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Biological and LandscapeDiversity in Slovenia
An overview
MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND SPATIAL PLANNING
ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA
CBDCBD
Ljubljana, 2001
MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SPATIAL PLANNING
ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA
Published by:Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning - Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia
Editors in chief and executive editors:Branka Hlad and Peter Skoberne
Technical editor:Darja Jeglič
Reviewers of the draft text:Kazimir Tarman Ph.D., Andrej Martinčič Ph.D., Fedor Černe Ph.D.
English translation:Andreja NaraksGordana Beltram Ph.D. (chapter on Invasive Species, ......., comments on the figures),Andrej Golob (chapter on Communication, Education and Public Awareness)
Revision of the English text:Alan McConnell-DuffIan Mitchell (chapter on Communication, Education and Public Awareness)Gordana Beltram Ph.D.
Designed and printed by:Littera Picta d.o.o.
Photographs were contributed by:Milan Orožen Adamič (2), Matjaž Bedjanič (12), Gordana Beltram (3), Andrej Bibič (2), Janez Božič (1), RobertBolješič (1), Branka Hlad (15), Andrej Hudoklin (10), Hojka Kraigher (1), Valika Kuštor (1), Bojan Marčeta (1), CirilMlinar (3), Marko Simić (91), Peter Skoberne (57), Baldomir Svetličič (1), Martin Šolar (1), Dorotea Verša (1) and JanaVidic (2).
Edition:700 copies
CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikacijiNarodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana
502.3(497.4)(082)574(497.4)(082)
BIOLOGICAL and landscape diversity in Slovenia : an overview / (editors in chiefBranka Hlad and Peter Skoberne ; English translation Andreja Naraks, Gordana Beltram, Andrej Golob;photographs were contributed by Milan Orožen Adamič... et. al.). - Ljubljana :Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning, Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, 2001
ISBN 961-6324-17-9I. Hlad, Branka119431680
Copyright:Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, 2001: Biological and Landscape Diversity of Slovenia, Ljubljana.
The document before us is one of the outputs of the project on preparation of the Biodiversity Strategy of Slovenia.It was financed by the World Bank, Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and the Ministry of the Environment andSpatial Planning.
Our gratitude for professional assistance goes to all experts, scientific organizations, ministries and all other govern-mental organizations, inspection services, police, customs, enterprises and non-governmental organizations fortheir contributions.
Special thanks are extended to the authors of the photographs who offered their work free of charge and thusprovided for the better esthetical value and attractiveness of the document.
CONTENTS
iii
FOREWORD ............................................................................. vii
SUMMARY .................................................................................. ix
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... xiiOrganisation and data compilation ...................................................... xii
Working groups .................................................................................... xii
Additional expertise ........................................................................... xii
Aims and objectives of the document .................................................. xv
Problems, constraints and limitations in preparation of the
document ................................................................................................... xvi
PART 1: BIODIVERSITY ..............................................1
BIODIVERSITY ........................................................................... 3Levels of biodiversity ................................................................................. 3
Genetic diversity .................................................................................... 3
Species diversity .................................................................................... 3
Ecosystem diversity ............................................................................... 3
Landscape diversity ............................................................................... 4
Biodiversity through time ........................................................................ 4
Global and European framework ............................................................ 6
Values of biodiversity ................................................................................. 6
Importance of biodiversity for human use ....................................... 7
Direct-use values of biodiversity ......................................................... 7
Indirect-use or ecological values ........................................................ 8
Aesthetic, intrinsic and cultural values ............................................ 9
PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL ANDLANDSCAPE DIVERSITY ......................................... 11
BIODIVERSITY IN SLOVENIA .................................................. 13Some main characteristics of Slovenia ................................................ 13
Characteristics of biological and landscape diversity in Slovenia 15
HABITATS - BIODIVERSITY AT THE ECOSYSTEM LEVEL ....... 17
General characteristics ........................................................................... 17
Habitat typology ........................................................................................ 17
Habitats and threatened plant and animal species ........................... 18
Criteria for the assessment of habitats ................................................. 20
Threats ......................................................................................................... 20
Degree of research ................................................................................... 21
Habitat types ............................................................................................... 21
Marine and coastal habitats ................................................................. 22
Inland waters ......................................................................................... 24
Standing waters ............................................................................ 25
Running waters ........................................................................... 26
Groundwater .................................................................................. 31
Scrubs and grasslands .......................................................................... 32
Scrubs ............................................................................................... 32
Grasslands ..................................................................................... 33
Forests ..................................................................................................... 34
Bogs, fens and marshes ....................................................................... 40
Bogs and fens ................................................................................. 40
Marshes ............................................................................................ 41
Rocky habitats, screes and dunes ...................................................... 41
Rural and urban landscapes ................................................................ 41
Rural habitats (except grasslands) .......................................... 42
Urban habitats .............................................................................. 43
Specific ecosystems ................................................................................. 44
Soil ecosystem ....................................................................................... 44
Mountain ecosystems .......................................................................... 46
Karst and subterranean habitats ........................................................ 48
‘Mrazišča’ ................................................................................................. 50
Wetlands .................................................................................................. 51
SPECIES ..................................................................................... 57General characteristics ........................................................................... 57
Threatened species .................................................................................. 58
Degree of research ................................................................................... 59
Invasive species ........................................................................................ 59
Presentation by taxonomic groups ....................................................... 60
Micro-organisms ................................................................................... 60
Viruses .............................................................................................. 61
Bacteria ............................................................................................ 61
Fungi ........................................................................................................ 62
Micromycetes ................................................................................. 62
Macromycetes ................................................................................ 63
Fungi symbioses (Lichens and mycorrhizae) ........................ 66
Plant species .......................................................................................... 69
Freshwater algae .......................................................................... 70
Mosses, liveworts and hornworts (bryophyta) ....................... 72
Ferns and angiosperms and gymnosperms ........................... 73
Animal species ...................................................................................... 75
Molluscs - terrestrial and freshawater (Mollusca) ................ 77
Leeches (Hirudinea) ..................................................................... 78
Spiders (Araneae) ......................................................................... 78
Daddy-longlegs (Opiliones) ........................................................ 79
Entomostracans (Entomostraca) ............................................. 80
Freshwater and brackish water malacostracans
(Malacostraca) ............................................................................. 80
Chilopods (Chilopoda) .................................................................. 81
Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) ................................ 82
Stoneflies (Plecoptera) ................................................................. 82
Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) .......................................................... 83
Grasshoppers, crickets and katydids (Orthoptera) ................ 84
Mantids (Mantodea) .................................................................... 85
Earwigs (Dermaptera) ................................................................ 85
Termites (Isoptera) ........................................................................ 85
Leaf insects (Phasmoptera) ........................................................ 85
Roaches (Blattoptera) .................................................................. 85
Beetles (Coleoptera) ...................................................................... 86
Neuropterans (Neuropteroidea) ................................................ 87
Scorpion flies (Mecoptera) .......................................................... 87
Caddiesflies (Trichoptera) ........................................................... 87
iv
Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) ........................................ 88
Bees, ants and wasps (Hymenoptera) ..................................... 89
True bugs (Heteroptera) ............................................................... 90
Freshwater fishes, lampreys (pisces, petromyzontidae) ........ 91
Amphibians (Amphibia) ............................................................. 92
Reptiles (Reptilia) ......................................................................... 93
Birds (Aves) .................................................................................... 94
Mammals (Mammalia) ............................................................ 95
Subterranean animals ................................................................ 96
GENETIC DIVERSITY ............................................................... 99Crops and domestic animal breeds ....................................................... 99
Crops ........................................................................................................ 99
Domestic animal breeds .................................................................... 100
Forest woody plants ................................................................................ 101
LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY ......................................................... 103Characteristics and status ...................................................................... 103
Threats ....................................................................................................... 103
Degree of research ................................................................................. 104
Presentation of landscape types ......................................................... 105
Landscapes of the Alpine region .................................................... 105
Landscapes of the sub-Alpine region ............................................ 105
Landscapes of the sub-Pannonian region ..................................... 106
Karst landscapes of inner Slovenia ................................................ 106
Landscapes of the Primorje region ................................................ 107
PART 3: MECHANISMS OF BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE .......... 109
BACKGROUND ........................................................................ 111
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY .................................. 113
Legal framework for the conservation of biological and landscape
diversity ..................................................................................................... 113
