish stocks for aquaculture but also a powerful technique to study gene regulation. Despite the extensive arnount of work that has been carried out on higher vertebrates, the use of transgenic techniques for studying gene regulation in fish is rather lirnited; Stuart et al. (1988, 1990) have clearly established zebrafish as a useful model to study the inheritance and patterns of transgene expression as well as genetic analysis of development via insertional mutagenesis. Inoue et al. (1989) also observed stage dependent expression of the exogenous chicken d-crystallin gene in lens and nonlens tissues of transgenic medaka. Recently, early expression of several fish promoter-bacterial reporter genes has been reported in transgenic zebrafïsh and medaka. The promoter sequences used were derived from a carp B-actin gene (Liu et al., 1990), a fish metallothionein gene (Winkler et al., 1991) and several fish antifreeze genes (Gong et al., 1991). However, these studies were rather preliminag and investigations were only performed in prehatching or early post-hatch stages. No clear sequence element required for temporal and spatial expression was identified. Nevertheless, these studies demonstrated the usefulness of medaka and zebrafish as models to investigate fish gene regulation, an area that is becoming increasingly important in modem fish biology and in developmental biology as a whole (Barinaga, 1990).

In recent years, increasing nurnbers of fish genes have been cloned, including developmentally 6

and physiologically important ones such as the homeobox genes and hormonal genes. However the biological functions of many of these genes are not fully understood. Therefore their expression in model transgenic fish will provide a powerful means by which to study their physiological role or their regulatory role during development. By transferring fish promoter- reporter gene construct to model fish, specific chromosomal elements that confer tissue specif'city, or developmental regulation can be characterized. The results of such studies will aid our understanding of the factors regulating gene expression. They will also help to provide a wider range of useful fish promoters for the genetic engineering of cornrnercially important fish for aquaculture. Finally, the small model fish will also serve as test organisms for gene constmcts which may be used later in large aquaculture fish.

(e) Gene ablation studies

To date alrnost al1 research activity has focused on methods of obtaining increased expression of the transgene in question. However transgenic techniques to ablate the expression of endogenous genes could also develop into another powerful approach to its study of gene function. In such studies one could destroy the ce11 types that express the gene of interest. For exarnple, the tissue-specific cis-acting DNA sequence of interest can be fused to a toxin gene, such as diphtheria toxin A chain. If this gene construct can be incorporated into the host genome it will destroy the cells expressing the gene of interest, thus making, the animal deficient in the synthesis of the gene product (Palmiter et al., 1987). The consequences of this gene defect to the organism can be studied accordingly.

There are many unresolved questions in fish endocrinology and reproductive biology that might be amendable to the use of gene ablation techniques. For exarnple, the role of growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) and somatolactin (SL) can be better defined, if their overlapping activities can be eliminated. Since these hormones are produced by three different ce11 types, ie. somatotrophs (GH), lactotrophs (PRL) and the Periodic Acid Schiff-positive cells in the pars intemiedia (SL), it is feasible, once the cell-type specific DNA sequences of these hormone genes are characterized, to selectively destroy one or al1 of the ce11 types. For example, one question that can be addressed is if the PRL-producing cells are destroyed, can GH, or SL contribute to osmoregulation? Similarly, the distinct function of gonadotropin GTHI and GTHII are not fully understood. There is evidence suggesting that these hormones are synthesized by different ce11 types. at different stages of reproduction (Nozaki et al., 1990). Using gene ablation techniques the contribution of these two hormones can be individually assessed in the absence of the other.

Many of the model fish, such as zebrafish, medaka and goldfish, because of the many positive features discussed in the earlier section, will become popular models for gene ablation studies.

(f) Physiology of the transgenic animals

The expression of transgenes, either foreign or in excess of its noms in transgenic animals, might disrupt homeostasis and cause metabolic disturbances that have detrimental side effects. A well known exarnple is the GH transgenic. It is well documented in both transgenic mice and pigs that excess GH can produce many undesirable side effects.

On the other hand, to our surprise, the fastest îransgenics in our studies have low GH levels, and their T3 levels are nondetectable (Du et al., 1992). This is in contrast to the accepted view that GH levels, at least in transgenic mice, are proportional to growth. In salmonids, it has been s h o w that T3 levels are normally elevated by the administration of GH, a situation that is in direct contrast to that observed in our salmon transgenic for the GH gene. Our data, therefore raises many interesting questions on the role of GH in growth and the regdation/

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Biology International N o 24 (January 1992)

feedback control of thyroid hormones. The transgenic mode1 provides the opportunity to study GH action.

Many of the other fish pituitary hormones such as prolactin (Pm) and somatolactin (SL) (Ono et al., 1990) still have their biological functions, u~esoived. Transgenic animais, are a plausible approach to study the action and regulation of these proteins.

(g) Ecological impact and safety requirement

There are several concems about the use of transgenic fish for aquaculture. Unlike most of the transgenic animals for animal husbandry or experimental research, there is a possibility for accidental release of transgenic fish fiom fish farms. Although unsubstantiated, it is suggested that 'superior' transgenic fish might invade and dominate wild types, and thus destroy a delicate ecological balance (Halleman and Kapuscinski, 1991). Therefore it is important to address these concems and to come up with some guidelines. This scenario is, to some extent, similar to the early concerns about recombinant DNA technology, the moratorium and the subsequent development of appropriate N.I.H. guidelines. Until the ecological impact of transgenic fish is fully understood, it is at present best to be cautious about their use in the environment. Some guidelines would be useful. This will require the cooperation of researchers, regulatory agencies and international collaboration.

There are several options available that will minimize any potential hazards. The first one deals with physical containment; the selection of a site, it's monitoring and security of the facility. One example is the recent approval by FDA of the Auburn experiment in releasing transgenic carp. The second one deals with the biological containment for the transgenic fish. The transgenic fish can be made sterile by chromosomal manipulation (Devlin and Donaldson, 1991). Except for the broodstock, the fish used in aquaculture should be sterile and hence minimize its biological impact. Gene ablation techniques might also be applicable to make the transgenic fish sterile. For example, the use of gonadotropin gene promoters, specially those of the hormone specific B subunits (Xiong and Hew, 1991) fused to a toxin gene, might be useful to destroy the gonadotrophs in the pituitary. The lack of circulating GTH will render the animal reproductive-incompetent.

Acknowledgment

The work was supported by NSERC Strategic Grant. We thank Dr. G. Fletcher for helpful discussions and Linda Gardiner for preparing the manuscript.