Constitution ......................................................................................... 113
International legislation on nature conservation ....................... 114
International conventions ......................................................... 114
Nature conservation regulations issued by the European
Community ................................................................................... 115
Protection and conservation of Biological and landscape
diversity ................................................................................................. 116
Environmental Protection Act .................................................. 116
Nature Conservation Act ............................................................ 117
Caves Protection Act .................................................................... 121
Animal Protection Act ................................................................ 122
Legal framework for the sustainable use of the components of
biological and landscape diversity ..................................................... 122
Forests Act ............................................................................................ 123
Agriculture ........................................................................................... 125
Agriculture Act ............................................................................. 125
Agricultural Land Act ................................................................ 127
National Farmland and Forest Fund Act .............................. 128
Seeds and Propagating Materials Act ..................................... 128
Plant Protection Act ................................................................... 129
Act on Protection of New Varieties of Plants ......................... 129
Fisheries ............................................................................................... 129
Freshwater Fisheries Act ............................................................ 129
Marine Fisheries Act .................................................................... 131
Hunting Law ........................................................................................ 131
Water Act ............................................................................................... 133
Mining Act ............................................................................................ 134
Spatial planning and permits for activities affecting the
physical environment ...................................................................... 134
Spatial Planning Act .................................................................. 134
Act regulating Urban Planning and Other Forms of
Land Use ....................................................................................... 135
Biotechnology ..................................................................................... 136
Conclusions concerning legislation ................................................. 136
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION .... 139In situ protection measures .................................................................. 139
Protected Areas ................................................................................... 139
Overview of protected areas ...................................................... 140
Management of protected areas ............................................... 141
Overview of the planned protected areas ............................... 142
Constrains related to the establishment of protected areas 143
Contractual protection and stewardship ...................................... 144
Purchases of real-estate located in protected areas .................... 144
Compensations and incentives ...................................................... 145
Ecologically Important Areas and Ecological Networks ........... 146
Environmental Impact Assessment ............................................... 146
Ex situ protection measures ................................................................. 146
Protected species ............................................................................... 146
Deficiencies of acts on the protection of species ..................... 147
Botanical gardens, zoos, herbarium collections, animal
shelters .................................................................................................. 147
Gene banks ........................................................................................... 148
Cultivated plants ........................................................................ 148
Gene bank in livestock breeding .............................................. 149
Gene banks in forestry ............................................................... 150
Microbiological collections ........................................................ 151
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA ANDBIODIVERSITY ........................................................................ 153
Background ............................................................................................... 153
Analysis of economic development based on representative
indicators .................................................................................................. 153
Economic aspects of economic development ............................ 154
Economic aspects of social development .................................... 154
Economic aspects of environmental development .................. 155
Slovenia’s development pattern ......................................................... 158
Trends in the priority sectors of integration of the economy and
the environment ................................................................................ 160
Energy sector ................................................................................ 160
Transport ...................................................................................... 164
Agriculture ................................................................................... 166
Forestry .......................................................................................... 172
Processing industry ..................................................................... 174
Mining ........................................................................................... 175
Tourism .......................................................................................... 176
Sustainable use of biodiversity components in other sectors 180
Fisheries ......................................................................................... 180
Hunting ......................................................................................... 184
Gathering and picking ............................................................... 186
Trade in animal and plant species ......................................... 186
Water management ................................................................... 188
Biotechnology and biosafety .................................................... 188
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITYTHROUGH STRUCTURAL ECONOMIC REFORMS ................ 191
Enterprise sector ..................................................................................... 191
Company privatisation and restructuring ..................................... 191
Bankruptcy legislation ...................................................................... 192
State aid .................................................................................................. 192
Transition to the innovation based economy .............................. 192
State sector ................................................................................................ 193
Public administration reform .......................................................... 193
Public utilities reform ........................................................................ 193
Energy sector ................................................................................ 194
Telecommunications .................................................................. 194
Transport ...................................................................................... 194
Public utility sector ..................................................................... 195
Agriculture ................................................................................................ 195
Regional development .......................................................................... 195
Designation of regions and local administration units ............. 197
v
Spatial planning .................................................................................. 197
Regional policy ................................................................................... 198
ORGANISATION OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION . 199
National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia ............................... 199
Government of the Republic of Slovenia ......................................... 199
Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning ................... 199
Administrative and technical organisations ................................ 199
Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia ............. 200
Nature Conservation Institute of the Republic of Slovenia 200
Management institutes ............................................................. 200
Stewardship of valuable natural features ............................ 200
Control .................................................................................................. 201
Inspection ...................................................................................... 201
Direct control ............................................................................... 202
Police .............................................................................................. 203
Customs Service ........................................................................... 203
Information systems .......................................................................... 204
Clearing house mechanism ............................................................. 204
Non-governmental organisations ....................................................... 205
International cooperation .................................................................... 207
Deficiency of the biodiversity conservation institutional
framework ................................................................................................ 208
Institutional level ............................................................................... 208
Individual level ................................................................................... 209
FINANCIAL RESOURCES ......................................................... 211
Domestic financial resources ............................................................... 211
Foreign financial resources .................................................................. 211
Major deficiencies of the financial funds ......................................... 213
COMMUNICATION, PUBLIC AWARENESS AND
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ............................................. 215
Environmental communication ........................................................... 217
Direct communication ....................................................................... 217
Mass media communication .............................................................. 218
Printed media ............................................................................... 218
Electronic media ........................................................................... 219
Principal limitations of mass media communication ...... 219
Public awareness ..................................................................................... 220
Activities aimed at public awareness ............................................ 220
Key capacity constrains in the field of awareness raising ...... 222
Biodiversity education ........................................................................... 222
Elementary schools ..................................................................... 222
Secondary schools ....................................................................... 223
Undergraduate study ................................................................. 223
Postgraduate study .................................................................... 223
Training ................................................................................................. 224In-service training in nature conservation organisations 224
External training ........................................................................ 224
Other forms of co-operation and public participation .................. 225Co-operation and partnership ......................................................... 225Inter-institutional co-operation ...................................................... 225
Public participation ........................................................................... 226
BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH .................................................... 227
BIODIVERSITY MONITORING ............................................... 231Monitoring of the status of biodiversity ............................................ 231
Monitoring of species ....................................................................... 231Monitoring of ecosystems ................................................................ 232Monitoring of genetic diversity ..................................................... 233
Listing the status of biodiversity ......................................................... 233Monitoring of the impacts on biodiversity ...................................... 233
EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS AND PARTICULARTERMS ...................................................................................... 235
LITERATURE AND REFERENCES ........................................... 237
The overview of Biological and LandscapeDiversity in Slovenia, the result of the two years’work of many experts, is now before you. It rep-resents a basis for the preparation of other strate-gic documents, programmes and policies at theGovernmental and local levels.