References

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Transgenic Fish. C. L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher (eds.) World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, pp. 229-265. DeVries, A. L. (1984) Role of glycopeptides and peptides in inhibition of crystallization of water in polar fishes. Philos. Tram. R. Soc. London B. 304: 575-588. Du. S. J. Gong, Z., Fletcher, G. L., Shears. M. A., King. M. J., Idler. D. R. and Hew, C. L. (1992) Dramatic growth enhancement in transgenic Atlantic salmon: use of an "al1 f ish chinenc growth hormone gene construct. BiolTechnology In press Dunham, R. A., Eash. J., Askins. J. and Townes. T.M. (1987) Transfer of the metallothionein-human growth hormone fusion gene into channel catfish. Tram. Amer. Fish. Soc. 116: 87-91. Evans, R. M. (1988) The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfarnily. Science 240: 889-895. Fletcher, G. L., Shears, M. A., King, M. J., Davies, P. L. and Hew, C. L. (1988) Evidence for antifreeze protein gene transfer in Atlantic salrnon ( S a h salar). Can. J . Fkheries and Aquat. Sci. 45: 352-357. Fletcher, G. L. and Davies, P. L. (1991) Transgenic fish for aquaculture. In: Genetic Engineering. Edited by J. Setlow. Plenum Press, pp. 331-370. Gong, Z., Hew, C. L. and Vielkind, J. R. (1991) Functional anaiysis and temporal expression of promoter regions from fiih antfieeze protein genes in transgenic Japanese medaka embryos. Mol. Marine Biol. Biotech. 1: 64-72. Goodman, R. M.. Hauptli. H.. Crossway, A. and Knauf. V. C. (1987) Gene t~ansfer in crop improvement. Science 236: 48-54. Guyomard, R.. Chourrout, D.. Leroux. C., Houdebine. L. M. and Pourrain. F. (1989) integration and germ line ansm mission of foreign genes microinjected into fertilized trout eggs. Biochimie 71: 857-863. Hallerman. E. M. and Kapuscinski, A. R. (1991) Ecological and regulatory uncertainties associated with transgenic fish. In: Trmgenic Fkh. C. L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher (eds.) World Scientific Publishing Co.. Singapore. in press. Hew. C. L. (1989) Transgenic fiih. Fish Physwl. Biachem. 7,409-413. Hew. C. L. and Yang, D. C. (1992). Protein interaction with ice. Eur. J. Biochem. In press. Inoue, K.. Ozato, K.. Kondoh. H.. Iwamatsu. T.. Wakamatsu, Y., Fujita, T. and Okado. T.S. (1989) Stage- dependent expression of the chicken d-crystallin gene in transgenic fish embryos. Cell Differ. Dev. 27: 57-68. Inoue, K., Yamashita, S., Hata. J., Kabeno. S.. Asada, S.. Nagahisa, E. and Fujita. T. (1990) Electroporation as a new teclmique for producing transgenic fiih. Ce11 Differ. Dev. 29: 123-128. Jaenisch. R. (1988) Transgenic animals. Science 240: 1468-1474. Jankowski, J. M. and Dixon, G. H. (1987) The CC box as a silencer. Bwscience Reports 7: 955-963. Khoo. H. W., Chin. D., Li. H. B. and Wong, V. (1991) Sperm mediated transfer of genes into zebrafish. In: Int. Sym. Reproductive Biol. in Aquaculture. Taipei. p. 53. Liu. Z., Moav. B., Faras, A. J., Guise. K. S., Kapuscinski, A. R. and Hackett, P. B. (1990) Development of expression vectors for transgenic fish. BiolTech. 8: 1268-1272. Maclean, N., Penman, D. and Zhu, Z. (1987) Introduction of novel genes into fish. BiolTech. 5: 257-261. Maclean. N. and Penman, D. (1990) The application of gene manipulation to aquaculture. Aquaculture 85: 1-20. Muller, F., Ivies, Z. Erdelyi, F., Varadi. L. Howath, L. Maclean, N. and Orban, L. (1991) introducing foreign genes into fish eggs using electroporated sperm as a carrier. In: International Marine Biotech. Co nf., Baltimore p. 71. Nozaki, M.. Naito, N.. Swanson, P., Miyati, K.. Nakai, Y., Oota, Y., Suzuki, K. and Kawauchi. H. (1990) Salmonid pituitary gonadotroph: Distinct cellular distribution of two gonadotropins, GTH 1 and GTH II. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 77: 348-357. Ono. M., Takayarna, Y., Rand-Weaver. M., Sakata, S., Yasunaga, T., Noso, T. and Kawanchi, H. (1990) cDNA cloning of somatolactin, a pituitary protein related to growth hormone and prolactin. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 87: 4330-4334. Ozato, K., Kondoh. H., Inohara. H., Iwamatsu, T.. Wakamatsu, Y. and Okada, T.S. (1986) Production of transgenic fish: introduction and expression of chicken d-crystalline gene in medaka embryos. Cell Differ. Dev. 19: 237-244. Palmiter, R. D. and Brinster, R. L. (1986) Germ-line transformation of mice. Ann. Rev. Genet. 20: 465-499. Palmiter, R. D., Behringer, R. R., Qualife. C. J., Maxwell, F., Maxwell, 1. H. and Brinster. R. L. (1987) Ce11 lineage ablation in transgenic mice by cell-specific expression of a toxin gene. Ce11 50: 435-443. Penman, D. 1.. Beeching, A. J., Lyengar, A. and Maclean. N. (1988) Introduction of metallothionein-

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somatotropin fusion gene into rainbow trout: Analysis of adult transgenics. Aquaculture Ass. Chem. Bulletin. 84: 137-139. Powers. D. A. (1989) F i h as mode1 systerns. Science. 246: 352-358. Pursel, V. G., Pinkert, C. A., Miller, K. F., Bolt, D. J.. Cambell, R. G., Palmiter. R. D.. Brinster, R. L. and Hammer, R. E. (1989) Genetic engineering of livestock. Science W. 1281-1288. Robertson, E. J. (1987) Pluripotential stem ce11 limes as a route into the mouse germ line. Trends. Genet. 2: 9- 13. Rokkones, E., Alestrom, P., Skjervold, H. and Gautvik, K. M. (1989) Microinjection and expression of a mouse metallothionein hurnan growth hormone fusion gene in fertilized salmonid eggs. J. Comp. Physiol. Biol. 158: 751-785. Shears, M. A.. Fletcher, G. L., Hew, C. L., Gauthier, S. and Davies. P.L. (1991) Transfer, expression and inheritance of antifteeze protem genes in Atlantic saùnon ( S a h salar). Mol. Marine Biol. Biotech. 1: 58-63. Stuart, G. W., McMurray, J. V. and Westerfield, M. (1988) Replication, integration and stable germ-line transmission of foreign sequences injected and stable germ-line transmission of foreign sequences injected into early zebrafiih embryos. Development 103: 403412. Stuart. G. W., Vielkind. J. R., McMurray, J. V. and WesterFild, M. (1990) Stable lines of transgenic zebraf~sh exhibit reproducible patterns of Wansgene expression. Development 109: 577-584. Wesrphal. H. (1989) Transgenic mammals and biotechnology. FASEB J. 3: 117-120. W i e r , C., Vielkind. J. R. and Schartl, M. (1991) Transient expression of foreign DNA during embryonic and larval development of the medaka f ~ h (Oryzios latipes). Mol. Gen. Genet. 226: 129-140. Xiong, F. and Hew, C. L. (1991) Chinook salrnon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) gonadotropin II f3 subunit gene encodes multiple messenger RNA. Can. J. 2 0 1 . In press. Yamaha. E.. Onozato, H. and Yamazaki, F. (1988) Visualization of female pronucleus in the goldfish, Carassiusauratus, using fluorescent dye, Hoechst 33342. Nippon Suisan GaWcaishi 54: 537. Zafarullah, M.. Ronham, K. and Gedamu. L. (1988) Structure of the rainbow trout metallothionein-gene and characterization of its metal-responsive region. Mol. Cell. Biol. 8: 44694476. Zhang, P.. Hayat. M.. Joyce. C., Gonzalez-Villasenor. L. J.. Li. C. M., Dunham, R., Chen, T. T. and Powers. D. A. (1990) Gene transfer, expression and inheritance of pRSV-rainbow trout GH-cDNA in the wmmon carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus). Mol. Repro. Dev. 25: 3-13. Zhu, Z.. Liu., G.. He, L. and Chen, S. (1985) Novel gene transfer into fertilized eggs of goldfih (Carmius auratus L. 1785). Z. Angew. Ichthyol. 1: 31-34. Zhu, Z., Xu, K., Li. G.. Xie. Y. and He, L. (1986) Biological effects of hurnan growth hormone gene microinjected into the fertilized eggs of loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudutis. Kexue Tongbao Acadernia Sinica. 31: 988-990. Zhu, Z. (1991) Generation of fast growing transgenic fish. In: Transgenic Fish. C . L. Hew and G. L. Fletcher (eds.) World Scientific Publishimg Co., Singapore. In press.


Biodiversity amongst Microorganisms and its Relevance

(Report of a Joint IUBS/iUMS Workshop in Support of the IUBS/SCOPE/üNESCO Programme on Biodiversity)

by David L. Hawksworth 1 and Rita R. Colwell2 1 (President, International Mycological Association) International Mycological Institute,

Ferry Lane, Kew, Surrey TW9 3AF, UK. 2 (President, IUMS) Maryland Biotechnology Institute, 1123 Microbiology Building,

College Park, Maryland 20742, USA.