The collected data show the immense pres-sure on natural resources, ecosystems and spe-cies that is threatening biodiversity as a whole.Under the prevailing circumstances, the un-changed practices could lead to the situationcurrently being faced by Europe.
The assessment of the status of biological andlandscape diversity in Slovenia has shown thatthe problems are much worse than imagined.Consequently, the responsibility of this genera-tion to future generations is great.
In view of the ever-faster pace of life, whenhuman relations are severed and success is mea-sured only by material wealth, nature is our onlysanctuary of peace and relaxation. Its conserva-tion has become a social need of modern human-kind, rather than a utopian idea of the determinednature conservationists.
Without decisive and firm action for the con-servation of nature and healthy environment our
children too will suffer from the diseases of thepresent. We are only as healthy as is the livingenvironment of the species that share the Earthwith us.
The key to success is to invest into nature con-servation and its integration into all the trainingprogrammes. The conserved natural phenomenathat are easily identifiable provide a unique op-portunity for Slovenia in the united Eu-rope, which has lost its valuable natural featureslong ago and is now trying to restore them withsubstantial financial incentives.
The concepts of environmental protection,through which large polluters and activities af-fecting nature are controlled, have already beenaccepted. The conservation of finely dis-persed natural wealth of overgrown streams,living rivers and green lakes, together with minuteand unique species and their habitats, is the pri-ority objective of Slovenia. Once they are losttheir restoration to the original status is extremelycostly and physically almost impossible.
Are we truly aware that forests and many stillundocumented, tiny features of nature cover 70 %of the territory of Slovenia?
Andreja Čerček -Hočevar Ph.D.
Directress
Environmental Agency of the Republic
of Slovenia
vii
FOREWORD
The wilderness has created man
but man cannot create the wilderness.
He can only be part of it.
after David Brower
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank all those involved in the preparation of this important document,in particular Mr Stane Peterlin who started this demanding project and Mr Frits Hesselink from
whom we learnt to how discern between the important and the trivial, and the GEF that providedfunds implemented by the World Bank.
Andreja Čerček - Hočevar Ph.D.
ix
SUMMARY
Pursuant to the obligations of Article 6 of theConvention on Biological Diversity (Rio deJaneiro, 1992) ratified in 1996, the Ministry forthe Environment and Spatial Planning hasheaded and coordinated the preparation of theBiodiversity Conservation Strategy of Slovenia.The two main conditions for preparing such adocument are the review of the status of biodi-versity and related issues and the assessment ofthe trends in and causes of biodiversity loss, to-gether with the principal deficiencies in theimplementation of the existing mechanisms forthe conservation and sustainable use of biodi-versity. The overview of Biological and LandscapeDiversity in Slovenia is divided into three mainheadings. In the introductory part biodiversity ispresented, including its time and spatial frame-work, as well as the grounds established for itsevaluation. The review of the status of habitats,species, genetic diversity and landscape diver-sity follows in the second part. Finally, the meth-ods for the conservation of biodiversity are dis-cussed, in particular with regard to the legisla-tion, economy, organisation, education andresearch. The importance of communication andeducation is particularly emphasised.
The Convention on Biological Diversity pro-vides basis for a new understanding of the im-portance of biodiversity and the responsibilityfor its conservation: each and every individualdepends on biodiversity and is responsible forthe conservation of all living organisms on Earth.In order to implement the Rio principles, theboundaries of particular ministries must be sur-passed and all governmental organisations, com-panies, scientific institutions, NGOs and indivi-duals have to be encouraged to consider the en-vironmental issues and act accordingly. That hasbeen the objective of the present publication. Theextent and complexity of the issues have calledfor the active participation of numerous institu-tions and individuals, and for a demanding revi-sion. The result is not only this document but alsothe established linkages between sectors and theraising awareness about the common ende-avours for the conservation of biodiversity.
The Convention’s definition of biodiversityis rather broad: from molecules, through geneticand species levels, to ecosystems. The data showthat the rate of biodiversity loss at the global levelis considerably high. The reasons for such a trendare human activities, in particular the intensifiedeconomic development of a small proportion ofthe world population. The loss of biodiversity isclosely linked to the reduced cultural diversity.In addition to plant and animal species, nume-rous tribes and peoples are disappearing, andwith them their languages, cultural heritage andthe wisdom of use of plants and animals, as wellas the sustainable way of life. Diversity meansstability, an ability to adapt to changes, a basisfor a long-term survival.
The trends and status of biological and land-scape diversity in Slovenia have been presentedwith regard to the European and global data.Slovenia is characterised by rich diversity in arather small territory situated between the Alps,the Dinaric Mountains, the Pannonian plain andthe Mediterranean. This variety is demonstratedin the geology of the area, its varied relief, cli-matic conditions, biodiversity, as well as land-scape and cultural diversity. In the past most ofthe territory was modified by human activities,which, more or less, gave consideration to thevariety of natural attributes. Consequently, thecultural landscape is as equally diverse as nature.
The review of habitats shows that all the ba-sic categories are extremely rich: coastal and ma-rine types, inland waters, scrub and grasslands,forests, bogs, fens and marshes, barren land(rocky habitats, screes, dunes, caves) as well asagricultural and urbanised landscapes. The prin-cipal characteristic of the landscapes is the inter-twining of small units and its mosaic structure.Large areas of one habitat type are rare. Such com-position is the result of the diversity of naturalfactors (i.e. the Mediterranean, Alpine or conti-nental influence) and human activities (i.e. mow-ing, grazing). Specific habitat types that coverrelatively small areas (‘mrazišča’, dunes), andhabitat types that are rare in Slovenia (the seaand marine habitats), are extremely important
x
since they significantly contribute to the diver-sity in the area. Forests, which cover 56 % of theterritory, are the prevailing habitat type. A sub-stantial share is taken up by caves (7,400 regis-tered caves), which is the result of the predomi-nating carbonate bedrock that determines theappearance of the landscape and defines thecomposition of biodiversity. At the national levelonly the data on the distribution of main habitattypes (Corine Landcover) are available. A moredetailed mapping of habitat types in Slovenia,helpful for the implementation of the nature con-servation legislation, still needs to be carried out.
Due to the transitional character of the coun-try encompassing four biogeographic regions,the specific habitat types are important as ele-ments of the Pan-European Ecological Network(PEEN) since they facilitate the establishment ofconnections between populations inhabitingthese areas. The connections between GorskiKotar and the Alps, as well as the Mediterraneanand continental Europe, are particularly impor-tant. Its geographical position also determinesSlovenia’s status as a transport corridor. The con-struction of a highway system is believed to seri-ously accelerate the fragmentation of habitatsand obstruct the regular communication routesbetween populations, and increase the negativeimpacts of air pollution. Changes of water re-gimes, intensification of agricultural productionor abandonment of farming land, and expand-ing urbanisation are some more important causesthreatening habitats. The most endangered habi-tat types are wetlands and dry grasslands.
From the landscape perspective, cultural land-scape is an important and characteristic spatialelement in Europe. Moreover, many plant andanimal species are closely linked to its existenceand affected by its changing. Therefore, the Pan-European Biological and Landscape DiversityStrategy (Sofia, 1995), a European framework forthe implementation of the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity, also emphasises the importanceof the conservation of cultural landscape. Withregard to the landscape classification, Sloveniais divided into five basic regions (Alpine, Pre-Al-pine, Sub-Pannonian, Karst and Coastal), whichare further subdivided into 233 sub-units and 357landscape patterns. It demonstrates thatBiodiversity is closely linked to the rich land-scape diversity, in particular when landscape isa result of less intensive agriculture practiceswhich maintain many small structures (hedges,stone walls). Landscape is determined by socialand economic conditions. The expected eco-nomic (liberalisation of the market, accession tothe EU) and political changes (changed owner-ship relations, liberalisation of spatial policy) leadto simplified and uniform landscape patterns. The
inconsistent spatial planning policy and the inef-ficient implementation of the spatial legislationmay lead to the loss of the identity of particularareas in Slovenia and, together with the economicfactors, cause the decline of habitat types andspecies (forests intended for litter utilisation inBela Krajina, ‘bumpy’ meadows, less intensivelymanaged meadows and pastures with ‘kozolec’, ahay drying frame).
According to the available data, there are22,000 registered plant and animal species inSlovenia. However, it is estimated that the actualnumber is between 50,000 and 120,000. The de-gree of endemism is considerably high in com-parison to the smallness of the area. Particularlyevident are the diversity and endemic characterof subterranean animals. In Slovenia the condi-tions are still favourable for the vital populationsof brown bear, lynx and wolf. Data about spe-cific invertebrate groups is not sufficient. More-over, the national scientific institutions lack struc-tures for the taxonomic research on algae, fungiand mosses. The available funds are decreasing,and so is the number of researchers engaged inthe taxonomy and distribution of flora andfauna. The Ljubljana University Herbarium andBotanical Garden have not been granted the sta-tus of a national collection and therefore lackfunds. Slovenia needs a well-managed scientificdatabase (national biodiversity reference centre)where all the data on the taxonomic classifica-tion and distribution of plants and animals wouldbe kept. The available data are now dispersed indifferent institutions and societies, this prevent-ing easy access. The common weakness of thesedata is that the sites, where specific species havebeen found, are not spatially defined.
According to the Red Data List, the most en-dangered groups are amphibians and reptiles, butthe assessment of their status has not been car-ried out for all taxonomic groups. The existingRed Data Lists are not always comparable andshould be revised according to the 1994 changesof IUCN categories. The most important causesendangering plant and animal species are thechanges in habitats, including pollution. Thecauses are similar to those mentioned for habitattypes. The impact of non-indigenous invasive spe-cies, which is extremely difficult to prevent, shouldbe emphasised (changes in the riparian vegeta-tion, introduction of non-indigenous fish speciesinto watercourses or their translocation from oneriver basin to another). In view of their extent, thedirect threats (picking of commercially exploit-able plants, fishing, hunting, collecting, trading inendangered species) are less important but shouldnevertheless be controlled by special measures.
Genetic diversity is also discussed within theframework of biodiversity. This issue has neither
xi
been sufficiently taken into account in the con-servation of wild plants and animals, nor has itsimportance been evaluated with regard to the sta-bility of populations and their ability to adapt tochanges in the environment. Genetic diversity hasonly been considered when dealing with geneticresources of forest woody plants. More attentionhas been devoted to indigenous cultivars of agri-cultural plants and breeds of domestic animals.The data show that the diversity is rather rich.The genetic diversity of agricultural plants andbreeds of domestic animals is threatened by thechanges in agricultural practices, the globa-lisation of the market and the inconsistent legis-lation in this field.
The third part of the document deals with thesustainable use of biological and landscape di-versity. The chapters on the regulative andorganisational issues include the legislativeframework of the conservation and sustainableuse of biological and landscape diversity, andthe implementation of the in situ and ex situ na-ture protection mechanisms. A characteristic fea-ture of the Slovenian legal system concerningnature conservation is the adoption of legisla-tion that is subsequently not implemented. Par-ticular areas have not been given the protectionstatus that would be in line with the ascertainedvaluable natural features. Only approximately 8 %of the national territory has been protected. How-ever, areas with valuable natural features and eco-logically important areas cover more than onethird of Slovenia. One of the yet unsolved keyissues related to protected areas is the issue of anadequate management system. The integrationof the sustainability principles into sectoral poli-cies has only just begun. The leading role has beentaken on by the forestry sector, where sustain-able management has been incorporated into theforestry legislation, expertise and practice. Agri-culture has also taken some positive steps in thisdirection and with the preparation of the biodi-versity strategy new links have been establishedbetween different sectors (defence, tourism,water management).
For the first time, the nature conservation sec-tor is faced with the issues of economic develop-ment and integration of sustainability principlesinto the work of other sectors. So far, economicaspects have been analysed from the viewpointof environmental protection and the environmen-tal factors have been taken into account in theeconomic development. However, biodiversity
as one of the basis of economic and regionaldevelopment has not been thoroughly analyseduntil now. It is evident that not enough analysesof biodiversity and nature as potentials for re-gional development have been carried out, eventhough the conserved nature is considered a com-parative advantage of Slovenia in relation to therest of Europe. It has been declared a potentialcapital for the economic and regional develop-ment of Slovenia.
The conditions for the implementation of vari-ous mechanisms are the adequately trained staffand the available funds, and in particular, thetransparency of the organisational structure androle of specific institutions. In Slovenia theseconditions have not yet been fulfilled. The mainreason is the continuing reorganisation of insti-tutions that, regrettably, have not yet beenstabilised because of the unconcluded period ofa country in political and economic transition.