Microorganisms exhibit the greatest breadth of genetic diversity on Earth, are essential to the survival of al1 organisms as basal components of food chains and mutualists, and perform crucial and unique roles in the planet's biogeochemical cycles. Less than 5 % of the world's micro-organisms have yet been described, and it is not improbable that their real number on Earth exceeds even that of the insects.

Despite these considerations, microorganisms have to date been largely ignored in international debates on the extent of biological diversity on Earth, its relevance, and also its conservation. The need to redress this situation was recognized by the SCOPEDUBS workshop on Ecosystem Function of Biological Diversity held in Washington DC on 29-30 June 1989 (Di Castri & Younès, 1990). A meeting of the SCOPE Co-ordinating Committee on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function held in London on 18 February 1991, accepted a proposa1 that a special meeting be held to explore further the microorganism dimension of biodiversity. An WBS/IUMS workshop on 'Biodiversity amongst Microorganisms and its Relevance' was therefore convened in Amsterdam on 7-8 September 1991 to pursue the matter further.

Objectives

1.To provide a basis for both future discussion and action on the extent of microbial diversity and its importance in ecosystem function - and so to the maintenance of biodiversity itself.

2.To propose actions required to improve our knowledge of microbial diversity and its importance.

3.To consider actions required to ensure the in situ and ex situ conservation of microorganisms.

Participants and Proceedings

The meeting was attended by representatives of the key international organizations and commissions affiliated to IUMS and(or) IUBS concerned with the various microorganism groups, together with selected additionai specialists.

Dr R A Andersen (Director, Provasoli-Guillard Center for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton) Professor J W Bennett (Past-President, Arnerican Microbiologicai Society) Dr V P Canhos (Secretary, World Federation for Culture Collections) Prbfessor G A Codd (Council Member, Society for Generai Microbiology)

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Professor R R Colwell (President, International Union of Microbiological Societies; Chairman, Amencan Academy of Microbiology) Dr J O Corliss (International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature) Professor C R Curds (Keeper of Zoology, The Natural History Museum, London) Dr T N Embley (Natural History Museum, London) Dr D Galloway (President, International Association for Lichenology) Professor D L Hawksworth (President, International Mycological Association [IUBS Section for General Mycology]; Chairman, International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi, IUMS) Mrs B Kirsop (President, World Federation for Culture Collections) Professor A Martini (Universita di Perugia, Italy) Dr D van der Mei (Director, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures) Professor Dr F Oberwinkler (Institut für Biologie i Spezielle, Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Tübingen) Dr H Oy aizu (The University of Tokyo) Dr D Peters (Agricultural University, Wageningen) Dr M H V van Regenmortel (General Secretary, International Union of Microbiological Societies) Professor U Simidu (Secretary, International Comrnittee on Microbial Ecology) Professor E Stackebrandt (Secretary for Subcommittees, International Commission on Systematic Bactenology) Professor H G Trüper (Chairman, International Commission on Systematic Bacteriology) Professor K Vickerman (University of Glasgow) Dr T Younès (Executive Director, International Union of Biological Sciences) Professor A J B Zehnder (Landbouwuniversiteit, Wageningen)

On the first day, in order to provide a background to debates on the second, overview presentations were made covering algae (R. Andersen), filamentous fungi (F. Oberwinkler), lichens (D.J. Galloway), yeasts (A. Martini), protozoa (K. Vickerman), viruses (M.H.V. van Regenmortel), bacteria (H. Trüper), and cyanobacteria (G. Codd). These were followed by contributions on microorganisms in anaerobic ecosystems (A.J.B. Zehnder), molecular methods of analyzing bacterial diversity (H. Oyaizu), and unculturable microorganisms detected by molecular probes (E. Stackebrant). The papers presented are currently being edited for publication (Hawksworth & Colwell, 1992).

On the second day, discussions were held which focussed in tum on: Numbers of described and estimated species; Methods of inventory production; Significance in ecosystem function, biodiversity maintenance, and global ecology; and Conservation in situ and ex situ. An Action Statement, MICROBIAL DIVERSITY 21, covering these and related matters was compiled during the day and is reproduced below.

Action Statement: Microbial Diversity 21

The Relevance of Microorganisrns to Biodiversity

Microorganisms, i.e. algae, bacteria (including cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas), fungi (including lichens and yeasts), protozoa, viroids and vimses, are vital to the function and maintenance of the Earth's ecosystems and biosphere. As major contributors in biogeochemical cycles they perform unique and indispensable activities in the circulation of matter in the world, on which al1 larger organisms, including humans, depend. They constitute a genetic resource of great potential for contributing to the sustainable development of the

Biology International N o 24 (January 7 392)

planet as well as hurnan, animai and plant health. Urgent attention to redress our ignorance on many key aspects of their scientific understanding, their distribution and functions, is required.

Recognizing the magnitude of the task and the need to integrate the existing and develop additional expertise in both developed and developing countries, concerted international action on a scale hitherto not contemplated is required.

Action 1: Establishment of a major international initiative, a Decade of Microbiological Diversity, provisionally called MICROBIAL DNERSITY 21, tu complement, and where appropriate work in conjunction with, ongoing international programmes and new ones now being developed.

Znventorying Microorganisms

No inventory of the microbial species of the world exists, and it is estimated that less than 5% of the Earth's species are known. Recognizing the scale of the problem, emphasis should be placed on those groups of functional importancc to the biogeosphere and to ecosystem function at al1 levels, including those relevant to the activities of man and the development of sustainability. Considering the declining numbers of microbial systematists, it will not be possible to provide the necessary support to fully implement the Actions identified in this plan without a concomitant strengthening of the world's systematic capability.

Action 2: Produce an inventory of al1 known microbial species, in collaboration with existing indexing centres.

Action 3: Hold workshops, in collaboration with CODATA, on the variety of microbial functions at the ecosystem, biochemical and molecular levels, produce an inventory of al1 known rnicrobial functions, and standardize the terminology of and rnethods for determining functional attributes.

Action 4: Develop standard systems for sampling microbial communities and associations in different environments in order tu provide a firm scientific basis for discussions related to biodiversity and ecosystem functions ut al1 levels.

Action 5: Develop the microbial systematic base through the potentiation of existing centres, identifying gaps, and forming regional networks in order tu provide the essential underpining for inventory work and ecological investigations.

Action 6: Hold a conference on the species concept in microbial groups in order tu clarifi these and increase the cornparability of these concepts.

Significance of Microorganisms in Ecosystem Function, the Maintenance of Biodiversity of Other Organisms, and Global Ecology

Microorganisms are responsible for nitrogen fixation and other components of the nitrogen cycle, and have unique roles in the cycling of elements essentiai to life on Earth. They can also serve as early warning systems in the biomonitoring of global ecology, climate change, and the effects of pollutants, and habitat disturbance. An understanding of their function is also relevant as they both contribute and respond to ecosystem change. They are the primary producers and dominate the biogeochemical cycles in al1 extreme environments and oceans, and food webs. In addition, mutualisms and food webs involving microorganisms are critical

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to the maintenance of animals and most plants. Microorganisms have an immense functional diversity and capability, and constitute a major genetic resource to counteract environmental changes and stresses. The meeting also recognized the tremendous role of microorganisms in many aspects of sustainable agriculture.

Action 7: Prepare a List of habitats meriting conservation because of the importance of microorganisms in those habitats for ecosystem function and maintenance of the biosphere.

Action 8: Ensure the inputs of microbiologists to programmes on global biogeochemistry and climatic change, and to studies on ecosystem function and food webs. especially in "hot-spot" sites and also in the conservation ofplants and unimals.

Action 9: Hold workrhops to establish pilot projects and longer term studies to provide clearer scientific basis for the understanding of the role of microorganisms in the functions identifed in Action 8.