An important support system for the elimina-tion of the critical biodiversity issues and natureconservation in general, and for the achievementof the adequate education level and active par-ticipation of the population in the solving of en-vironmental issues, are communication, aware-ness raising, as well as education and training inthe field of biodiversity. Such a support systemhas not been developed in Slovenia. All the rel-evant activities occur mainly spontaneously,which is undoubtedly extremely important but,unfortunately, not enough. In order to achievethe desired efficiency the strategic communica-tion, i.e. communication in every phase of thepolitical cycle, from the identification of theproblem to its effective elimination, is indispens-able. This chapter, therefore, deals with differ-ent communication forms - direct, through me-dia, the raising of awareness, formal and infor-mal education and training, and various formsof partnership and public participation. In addi-tion, some of the major deficiencies in the men-tioned fields are discussed. Even though com-munication can be effective by itself, the supportmechanism is needed because it usually func-tions best in combination with other mechanismsused for biodiversity conservation (legal, eco-nomic, finance, etc.) since it motivates people tochange their attitude and behavioural patternstowards biodiversity conservation. Namely,people generally weigh their priorities and ben-efits in view of their health, economic situation,importance in society, etc.
INTRODUCTION
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With the adoption of the Act ratifying the Con-vention on Biological Diversity (Uradni list,Mednarodne objave, 7/1996) the Republic ofSlovenia assumed the obligation to conservebiodiversity in Slovenia.
The main objective of the Convention is toconserve biodiversity, in particular through sus-tainable development. It emphasises:
� biodiversity conservation at the nationaland local levels and the sustainable use ofits components, in particular the fair andequitable sharing of benefits deriving fromthe use of genetic resources;
� integration of nature conservation princi-ples in all activities at the national or locallevels;
� public participation in the conservation ofbiological and landscape diversity.
In compliance with Article 6 of the Conven-tion, each contracting party has to develop na-tional strategies, plans or programmes for theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversityor adapt for this purpose the existing strategies,plans or programmes. The mentioned articlestipulates that contracting parties should inte-grate, as far as possible and as appropriate, theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversityinto the relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans,programmes and policies. In this way, the Con-vention binds all sectors to conserve biologicaland landscape diversity. By the Act ratifying theConvention on Biological Diversity the respon-sibility to co-ordinate its implementation is givento the Ministry of the Environment and SpatialPlanning.
ORGANISATION AND DATACOMPILATION
In 1998, the contract was signed between theMinistry of the Environment and Spatial Planningand the World Bank on the allocation of the fi-nancial resources of the Global Environmental
Fund (GEF) for the preparation of the NationalBiodiversity Strategy. The work on the strategywas organised by the Environmental Agency -Office for the Environment, Nature ConservationDivision, and the Ministry of the Environmentand Spatial Planning - Nature Conservation Of-fice.
The Environmental Agency started the workwith the preparation of the Biological and Land-scape Diversity in Slovenia. Data have been col-lected and processed by the selected leading ex-perts of the working groups responsible for thestrategy preparation, focal points of the interna-tional biodiversity related agreements, nationalresearch organisations, representatives of vari-ous ministries, the non-governmental organisa-tions and many other experts.
Working groups
In order to increase the efficiency of the workand due to the complexity of the subject, 17 the-matic working groups were designated to preparethe material covering different fields. Their workwas coordinated jointly by the leading experts,employed outside the public administration, andcoordinators - experts from the public adminis-tration (Table 1).
Additional expertise
The working groups compiled available dataon the state of a specific area of biological orlandscape diversity. In some areas additionaldata were required and prepared by the con-tracted experts (Table 2).
National expertise was used as a basis for theassessment of the state of biodiversity and prepa-ration of the National Biodiversity Strategy. Theoriginal contributions are available at thehomepage of the Ministry of the Environmentand Spatial Planning http://www.sigov.si/mop/under the Information on biodiversity (CHM -Clearing House Mechanism of the Conventionon Biological Diversity).
Working Group Leading Expert Co-ordinator
1. Habitat mapping and establishment of ecological Network Andrej Seliškar, M. Sc. Peter Skoberne, Ph.D.
2. Conservation of plant species and botanical gardens Prof. Tone Wraber, Ph. D. Peter Skoberne, Ph.D.
3. Conservation of animal species and ex situ conservation in zoos Boris Kryštufek, Ph. D. Jana Vidic, M. Sc.,
Slavko Polak Tanja Košar
4. Education and communication Prof. Boštjan Anko, Ph. D. Branka Hlad
5. Biotechnology and biosafety Prof. Radovan Komel, Ph. D. Ph. D. Biserka Strel
Alenka Gaberščik, Ph. D.
6. Forest ecosystems Živan Veselič, M. Sc. Baldomir Svetličič
7. Mountain ecosystems Igor Maher Martin Šolar
8. Marine and coastal habitats Lovrenc Lipej, doc. Ph. D. Robert Turk, M. Sc.
Gordana Beltram, Ph. D.
9. Inland waters and wetlands Anton Brancelj, Ph. D. Gordana Beltram, Ph. D.
Andrej Sovinc
10. Grasslands and agricultural ecosystems Mitja Kaligarič, Ph. D. Mirjam Gorkič,
Matjaž Jež, M. Sc.
11. Subterranean - Hypogean - ecosystems Prof. Boris Sket, Ph. D. Andrej Hudoklin,
Andrej Mihevc, Ph. D. Marko Simić
12. Landscapes Prof. Dušan Ogrin Jelka Habjan
13. Microorganisms and microbiological gene banks Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Ph. D. Julijana Lebez-Lozej, M. Sc.
14. Gene banks in agriculture - crops Vladimir Meglič, Ph. D. Darja Jeglič
15. Gene banks in agriculture - livestock Dragomir Kompan, M. Sc. Darja Jeglič
16. Gene banks in forestry Hojka Kraigher, Ph. D. Baldomir Svetličič
17. Protected areas - in situ conservation Ana Barbič, Ph. D. Alma Vičar
Table 1:
Working Groups for thepreparation of thenational BiodiversityConservation Strategy.
xiii
The compilation and production of the docu-ment before us, which is based on the expertiseand other sources, was made by a group of edi-tors Branka Hlad, Peter Skoberne, Andrej Arih,Urška Mavri, Mateja Blažič, Jelka Habjan, JanaKristanc and Tanja Košar at the EnvironmentalAgency. Their aim was, as far as possible, toachieve a logical and balanced text. In June 2001,the working draft of the document was sent tothe authors and leading experts for review. At thesame time, representatives of the ministries in-volved, who were appointed to participate in thepreparation of the strategy, were asked to comple-ment the relevant data. In August 2001, after themodifications and corrections had been insertedin the text the material was re-directed to the au-thors, the representatives of the ministries andthe nature conservation non-governmentalorganisations. Most of the relevant remarks andsuggestions were taken into account.
The authors are solely responsible for the con-tent of the expertise. The content of the documenton Biological and Landscape Diversity in Sloveniais the responsibility of the editors.
Additional modifications and comments werecontributed by (alphabetically): Boštjan Anko,Ana Barbič, Blanka Bartol, Matjaž Bedjanič,Gordana Beltram, Andrej Bibič, Anton Brancelj,
Doroteja Čarni, Andreja Čerček-Hočevar, AndrejGogala, Stanislav Gomboc, Mirjam Gorkič, JasnaGrbovič, Katarina Groznik-Zeiler, Uroš Herlec,Milena Janežič, Darja Jeglič, Matjaž Jež, DušanJurc, Aleksander Golob, Gordana Kerekeš, VesnaKolar-Planinšič, Stanka Koren, Klemen Koselj,Hojka Kraigher, Konstantin Krebs, Matjaž Kuntner,Julijana Lebez-Lozej, Ivana Leskovar, MilenaMarega, Andrej Martinčič, Matjaž Mastnak, ToneNovak, Stojan Pečlin, Andrej Piltaver, Alja Pirnat,Aleš Podbrežnik, Meta Povž, Marko Simić, SilvoSmonkar, Slavko Šolar, Jaka Šubic, Tina Trampuš,Peter Trontelj, Robert Turk, Florjana Ulaga, RudiVerovnik, Živan Veselič, Alma Vičar, Minka Vičar,Jana Vidic, Vera Vogrinčič, Franc Žepič, BojanŽnidaršič.
The chapter on the economic developmentof Slovenia and the issues related to the conser-vation of biodiversity are summarised from theStrategy of Economic Development until 2006(Chapter 3; UMAR, 2001) and the experts’ ground-work for the preparation of the chapter on theEnvironment in this Strategy (Radej et al, 2000).The text summarises the work of the Institute ofMacroeconomic Analysis and Development, in-cluding Dr Pavle Gmeiner - innovations, techno-logical development and competitiveness;Ivanka Zakotnik - processing industry; Matjaž
Table 2:
Review of contribu-tions by expertsspecialised in certainareas.
xiv
Expert Area covered
FloraNina Gunde - Cimerman, Ph. D. Micro-organismsDušan Jurc, M. Sc. Lower fungiHojka Kraigher, Ph. D. Mycorrhizal fungiMihej Urbančič, Forest soil ecosystemsPrimož Simončič, Ph. D.Professor Danijel Vrhovšek, Ph. D. Freshwater algaeNataša Smolar - Žvanut, Ph. D. Freshwater algaeGorazd Kosi, Ph. D. Freshwater algaeAndrej Piltaver EumycotaProfessor Franc Batič, Ph. D. LichenesProfessor Andrej Martinčič, Ph. D. BryophytaProfessor Tone Wraber, Ph. D. Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta
FaunaProfessor Boris Sket, Ph. D. Fauna of Slovenia, Hirudinea, Hydrozoa and Malacostraca,
Subterranean - Hypogean - faunaSlavko Polak Subterranean- Hypogean Araneae and ColeopteraFrance Velkavrh MolluscaMatjaž Kuntner AraneaeTone Novak, Ph. D. OpilionesAnton Brancelj, Ph. D. Freshwater EntomostracaDaša Zabric, M. Sc. EphemeropteraMatjaž Bedjanič OdonataIgnac Sivec, Ph. D. PlecopteraIvan Kos, Ph. D. ChilopodaBožidar Drovenik, Ph. D. ColeopteraDušan Devetak, Ph. D. Mecoptera, NeuropteroideaCiril Krušnik, Ph. D. TrichopteraMojmir Lasan LepidopteraJan Carnelutti, Ph. D. LepidopteraRudi Verovnik, M. Sc. LepidopteraAndrej Gogala, Ph. D. Heteroptera and HymenopteraStanislav Gomboc Saltatoria, Isoptera, Dermaptera, Mantodea,
Phasmoptera, Blattaria, LepidopteraPeter Trontelj, Ph. D. SaltatoriaMeta Povž, Ph. D. Freshwater Pisces and CyclostomataLovrenc Lipej, Ph. D. Marine faunaKatja Pobolšaj AmphibiaStaša Tome, M. Sc. ReptiliaJanez Gregori Aves (Caprimulgi, Apodiformes)Tomaž Jančar Aves (Charadriiformes, Columbiformes, Anseriformes,
Falconiformes)Milan Vogrin, private researcher Aves (Podicipedidae, Cressores)Borut Štumberger, M.D. Aves (Galliformes, Gruiformes)Al Vrezec Aves (Passeriformes)Boris Kryštufek, Ph. D. Mammalia
Ex situ conservation of animal speciesIrena Furlan ex situ conservation of animal species
Economic aspectsAleksander Kešeljevič, M. Sc. Economic aspects of conservation of biodiversityBojan Radej, M. Sc. Economic development in Slovenia with reference
to the biodiversity issues
Legal aspectsJelka Kremesec-Jevšenak nature conservation and related legislationGaja Štovičej
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Hanžek - human development; Jure Povšnar -energy; Mateja Kovač - agriculture; Dr Janko Seljak(School of Public Administration) - measuringsustainable development; Dr Fedor Černe (Gov-ernment Office for European Affairs) - the Na-tional Environmental Action Programme andsustainable development; and Bojan Radej - sus-tainable development (editor). This report waspublished as the UMAR Working paper, No. 7/2000.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVESOF THE DOCUMENT
Aims and objectives of the document aregrouped under three main headings:
1. the content, time and spatial framework ofbiological and landscape diversity in Sloveniaand its evaluation (economic, cultural, social,intrinsic);
2. presentation of the known and availabledata on biological and landscape diversity:
� to check and supplement the existing dataon the status of biological and landscapediversity and to evaluate the deficiencies;
� to assess the threats to the biodiversity,and the direct and indirect causes of thesethreats, including the destruction and de-gradation of habitats, the trends concern-ing the decline in abundance of speciesand the unsustainable use of natural re-sources (methods and trends);
� to collect material to identify:
� criteria for determining the most endan-gered habitats and the directions to-wards the implementation of prioritymeasures;
� criteria for the selection of the most im-portant areas in the context of the con-servation of biological and landscapediversity;
� the most important areas and speciesfor which it is essential to implementthe priority measures for the conser-vation of biological and landscape di-versity;
3. presentation of the compiled data and theoverview of existing mechanisms for the conser-vation and sustainable use of biological and land-scape diversity as well as their efficiency:
� legal mechanisms and the implementa-tion of nature conservation:
� legislation on conservation of biologi-cal and landscape diversity;
� legislation on sustainable use of biodi-versity components;
� implementation of the in-situ and ex-situprotection as well as the deficienciesand key problems;
� economic development (biodiversity is-sues are often not included in the econom-ic and social development, therefore theiroverview provides an opportunity to fillin the gaps in the future):
� Slovenia’s development pattern andtrends in the priority sectors of the eco-nomic and environmental integration;
� overview of other sectors with substan-tial impact on the status of biologicaland landscape diversity;
� implementation of the sustainabilityprinciples through structural econom-ic reforms;
� organisational structure of the services forthe conservation of biological and land-scape diversity, and for the deficienciesof the institutional framework:
� implementation of administrative, ex-pert and management tasks;
� control;
� non-governmental organisations;
� financial resources;
� communication, raising of public aware-ness and education (along with the econom-ic aspects, this is one of the most neglectedissues within nature conservation, andtherefore the overview provides an impor-tant opportunity to fill in the future gaps).The following issues are considered:
� direct communication and communica-tion via the media;
� raising of public awareness;
� education and training;
� other forms of co-operation and publicparticipation;
� research on biological and landscape diver-sity: a review of projects and programmesis included;
� monitoring and use of different methods.