Conservation of Microorganisms Zn situ and Ex situ

Microorganisms constitute the major part of genetic diversity on Earth, which is of vital importance in evolution, and a major source of useful bioactive compowids and other activities that can be used for hurnan benefits. The importance of in situ conservation is recognized, but because of the uncertainty of long-term security of this strategy and as the isolation from nature of many microorganisms is problematic, ex situ methods are essential to complement in situ conservation. Ex situ collections are the mechanism by which microbial diversity is secured and made available for exploitation and study by man.

Action 10: Provide inputs ut the international and national level to the selection of nature reserves and other sites to beprotected in the long-tem.

Action I l : Encourage the conservation of environmental samples ffom disappearing habitats by long-term cryopreservation methods, for example in regional genetic resource centres, in order to safeguard their microbial genetic potential.

Action 12: In collaboration with the WFCC, develop networkr between, and increase the capacity of, service culture collections of microorganisms and isolated genomes in other laboratories in order to increase their value and minimize unnecessary duplication, and identify pnority areas for additional support.

Action 13: Encourage programmes to develop techniques for the isolation, culture, and long- t e m preservation of microorganisrns.

Information Networks in Biodiversity

Information on microbial biodiversity will proliferate as the international programmes discussed here and other initiatives develop. Support for the establishment of databases and networks is necessary, and, in addition, links with bioinformatics information resources in botany, zoology, the environment, conservation, and the utilization of genetic resources are required.

Action 14: Convene an IUBSIIUMSICODATA workshop of bioinformaticsl biodiversity specialists, in collaboration with the WFCC and other organizations active in this field, to

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Biolcgy International N o 24 (January 19921

establish the means and specifications for such an integrating mechanism.

Implernentation

The IUMS Executive Board agreed to work with IUBS on this initiative at its meeting in Prague on 18-19 May 1991. Further, the 24th Generai Assembly of IUBS in Amsterdam on 6 September 1991 adopted a proposal to develop a programme in this field in collaboration with IUMS.

The following joint IUBSIIUMS Steering Committee was established at the joint workshop to develop and cost proposais under the above Action Points for a period of one year, after which it was anticipateci the relevant international scientific organizaticns would appoint delegates of their choice.

R.R. Colwell (Maryland Biotechnology Institute, 1123 Microbiology Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA; Tel.: (301) 404 5189; Fax: (301) 454 8123; Co-Chairperson), D.L. Hawksworth (Lntemational Mycological Institute, Ferry Lane, Kew, Surrey, TW9 3AF, UK; Tel.: 081 940 4086; Fax: 081 332 1171); Co-Chairperson), R. Andersen (USA; algae), A.J.B. Zehnder (The Netherlands; bacteria), D. van der Mei (The Netherlands; fungi), C.R. Curds (UK, protozoa), M.H.V. van Regenmortel (France; viruses), and V. do L. Canhos (Brazil; culture collections).

Concurrently, action is k i n g taken by the Steering Cornmittee to alert agencies involved in developing major programmes in biodiversity to the Action Statement MICROBIAL DIVERSITY 21, and to encourage them to incorporate elements of it in their programmes

Di Castri, F. & Younès, T. (1990) Ecosystem function of biological diversity. Biology I~lrermtional Special Issue 22: 1-20.

Hawksworth. D.L. & Colwell, R.R.. eds (1992) Biodiversity amongst microorganisrns and its relevance. Biodiversiry Md Conservation 1: (in preparation.)

StoIogy International No 24 (Janua y 19921

The IUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO Programme Ecosystem Function Biodiversity

A Progress Report

by Tala1 Younés Execuuve Director, IUBS, 51 Bld de Montmorency, 75016 Paris, France

Introduction

The international collaborative programme of research "Ecosystem function of Biodiversity" unanimously adopted by the IUBS 24th General Assembly held in Amsterdam. in Septembcr, 1991, can be qualified as the IUBS programme par excellence. It indeed reflects what the Union represents on the international level, i.e. a unique organisation where al1 the scientific disciplines dealing with the diversity of living forms (including animals, plants, and microorganisms) and the multiplicity and complexity of biological processes and functions are represented.

Our aim, in this report, is to provide an overview of the history and major developments leading to this programme, as well as its major objectives, priority hypotheses and main topics, together with the series of measures taken towards its implementation.

History and major developments

The IUBS interest in biological diversity started in 1983 with the Decade of the Tropics programme on 'Species Diversity and its Significance in Tropical Ecosystems'. The discussions held during the Budapest Assembly, in 1985, and the proposa1 made by the US Committee (1986) for a wider programme on biological diversity emphasizing its role within ecosystems paved the way to the resolution adopted by Canberra Assembly, in Octobcr, 1988, to undertake a feasibility study for launching such a programme.

The joint IUBS-SCOPE workshop on "Ecosystem Function of Biological Diversity", in 1989, organized at the National Academy of Science, Washington D.C., USA represnted a landmark in the development of the programme. The workshop report edited by di Castri and Youncs, received a highly favorable response from both the IUBS members and the scientific community at large, and served as a conceptual basis for the programme now CO-sponsored by the IUBS, SCOPE and UNESCO, and full partnership with the IüMS on the aspects related to micro-organisrns biodiversity.

In 1990, another report followed on "Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function" surnmarizing a series of meetings related to the various aspects of marine biodiversity. Also, a joint IUBS, SCOPE and UNESCO position paper titled "Biodiversity: scientific issues and research proposals" by O. Solbng was published, in 1991, within the MAI3 Digest Series.

Most recently, the IUBS published "From Genes to Fxosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity" edited by O. Solbrig summarizing the discussions of a scientific workshop held on 28 June-1 July, 1991, at Harvard Forest Station. Petersharn, USA, and organized by the IUBS, SCOPE, and UNESCO, in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, USA.

Blology International No 24 (January 1992)

This was followed during the IUBS Assembly in Amsterdam by a symposium "Biological Diversity and Global Change".

The inclusion of the programme "Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity" in the 'Options for Agenda 21' prepared by the Preparatory Cornmittee of the UN Conference on Environment and Development VNCED' to be submitted to the Rio-de-Janeiro Conference in 1992, as well as the excellent account of the Amsterdam symposium made by The Economist , provide a clear indication of the tremendous interest raised by this programme not only within the scientific community, but also among policy and economic decision-makers. and represent a major challenge for the progranime to provide the scientific knowledge base needed if we have to meet the objectives of UNCED.

Objectives, major topics and priority hypotheses

The major objectives of this programme are to identify scientific issues and to promote research projects that require international cooperation in the following areas: (1) the ecosystem function of biodiversity; (2) the origins and maintenance of biodiversity; (3) inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity; and (4) biodiversity of wild relatives of cultivated species.

Four sets of priority hypotheses and recommendations were developed at genetic, species to community and ecosystem levels, and to deal with the problem of inventorying and monitoring species diversity and their changes around the world.

Biodiversity ut infra-specific level (from gene to species)

Because the diversity found within species is the ultimate source of biodiversity at higher levels, it is essential that at the population level evolutionary and genetic phenomena be well understood. Genetic variation, life-history traits, population dynamics and genetic population structure al1 shape and influence the way a species interacts with its environment and with other species. Moreover, the biodiversity contained within a species is a major determinant of how successfully a species will respond to anthropogenic disturbance. The amount of genetic variation within a species also detennines its potential for subsequent evolutionary change.

Hypotheses regarding population level biodiversity were divided into four areas. The fust deals with the consequences of genetic diversity for biodiversity at higher levels, the second with the impact of population structure on genetic diversity including effects of spatial fragmentation, and genetic bottlenecks on biodiversity, the third with the relationship between biodiversity and life history.

Research Issues for Species Diversity ut the Community Level

The past three decades of theoretical and empirical research on the causes of patterns in species richness is that single-factor explanations are inadequate to account for these pattern. They felt that the patterns of species diversity are the products of interacting forces that Vary in relative importance both in time and space. These interactions are as yet not completely understood. Thus, the further development and evaluation of our understanding of these phenomena stands to benefit significantly from a global research programme that spans a range of temporal and spatial scales, from those that cari be addressed by an individual researcher to those that can be addressed by international research teams.

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Biology International No 24 (Januay 1992)

It is important for the programme to develop a conceptual framework in which to understand patterns of biodiversity in time and space. Both historical contingencies and local species interactions are irnplicated in determining the composition of communities. It also is equally important to introduce some general conceptual issues regarding diversity at the community level. Research hypotheses were formulated dealing with (1) functional redundancy, species diversity, and the stability of cornrnunities and ecosysterns, (2) regional biogeography and local species richness, and (3) the effect of disturbance and human impacts on the structure of cornmunities and ecosysterns.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Attributes

Addressing the issue of biodiversity at the ecosystem level marked the initial discussions for the development of an IUBS initiative in this area. The rapid alteration of the earth's environment has raised great concern about the future functioning of the planet. These changes in the physical and chemical environment and human induced transformations of the earth's features are likely to affect the prevailing function and structure of the biosphere. The manner in which the rich complexity of the biosphere will respond to these global environmental changes and to the rapid Pace of human use of terrestrial and aquatic resources is largely unknown.

Ecosystem science is concerned with the study of the capture, storage and transfer of energy and matter by organisms at a spatial and temporal scales. In studying the interactions between environmental factors and ecosystem functions, scientists have tended to concentrate on the processes rather than on the species involved. Consequently they have used simplified approaches, where system function and structure dealt with a minimum of complexity in order to explain the dynarnics of the system. Utilizing this approach species diversity and species identities can be important in some cases, although consistent results have not been found.

The massive loss of species, communities, and ecosystems, that could be the consequence of landscape transformation, makes a systernatic investigation of the roles of species in ecosystern level phenomena urgent. In other words, understanding how biological diversity modulates the functioning and structure of ecosystems is critical at the present juncture when local and global species diversity is apparently in decline as a result of anthropogenic activities. Predicted climatic change is a further complication that may negatively affect the ecosystem function. Testing various hypotheses in a given ecosystem involves choosing a particular position on the space-time plane and therefore constraints the kinds of tests that can be made. The types of tests (both experiments and observations) available include controlled experiments, inadvertent experiments, and natural experiments.

The above studies will be complemented by global monitoring and observations of major changes in the land cover and in biotic introductions or removai of certain species around the world.

Monitoring and Inventorying Biodiversity

In dealing with the problem of inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity on Earth, we are faced with the formidable technical and material problems relating to estimating the nurnber of species and their distribution on this planet. It is important to point out the shortage of trained taxonomists al1 over the world, but especially in tropical countries where much of the world's


biologicai diversity is found.

Organisation and implementation

3.1. Structure

The IUBS 24th General Assembly, held in Sept., 1991, in Amsterdam, adopted a resolution that an overall Coordinating Cornmittee of the programme be established, and that the major programme themes be as follows: ecosystem function of biodiversity, origins, maintenance and loss of biodiversity, inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity, and biodiversity of wild relatives of domesticated species. This resolution was adopted in principal by SCOPE, which will proceed with its final adoption at the next Assembly, in January, 1992, in Sevilla, Spain.

The Coordinating Cornmittee of the IUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO Programme on Ecosystem Function of Biological Diversity is composed as follows: Prof. Francesco di Castri (Italy) Chairman, and Profs. Eduardo Fuentes (Chile), Madhav Gadgil (India), David L. Hawksworth (U.K.), Pierre Lasserre (France), Harold Mooney (USA), Otto Solbrig (USA), and Drs. Valeri Neronov (USSR). and Veronique Plocq (SCOPE. ex-officia), Jane Robertson (UNESCO, a-oficio) and Tala1 Younés (iUBS, ex-oflcio) Members.

The UNESCO Generai Conference, at its 26th session in October 1991, specificaily adopted the implementation of the IUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO programme in the 1992-93 workplan and budget. Since then, the Director-General of UNESCO has decided, within the context of preparation of UNCED, to give top priority to UNESCO's work on biodiversity and the international biosphere reserve network.

3.2. Tasks

The Committee has the major task of coordinating the various projects and activities of the programme, on behalf of the CO-sponsoring institutions: IUBS, SCOPE and UNESCO. It has the task to identify topics for interim assessments, as well as the individuals andlor groups responsible for undertaking these assessments and producing the technical reports or briefings for decision-makers.

3.3. Assessments

The IUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO Programme on Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity is developing a long tenn research and monitoring programme to investigate important scientific questions concerning the determinants and consequences of biodiversity. Since major results may not be produced for 10 years or more, there is a need to be able to provide policy makers with interim results. Policy makers may not be able to wait 10 years for definite results. Also, it may often be possible to produce useful assessments (analyses) of specific issues on existing information. There should be a mechanism for identifying potential topics that need to be analysed and for producing the analyses. The projects/analyses should be completed in a year or less. The products should be technical reports, as well as shorter non-technicai briefmgs for policy makers. The Coordinating Committee should have the responsibility of identifying appropriate topics. Individuals or small groups could be given the charge (with funding) of producing the analyses for the committee.

3.3 Future activities

The Coordinating Committee which met on 4-5 October, 1991, in Bayreuth (Germany), reviewed the four themes of the programme, and decided for each one to establish a scientific

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Biology International No 24 (Januay 1992)

advisory committee. It also discussed the plans of action and future activities, as well as funding sources and implementation strategies. Also, the Committee considered the organisational aspects related to the biodiversity of micro-organisms and the marine systems, in the overall programme.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function

Prof. H. Mooney will chair the Scientific Advisory Committee for the 'Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function' theme. The basic questions addressed here are as follows:

- How is system stability and resistance affected by species diversity and how will global change affect these relationships ? and,

- What is the role of biodiversity (species and landscapes) in ecosystem processes (e.g. nutrient retention, decomposition, production, etc.) including feedbacks, over short and long term spans and in face of global change (climate change, land use change, and invasions) ?

The sequence of activities planned to deal with this theme includes the organisation of a 'Workshop on Background Issues' (held in Bayreuth, Germany on 1-3 October, 1991), to be followed by a series of 13 regional symposia, and two special foci meetings during the period 1992-93, and a final synthesis symposium, to be organized in Asilomar, USA, 1994.

Regarding the outputs, it is expected that the proceedings of the various regional workshops together with the 2 special foci meetings will be published in the Ecological Series of Springer Verlag. The synthesis volume will be part of the SCOPE Series published by Wiley.

Origins, Maintenance and Loss of Biodiversity

Prof. Otto Solbrig, will chair the Scientific Advisory Committee for the theme 'Origins, Maintenance and Loss of Biodiversity'. The conceptual frarnework and research hypotheses identified by the Harvard Forest Workshop will serve as a basis for the development of this theme. The study of biodiversity at the infraspecific genetic and population levels, including research on and processes of speciation and extinction represents an important step for understanding diversity at higher levels. Also, it is very important to make a clear distinction between local and global extinctions, and their management implications.

The approach that will be used in developing this theme will follow the same pattern of the previous theme. A series of 4-5 symposia will be organized to deal with this theme. The outputs will include the proceedings of the symposia, as well as recommendations for management.

Inventorying and Monitoring of Biodiversity

The Scientific Advisory Committee of this programme theme will be chaired by Prof. F. di Castri). In dealing with the question of inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity on Earth, we are faced with the formidable technical and material problems relating to estimating the number of species and their distribution. These problems are compounded by the acute shortage of trained taxonomists al1 over the world, but especially in the tropical countries where much of the world's biodiversity is found.