The document objectives form the basis ofthe national biological and landscape diversitystrategy and the establishment of the relevantsystemic measures for biodiversity conservationwithin the strategy framework, including its ac-tion plans.
xvi
PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS ANDLIMITATIONS IN PREPARATION
OF THE DOCUMENT
The main constraints faced by the editors ofthe document on the status of Biological andLandscape Diversity in Slovenia were in particu-lar:
� limited organisational possibilities and thelack of staff and time for the preparation ofthis overview;
� lack of data; lack of experts for specific areas,additionally, some scientific areas are notorganised within research institutions (forexample, mycology);
� limited access to certain data (dispersed invarious institutions, private collections, un-published) which are therefore rarely includ-ed in analyses and assessments;
� unequal quality of the data with regard tothe taxonomic reliability; data are often notspatially defined;
� basic data on biodiversity (taxonomic re-search and number of species) and the rele-vant scientific conclusions are not based onthe analysis of the causes and consequencesof the decline in biodiversity; the assessmentof threats to biodiversity is based more onthe estimates than on accurate data;
� insufficient conversion of data (as a resultof different measuring and monitoring meth-ods) into interpreted information (applica-tion of data in a specific context) neededfor further action, decision-making and pro-motion of activities;
� systematic monitoring of the status has notbeen implemented; the environmental mon-itoring is adapted to the sectoral aspects andneeds. Various institutions and non-govern-mental organisations monitor environmen-tal elements using different methods, andthe biological component is often not ade-quately considered. Currently, the monitor-ing is only carried out in some geographicalareas, therefore, it is not possible to do acomprehensive overview of the status ofbiodiversity since its long-term and spatialaspects have not been considered;
� no appropriate institutional framework andlinks between institutions have been estab-lished which could facilitate the compre-hensive collection of data and the prepara-tion of information on changes in the fieldof biodiversity;
� insufficient awareness of the complexity ofthe problem concerning biodiversity lossat all stages, from the identification of theproblem, its causes and consequences, tothe consideration of the potential solutions.
1BIODIVERSITY
2 PART 1: BIODIVERSITY
3BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY
Biological diversity “means the variabilityamong living organisms from all sources includ-ing, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquaticecosystems and the ecological complexes ofwhich they are part; this includes diversity withinspecies, between species and of ecosystems” (Ar-ticle 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity).
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
The term biodiversity comprises the richnessof the entire biosphere (all living forms). The bio-sphere expresses and maintains the variabilityof the living organisms at several levels: geneticdiversity of organisms, diversity of living beingsand diversity of systems composed of organisms.From the perspective of human existence,biodiversity is the most important and the leastvalued asset. Only a few economists are inter-ested in dealing with the economic aspects ofbiodiversity.
According to some estimates the economicvalue of the biosphere is US$ 33 x 1012, whichis almost twice the annual World GDP (US$ 18x 1012) (Kryštufek, 1999:12).
Genetic diversity
Every living organism carries in its geneticmaterial (genotype) information for every pro-tein that builds its body, every individual mor-phological structure - even the tiniest - everycolour pattern, physiological process andbehavioural response. Information is stored as anucleotide sequence of the DNA chain. The geneis a DNA unit which determines a particular prop-erty of an organism. Genetic diversity guaranteesthe relevant information for life at all higherorganisational levels, from a cell and an indi-vidual organism to ecosystems and the entire bio-sphere (Kryštufek, 1999: 17).
Species diversity
Intuitively, it is easiest to identify biodiversityat the species level. Since 1753, when a system ofbinominal nomenclature of plant and animalspecies was introduced, approximately 1.75 mil-lion species have been identified. However, it isbecoming clear that only a minor part of all liv-ing organisms is included in the number. It hasbeen estimated that there are between 10 and 100million species living on Earth (Kryštufek, 1999:13). These estimates are very subjective and arebased on the experiences of individual scientists.In a few centuries of the species identificationthe scientists have managed to name the majorpart of higher plants and vertebrates, but the spe-cies diversity of viruses, bacteria and protists isrelatively unknown. The same applies to fungi,soil roundworms and specific invertebrates. Spe-cies diversity is not evenly distributed in theworld. Only few areas have a high species con-centration, many of them are endemic. The high-est species diversity is in tropical areas.
Ecosystem diversity
The ecosystem is a community of organismsinteracting with one another and their non-livingenvironment. Living organisms cannot surviveoutside ecosystems. They are most successful inecosystems to which they had adapted throughthe evolution. Destruction of an ecosystemmeans the disappearance of species living in it,and vice versa. Different species play differentroles in an ecosystem. If one of the key species,which is essential for the existence of others, islost, this could trigger the extinction of other spe-cies and thus degrade the entire ecosystem. Eco-system delineation is often subjective, making itdifficult to express ecosystem diversity in figures.Between two ecosystems there is usually a tran-sitional zone (ecotone) with special ecologicalconditions (Kryštufek, 1999).
4 PART 1: BIODIVERSITY
The relation between the diversity of an eco-system (number of species) and its inner stabil-ity is of key importance for biodiversity conser-vation. Ecosystems are exceptionally complexunits with numerous interactions. They are opensystems influenced by numerous external fac-tors, which makes their research so demanding.At the same time it is quite difficult to anticipatetheir further development.
Landscape diversity
In the Nature Conservation Act, landscape di-versity is defined as a spatial composition of natu-
ral and human-made landscape elements. Theterm landscape diversity includes both: the in-ter-landscape and intra-landscape diversity. Theinter-landscape diversity denotes the spatial struc-ture of landscape elements (ecosystems as land-scape components), and the intra-landscape di-versity means the diversity of various landscapes.
BIODIVERSITY THROUGH TIME
Knowledge of the history of diversity throughgeological time is based on analysis of the fossilrecord. Fossils, as the preserved parts or casts orimprints of dead organisms, provide the only di-rect evidence of the 3,500 million year history oflife on Earth. Referring to the UNEP-WCMC data(2000: 36) the fossils discovered and describedby palaeontologists represent more than 250,000species, virtually all of them now extinct, butthese are believed to make up only a very smallfraction of all the species that have ever existed.
Living species presumably represent only be-tween two and four percent of all species thathave ever lived. Numerous estimates have beenmade of the lifespan of species in the fossilrecord; these range from 0.5 to 13 million forgroups as varied as mammals and microscopicprotoctists. Analysis of 17,500 genera of extinctmarine micro-organisms, invertebrates and ver-tebrates suggest an average lifespan of 4 millionyears in these groups. At a very gross estimate,
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Map 1: Position ofSlovenia in Europe.(Source: ZRC SAZUGeografski inštitutAntona Melika, 2001).
Figure 1. Biologicaldiversity in the Earthhistory can be wellpresented inpalaeontologicalcollections. This is thecollection of Dr BogdanJurkovšek and Dr TeaKolar - Jurkovšek.
5BIODIVERSITY
the mean extinction rate would be 2.5 species peryear if there were around 10 million species intotal. Even if background extinction rates wereten times higher than this, extinction amongst the4,000 or so living mammals would be expectedto occur at a rate of around one every 100 years,and amongst birds at a rate of one every 50 years(UNEP-WCMC, 2000: 41).