In addressing this subject, the scientific questions of what and how toinventory and what and how to monitor need to be fust identified. Thereafter, we need to establish the logistic base for

Btology International No 24 (January 1992)

carrying out a minimum programme. The scientific questions will be considered by an ad hoc group of experts to meet at UNESCO Headquarters on 30-31 January, 1992. The actual sites for study will be chosen from - but not limited to- a selected number of biosphere reserves. The concept of an international network of biosphere reserves to study the interactions between man and the biosphere in the world's major biomes appears even more relevant today than when the first biosphere reserves were established in the early 1970's under UNESCO's MAB programme. Today, the international network of biosphere reserves is obtaining increasing attention and support for coordinated research on environmental matters of global concem such as for biodiversity and global change.

The inventory and monitoring activity of the TUBS-SCOPE-UNESCO will therefore make best use of this existing network which provides secure sites for the long-term studies required. Although the results of this work will take time in coming, attention will be paid to synthesizing interim results and transmitting them to decision-makers, thus giving them the b a t available knowledge for land management decisions.

Biodiversity of Wild Relatives of Dornesticated Species

The Coordinating Committee agreed that decisions regarding the programme theme "Conservation of Biodiversity of Wild Relatives of Domesticated Species" will be made later on, and that further discussions with the FAO, IUCN and WRI and others will be held.

Publications

di Castri F. and T. Younés, (1990) Ecosystem Function of Biological Diversity, Biology International, Special Issue No 22, (20 pages). Grassle J. F., P. Lasserre, A.D. McIntyre & G.C. Ray, (1991) Ecosystem Function of Marine Biodiversity, Biology Intcmational, Special Issue 23, (19 pages). Lugo A., (1988) Diversity of Tropical Species: Questions that elude answers, Biology Internutional. Special Issue No 19, (37 pages). Maury-Lechon G., M. Hadley and T. Younès, (1984) The Significance of Species Diversity in Tropical Forest ~xosystems, Bwlogy International, Special Issue No 6. (76 pages). ,iooney H. and E.D. Schulze, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function, Spnnger Verlag (in press).

. i~iipson B., (1988) Biological Diversity in the Context of Ecosystem Structure and Function, Biology Irdernational, No 17. (pp: 15-17). Solbrig O.T.. (1991) Biodiversity: Scientific Issues and Collaborative Research Proposais, MAI3 Digest no 9, 1991, (77 pages). Solbrig O.T. & Ci. Nicolis, (1991) Perspectives on Biological Complexity, IUBS Monograph Series, (228 pages). Solbrig O.T., (1991) From Genes to Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity, Edited by O. T. Solbrig, IUBS Monograph Series. (124 pages). Solbrig Q.T., H. van Emden and P. van Oordt, Biological Diversity and Global Change, IUBS Monograph Series, (in press). The Economist: Species Galore; and Counting Species, (No 7724, 14-20 Sept. 1991. pp: 17 & 99-100).

Biology International No 24 (Januury 1992)

G E N E R A L ASSEMBLY

The 24th General Assembly Resolutions

ResolutionNO1: IUBS Endorsement of the Scientifrc Programme

The 24th TUBS General Assembly RESOLVES to endorse the report of the Scientific Programme Committee and adopts the programmes.

CONGRATULATES al1 who participated in the Decade of the Tropics Programme and records its forma1 thanks to them and in particular, to Professor Otto Solbrig and his Planning and Programme Comrnittees, for its success.

Resolution N02: IUBS Endorsement of the ICSU Principle of Free Movement of Scientists

The 24th IUBS General Assembly ENDORSES the ICSU principle that demands that no ICSU Union will hold or support a meeting from which the scientists of any nation are excluded on grounds of national, political or religious affiliation.

Resolution N03: Invitation tu Participate in the ZUBSI COPEI UNESCO Biological Diversity Programme

The 24th Generai Assembly of TUBS

CONSIDERING the importance of knowledge in biologicai diversity and global change, and the need to focus on the TUBS Biological Diversity Programme,

NOTICING the lack of relevant research capacity, especially in institutes of systematic biology ,

URGES on the national and other authorities to adopt and participate in the IUBS Biological Diversity Programme and strengthen the research budgets of the scientific institutes in the field for which they are responsible to enable them to participate fully in that programme.

Resolution N04: Microbial Diversity

The 24th General Assembly of TUBS RECOGNIZES the importance of microorganisms (algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mycoplasmas, viroids, viruses, etc.) in the functioning and maintenance of biodiversity at the individuai, ecosystem, and global levels.

Draws ATTENTION to the scant mention of microorganisms in discussions to date on the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, both in situ and ex situ (in culture


collections).

ENCOURAGES al1 United Nations' agencies, inter-governmental, national, and non- governmental organizations engaged in the preparation of biodiversity strategies and action plans, to include microbial aspects of biotic diversity including the maintenance of ecosystem function at al1 levels.

RESOLVES to invite the IUMS (International Union of Microbiological Societies) and the WFCC (World Federation of Culture Collections) to collaborate with the Union in a major programme in microorganism diversity, emphasizing aspects relevant to humans and ecosystem maintenance, and designed to improve the knowledge base for scientific discussions, applications and assessments.

Resolution N05:The Taxonomie Challenge

The 24th General Assembly of IUBS RECOGNIZING thc uneven global distribution of taxonomy centers,

ENCOURAGES the development of regional and global biosystematic networks concerned with the provision of identification services and training.

Draws ATTENTION to evidence of continuing decline in support for taxonomy world-wide, which has continued to such an extent that it is increasingly proving to be an impediment to the scientific study of biodiversity and to the management, conservation and utilization of the world's natural resources.

FINDS this situation deeply disturbing at a time when the demand and need for the products and services of systematics are greater than at any time in the past.

So as to create awareness of the importance of applied and non-applied systematics in decision-making in environmental matters, the General Assembly RESOLVES to request that United Nations' agencies, inter-governmental and non-governmental agencies, national academies of science, research Committees and their equivalents, ensure that those involved in pure and applied aspects of systematics are represented in their membership and on the Lqpropriate committees.

i t further URGES those preparing programmes in biodiversity, ecosystem function, further the utilization, conservation and maintenance of natural resources, to include adequate funds for the taxonomic support and training necessary for effective work in those fields.

Resolution N06: Biologieal Nomenclature

The 24th General Assembly of IUBS

RECOGNIZES the substantial progress made since the 23rd General Assembly by botanists and zoologists to develop parallel systems aimed at the streamlining in and improvements of utility in biological nomenclature, and ENDORSES the coordination of a programme in this field in view of its major utility to the whole biological community.

WELCOMES the proposed establishment of an International Organization for Plant Information, the production of a Species Fungorum and similar initiatives which can make


major contributions to the production of authoritative lists of narnes.

ENCOURAGES those concemed with biological nomenclature, actively to seek ways of increasing harmonization in the various Codes, for example, with regard to the protection for names in current use, the registration of newly proposed names, the treatment of protists, homonymy between different groups, and where possible, the use of identical terms.

WELCOMES progress made on preparing a botanical "List of Names in Current Use" and RECOMMENDS that the XIVth International Botanical Congress brings without delay, the List into use for the benefit of the biological comrnunity.

ResolutionNT: IUBS and Biological Education and Training in the Third World

The 24th General Assembly of IUBS RECOGNIZING that the aim of the Union to promote biological science extend beyond its own members and that wide participation in the Union's Scientific Programmes by developing countries should be promoted irrespective of the membership of the Union.

RECOGNIZING that graduate training of biological scientists represents an important aspect of promoting biological science.

APPRECIATING that benefits to some countries such graduate training programmes may be reduced by many factors, including economic and sociological factors as well as the choice of research programmes.

RESOLVES to stress to scientists in non-member countries that the participation of scientists in IUBS programmes is not auditional on national membership; and

RESOLVES to refer this matter to the IUBS Commission on Biological Education with a request for it to consider that action, if any, can be taken to improve the present position; and

RESOLVES to draw the concern of the Union the benefits of graduate training of UNESCO and its agencies.

Three New IUBS Scientific Members

Following the recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee on Admissions, the General Assembly adrnitted the following new scientific members:

1)The 'Council for International Congresses of Dipterology (CICD)' ;

2)The 'European Society for Evolutionary Biology (ESEB' ; and

3)The 'International Bee Research Association (IBRA)'.

Blology International No 24 (January 1992)

25th General Assembly

The invitation of the French Académie des Sciences to hold the General Assembly ir. Paris, France, in September, 1994, was unanimously adopted by the General Assembly.

The IUBS Executive Committee (1991-1994)

The following slate for the 1991-1994 Iül3S Executive Comrnite was the 24th General Assembly unanirnously accepted:

lcers Off'

President: Francesco DI CASTRI (Italy) Vice-President: Tokindo OKADA (Japan) Vice-President: Vladimir SOKOLOV (U.S.S.R.) Secretary General: Donald STONE (U.S.A.) Treasurer: Derek ROBERTS (U.K.)

Executive Committee Voting Members Members

Abdul-Aziz ABU-ZENADA (Saudi Arabia) Eduardo FUENTES (Chile) Gertrud HAUSER (Austria) Pierre LASSERRE (France) Maximina MONASTERIO (Venezuela) '3n NOBLE (Ausvalia) .Irnst Detlef SCHULZE (Germany)

Executive Committee Non-Voting

C-H. CHOU (China-Taipei) Brian HUNTLEY (South Africa) Zhengscheng LI (Chia-Beijing) John MC NEIL (Canada) Piet VAN OORDT (Netherlands) Stephen STEARNS (Switzerland) Osvaldo SALA (Argentina)

Past President: Janos SALANKI (Hungary).

Biology International No 24 (Januarg 1992)

Biotechnology of Reproduction in Aquatic Animals

In 1991, the TUBS undertook a series of important activities which aimed at the development of an international network for Reproductive Biology in Aquaculture (RBA). The 24th General Assembly held in September, formally adopted an "International Collaborative Programme of Research" on RBA, which was based upon a symposium sponsored by the IUBS Committee in Taiwan entitled "Reproductive Biology in Aquaculture", 22-27 April, in Taipei. The meeting addressed the various domains of reproductive biology in aquaculture, and the specific areas and possibilities to be investigated. The first activity to be organized within the programme consisted of an international meeting on 'Bwtechnology of Reproduction in Aquatic Animals", held on 25-27 November, in Toba, Japan, and convened by Profs. T. Okada (Vice President, TUBS), and Y. Nagahama (Okasaki, Japan).

The recent Toba symposium focused on the cytogenetics and genetic manipulation aspects and their relevance to basic research and biotechnological applications (See review paper by C.L. Hew & 2. Gong, on page 2 of this issue). Review papers dealing with the major trends and advances in RBA research were presented, such as the molecular processes and regulatory mechanisms underlying the oocyte maturation; spermatogenic stages and mutagenesis; nuclear transplantation; induced fusion of oocytes and embryonic cells; production of super males (YY); control and determination of sex. Also discussed was the importance of such new products as Somatolactin and Glycosphingolipids, and the exciting new findings in gene uansfer technology, especially the production of transgenic fish species (Salmon, Rainbow Trout, Tilapia, Zebrafish, and Medaka).

The meeting concluded with a broad discussion of the future prospects related to the need for a solid scientific knowledge base for aquaculture, the economic potential of aquaculture, especially for the developing countries, and the potential environmental consequences of a large scale aquaculture development.

This subject holds particular significance for the countries of Taiwan and Japan, as they share a deep interest in developing their marine resources, and we are especially grateful for their willingness to share the long standing experience acquired in aquaculture. Our appreciation also must be expressed for the outstanding organisation of these meetings by the IUBS Committees in Taiwan and Japan, and the financial support provided respectively by Academia Sinica, for the Taipei meeting, and of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan, Mie Prefectural Government, the International Center for Environmental Technology Transfer and other Japanese sponsors.

The proceedings of bath meetings will be published in early 1992.

COSPAR Life Sciences Research in Space

A report presented to the 24th IUBS General Asssembly, held 1-6 Sept., 1991, in Amsterdam, Netherlands

by Richard S. Young Biomedicd Operations. Research Office. Code MD-RES, J.F. Kennedy Space Center, Flonda 32899, U.S.A.

Introduction

The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in October 1958. COSPAR is an interdisciplinary scientific organization concerned with international progress in al1 areas of scientific research carried out with space vehicles, rockets and balloons. COSPAR's objectives are carried out by the international community of scientists working through ICSU and its adhering national academies and international scientific unions.

This report deals with "Commission F of COSPAR, which is the Life Science Commission. Commission F is subdivided into Sub-commissions: F.1., Gravitational Biology; F.2., Radiation Biology; F.3., Planetary Biology and the Origins of Life; and F.4., Natural and Artificial Ecosystems. Many of the more than 40 participating nations involved in space research are aiso involved in the Life Sciences, making Commission F one of the largest of the science disciplines involved in space research. This report is a brief s w e y of the various research programmes covered in the COSPAR family of life science research endeavours.

Gravitational Biology

The first and probably largest of these programmes is Sub-commission F.1. - Gravitational Biology, which includes Biomedical research and basic biological studies of plant, animal and ::e!lular systems. In human spaceflight there have evolved, primarily out of the U.S.A. Shuttle :xogramme and Soviet Cosmos programme, a set of biomedical problems that require some &rly comprehensive research efforts for resolution. There are reaily two aspects to biomedical research in space. The first, having to do with what might be called operational medicine, invslving the day by day or hour by hour problems encountered by astronauts in space and the logistics of providing astronauts with a working environment that can be safe and productive. The second is the more fundamental biomedical research programme, dealing with basic studies aimed at determining the possible solutions to problems such as bone demineraiization, vestibular problems (space motion sickness), cardiovascular deconditioning, general muscle deconditioning, fluid electrolight imbalance, and lowered immune response, al1 of which appear to be related to the phenomenon of microgravity. Hence, as one might expect, microgravity becomes a pnnciple concern, particularly in long term human space flight, but also, in the short term in some cases. Certainly before humans can anticipate tmly long term flight, that is for periods of two or more years, many of these problems must be resolved since they are sufficiently serious in nature to be quite debilitating, both in flight and especially on return to Earth. Research results are reported in al1 of the above mentioned areas on a continuing basis at Our biannual meetings. Radiation encountered in space flight is another serious problem requiring considerably more research than has been done to date. Of particular concern in interplanetary radiation, especially that due to cosmic primaries, where the effect of

37


HZE particles is not well known. Before a Mars mission can be seriously considered, the radiation dose anticipated in such a flight must be studied, particularly, that caused by solar flares, and cosmic primaries. The methodology involved in biomedicai monitoring is another subject contained in our programme. The techniques of monitoring changes and physiology, biochemistry and cellular and subcellular systems in the human body during space flight are among the topics discussed.

In addition to human concems in space flight, we are very interested in using the phenomenon of microgravity in earth orbital space flight, interplanetary space flight, on the surface of the moon with its 0.6 g environment, or the surface of Mars with its 0.3 g environment, as toois for studying the effects of gravity at varying levels on living systems. Very interesting relationships between gravity and embryonic systems as well as whole adult organisms are k i n g elucidated. The relationships are just beginning to be understood and are being reported on a continuing basis at Our meetings. Thus, the objective of Sub-commission F.1. is to provide a broad framework for gravitational biology, particularly with reference to space flight, which is applicable to man, animais and plants including microorganisms and ce11 preparations. Space flight, low g effects, effects of groundbased low g simulation, gravity perception and orientation, gravity scale effects, centrifuge high g effects, vibration effects, etc., are al1 relevant. In addition, the biological response to cosmic radiation. including biological effectiveness of the hard component of cosmic radiation (HZE particles in nuclear disintegration events) also study the influence of extemal factors (weightlessness and environmentai stress) on radiobiological processes, radiation risk and protection in solar flare events. Included, of course, is dosimetry on manned space flights, radiation standards and radiation protection in particularly long term manned space flights.

Planetary Biology and Origins of Life

Sub-commission F.3. on planetary biology and origins of life is probably as basic a research programme as any in COSPAR. The focus of interest is indeed, the origin and early evolution of life on earth andlor elsewhere in the universe. The question of the existence of extraterrestrial is a very profound one with broad implications to society as a whole. Included are the study of the pathway (s) (chemical) by which life may have arisen. We cal1 this chemical evolution. We include the early geologicai record (Precarnbrian) as it pertains to the origin and early evolution of life and the interaction of life with the planet in physicaVchemicai and evolutionary terms. We are also concerned with the response of terrestrial life forms to unusual and exueme and environmental conditions, such as may actually be encountered on the surface of another planet. Finally, the search for life itself, including intelligent life, in the universe is a focal point for this Sub-commission.

Artificial Ecosystems

Sub-commission F.4. on natural and artificial ecosystems reaily has two components. The first and smailest deals with remote observations of the naturd ecosystems on earth. Here we try to take advantage of space flight capability in order to make observations of the various major terrestriai ecosystems and the components of the ecosystems to study the long term effects of the human interaction with these ecosystems. In today's environment, of course, such research is of great importance. The second and larger part of the programme deals with the stabilization and control of artificiai ecosystems for life support in the space environment, either over the short term or over the long term. One of the more important components of this programme is the CELSS programme, that is Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems.


This programme has as its primary goal, the support of very long term human space flight. We are interested in the growth of food in space or on the surface of an extraterrestrial body, processing the food, and recycling al1 unusable materials back into the system. It is a completely bioregenerative system, which regenerates the atmosphere through plant photosynthesis, water through plant transpiration, and food from crop plants such as soybeans, wheat, potatoes, beans, lettuce, etc. These plants have been grown successfully in a vigorously controlled environmental chamber at the Kennedy Space Center and at universities around the U.S.A. The Soviets have a similar programme at Krasnoyarsk. Food processing from edible biomass is k ing studied as is processing and recycling of the inedible biomass, including human wastes. This is a highly sophisticated programme which ultimately will have considerable spin-off for terrestrial application.

Our biannual meetings generally attract about 150-200 scientists, and occupy approximately a five-day period of reports. The programmes described herein are obviously broad in scope so that it is very interdisciplinary in nature involving medical researchers, biochemists, microbiologists, geologists, astronomers, etc. The content of these programmes is published in book form and is thereby, available to the scientific community at large.

Questions concerning further details on the COSPAR Life Science Programme may be addressed to Dr. Young.

The International Conference on an Agenda of Science for Environment and Development

into the 21st century (ASCEND-21)

The International Conference on an Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into the 21st Century (ASCEND 21) was convened by ICSU in Viema during the last week of November 1991. The results of ASCEND 21, the first international conference of its kind, will serve to make a major contribution to the formulation of the future directions of world science, as well as to the preparation of the 1992 UNCED.

ASCEND 21 stressed a new commitrnent on the part of the international scientific cornmunity as a whole to work together so that improved and expanded scientific research, and the

ssment of scientific results, combined with a prediction of impacts, would enabl SyStem? olicy options in environment and development to be evaluated on the basis of sound scientific facts. Furthermore, it forcefully asserted the responsibility of science (encompassing the natural, social, engineering and health sciences), to provide independent explanations of its frndings to individuals, organizations and governments. In this context, ASCEND underlined the central importance of the precautionq principle, according to which any disturbances of an inadequately understood system as complex as Nature should be avoided.

Members of the scientific community participating in ASCEND agreed on the nature of the major problems that affect the environment and hinder sustainable development, and identified a number of specific areas through which the scientific community could begin to tackle those key issues considered by ASCEND, such as population and per capita resource consumption; depletion of agriculturalfiand resources; climate change; loss of biological diversity; industrialization and waste; water scarcity ; energy consurnption; inequi ty and poverty .

29

ASCEND recomrnended:

- intensifled research into natural and anthropogenic forcing and their inter-relationships, including the carrying capacity of the Earth and ways .to slow population growth and reduce over-consumption;

- strengthened support for international global environmental research and observation of the total Earth systern;

- research and studies at the local and regional scale on: the hydrological cycle, impacts of climate change; coastal zones; loss of biodiversity; vulnerability offragile ecosystems; impacts of changing land use, of waste and of human attitudes and behaviour;

- research on transition to a more eficient energy supply and use of materials and natural resources;

- special efforts in education and in building up of scientific institutions as well as involvement of a wide segment of the population in environment and development problern-solving;

- regular appraisals of the most urgent problems of environment and development and conundcation with policy-makers, the media and the public;

- establishment of a forum to link scientists and development agencies along with a strengthened partnership with organizations charged with addressing problems of environment and development;

- a wide review of environmental ethics.

In closing the ASCEND Conference, the President of ICSU announced ICSWs intention to: consolidate the cooperation between ICSU's major international research programmes; strengthen ICSU's role in the evolving partnership among science, government, IGOs, business and industry; strengthen ICSU's capacity to prepare objective scientific assessments; report on scientific issues to the general public and decision-makers; and help review the performance of Agenda 21 after the UNCED.

ECOTONES: The Role of Landscape Boundaries in the Management and Restoration of Changing Environments Edited by M. M. Holland, P. G. Risser & R. J. Naiman. Published by Chapman & Hall, 1991 (142 pages).

Landscape boundaries,or ecotones, are important, not only because they take on important control functions in dynamic spatial systems and provide important needs in the life cycles of many organisms, but also because of their high biological diversity. This book surveys the characteristics of ecotones, describes how they respond to environmental changes, and suggests ways in which ecotones can be managed most appropriately .

INTRODUCTION OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT (SCOPE 44) Edited by H.A. Mooney & G. Bernardi Published on behalf of SCOPE and COGENE by J. Wiley & Sons, 1990 (201 pages).

There has been a continuing concem regarding the potential consequences of the release of genetically engineered organisms into the environment. This book presents an overview of Ihe history of this concern, together with approaches toassess the risks and safety standards to be undertaken in order to maintain appropriate safeguards for the protection of environmental and human heaith, while not discouraging innovation.

ECOSYSTEM EXPERIMENTS (SCOPE 45) Edited by H.A. Mooney, E. Medina, D. W. Schindler, E.-D. Schulze & B. H. Walker Published on behalf of SCOPE by J. Wiley & Sons, 1991 (268 pages).

The objective of this volume is to explore the potential of ecosystem experimentation as a tool to understanding and predicting more precisely

the consequences of our changing biosphere. A broad view is taken of the problem by first examining what has been learned from "naturai" experiments as well as large-scale inadvertent ecosystem perturbations induced by human action.

LONG-TERM ECOLOGICALRESEARCH An International Perspective (SCOPE 47) Edited by P. G. Risser Published on behalf of SCOPE by J. Wiley & Sons, 1990 (268 pages).

This book reviews important long- term ecological research programmes in several countries throughout the world and identifies problems associated with changing global environments. Thechapters both describe and analyse successful research programmes in various ecosystems, including temperate forests, temperate and tropical grasslands, arid steppes, deserts and aquatic systems. Also, itdescribes specific future ecological questions that can only be answered by long-term studies and proposes the necessary requirements for multi-national, long-tenn ecological research programmes.

USE OF ALGAE FOR MONITORING RIVERS Edited by B. A. Whitton, E. Rott & G. Friedrich. Published by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Limnologie & the IUBS Bioindicator Commission, 1991 (1 93 pages).

The use of algae for monitoring environmental pollution or long term changes of rivers, has been often proposed because they are the main prirnaq producers of most rivers in temperate regions. This book consists of the proceedings of an internationai symposium held in Düsseldorf, Germany in May, 199 1, which dealt with the general principles as well as a review of monitoring methods and activities in individual couniries. (Copies may be obtained from Dr. E. Rott, Institut für Botanik. Univ. Innsbruck, Sternwartestr. 15, A-6020, Innsbruck, ~usbia)

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