In palaeontology much attention has beendevoted to mass extinction periods, during whichsome 75-95% of species then living became ex-tinct during geologically very short periods oftime, in some cases possibly as little as a fewhundred thousand years or even less. Five suchphases, based chiefly on the extinction of ma-rine species, are recognised in the Ordovician,Devonian, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous pe-riods (Table 3).
The late Ordovician event appears to be cor-related with global glaciation, i.e. with three sepa-
rate episodes of extinction spread over only500,000 years. It is widely accepted that the latePermian mass extinction was a long-term event,lasting for 5-8 million years. It appears to havebeen associated with geologically-rapid globalphysical changes (including the formation of thesupercontinent Pangea), climate change, andextensive, tectonically-induced marine transgres-sion and increased volcanic activity. The late Cre-taceous extinction is probably the best known,but in terms of overall loss of diversity is also theleast important. There is strong evidence that thisevent was associated with climate change follow-ing an extra-terrestrial impact, although this re-mains somewhat controversial.
The precise causes and timespans of each ofthe mass extinctions have been the subject ofmuch debate and study. In all cases, however,the ability to determine accurately the timing andperiodicity of extinction is heavily dependent on
Period Date Species Biotic change Possible causes
(Mya) loss (%)
End 66 75 % Radical change in plankton foraminifers; 85 % of calcareous nanoplankton lost, also Impact of large
Cretaceous all ammonites, belemnites and many bivalves; losses in echinoids and corals. Many meteor
marine reptiles extinct (ichtyosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurs); significant losses in Volcanism
freshwater and terrestrial vertebrates, including last dinosaurs (high turnover dinosaur Cooling
history, end Cretaceous unusual in that no replacements emerged). Mass extinction Marine regression
in plants, highest (possibly 60 % species loss) in angiosperms, lowest in ferns.
End 205 80 % Mass extinction in marine invertebrates, especially brachiopods, cephalopods and Marine regression
Triassic molluscs, also mass disappearance of scleractinian corals and sponges. Several
seed fern families lost; some land vertebrates lost, but evidence for mass extinction
questionable.
End 250 95 % The most severe extinction crisis, metazoan life came within a few percent of total Volcanism
Permian extinction. Tabulate and rugose corals terminated, complex reefs disappear (return Warming
after 8 My gap); echinoderms almost wiped out; worst crisis in history of Marine
foraminifera; severe extinction in ammonites, brachiopods, bryozoa, molluscs. transgression &
Some losses in early ray-fin fishes. Major loss of terrestrial vertebrates (75 % of families) anoxia
and insects (8 of 27 insect orders extinct). Mass extinction in plants, large plants
including peat-forming trees lost (spread of small conifers, lycopods and quillworts),
sudden unprecedented abundance of fungal spores at end of period.
Late 365 80 % Mass extinction came at the end of prolonged period of diversity reduction. Rugose Marine
Devonian corals lost > 95 % of shallow water species, stromatoporoid corals reduced by half transgression &
and reefs disappeared, brachiopods lost 33 families, ammonoids and trilobites anoxia
severely affected. Fishes suffer only major mass extinction; all early jawed fishes
(placoderms) disappear and most agnatha. First major crisis in plants; diversity
greatly reduced, but spread of first tree, the gymnosperm Archaeopteris.
Late 440 85 % The last but largest of several extinction events during the Ordovician. Cooling; Warming
Ordovician More than 25 % of marine invertebrate families lost. Entire class Graptolithina Marine regression
reduces to a few species; acritarchs, brachiopods, conodonts, corals, echinoderms, Marine
trilobites, all much reduced. transgression &
anoxia
Table 3: The principalmass extinctions infossil record (Source:UNEP-WCMC, 2000: 45)
6 PART 1: BIODIVERSITY
the completeness of the fossil record and the re-liability and precision of stratigraphic analysis.
A mass extinction period is typically followedby a five to ten million year phase of very lowdiversity, with a handful of species dominant infossil faunas and floras.
According to some estimates humans, are re-sponsible for the extinction of mammoth, mast-odon and other ice-age animals. Yet it is muchmore reasonable to believe that these animalsbecame extinct due to climate change, since theywere not able to adapt to the changing environ-ment.
The present biological diversity is a result ofthe evolution of species and other living formsover geological time. Species extinction is a natu-ral phenomenon, and can be expected. It is esti-mated, however, that recent and current extinc-tion rates are considerably higher than expectedby natural evolution. According to the IUCN data(2000), 11,000 species threatened with extinctionis just an indicator of a much larger global phe-nomenon of biodiversity loss. Data show that 816taxa have become extinct in the last decades.There are different estimates about the extinc-tion rate. The fact is that, while the natural aver-age is approximately 2-3 species per year, thepresent extinction rate is much higher. And themain cause of the sixth mass extinction may beattributed to human activities. Fast demographicincrease of human population requires an accel-erating use of natural resources, and in turncauses the retrogression of other species, as wellas unbalanced and excessive use of natural re-sources and energy. The consequences of globalimpacts on the biosphere include considerabledegradation or complete destruction of ecosys-tems.
The exact number of species on Earth is un-known. So far, biologists have documentedsome 1.75 million species. This number repre-sents a relatively small proportion of all spe-cies estimated to exist on Earth. According tosome estimates the number is less than 10-15%of the total number of species, while othersbelieve that the total number of species isabout 100 million, although the known propor-tion is only 1-3%. However, the total number isincreasingly believed to be 14 million speciesliving on Earth.
GLOBAL AND EUROPEANFRAMEWORK
In recent decades, human activities have beenaltering the flow of material and energy throughgeological, biological, oceanic and atmosphericprocesses causing significant changes on the glo-bal scale. Human-induced consumption andtransformation of net primary productivity isestimated to be about 40 percent of that carriedout by the Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems. Humansrelease almost as much nitrogen and sulphur intothe environment as does nature. We are also al-tering the carbon cycle by releasing large quanti-ties to the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels.Human emissions of trace metals such as leadexceed natural flows by a factor of 17. The hu-man contribution of other metals such as cad-mium, zinc, mercury, nickel, arsenic and vana-dium is twice or more than that of natural sources(EEA, 1995: 9).
The scale of planetary changes induced byhuman activities is also evident in the modifica-tion of the physical landscape. Since the eigh-teenth century, the planet has lost 6 million km2
of forests - an area larger than Europe. The extentof vegetated soil degradation has reached 17 %of the Earth’s land area in the last 45 years, due toovergrazing, deforestation, overexploitation, andimproper agricultural and industrial practices. InEurope, the proportion of degraded vegetatedland reached about 23 % of the total over the sameperiod (EEA, 1995: 9).
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
Successful evolution of humans and their ex-pansion over the planet was possible due to so-cial and technological development enabled bycrop-based agriculture and livestock breeding.Available evidence suggests that this happenedaround the end of Pleistocene. The first tangibleevidence of cultivated plants concerns grains ofrye Secale orientale, found in Syria dating fromaround 13,000 years BC. The earliest definite indi-(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 2. In an old-growth forest nature istaking its way. Thefallen trees are slowlydegrading and provid-ing a habitat fornumerous animalspecies, fungi andmicro-organisms.
7BIODIVERSITY
cators of domestication of the dog (Canis) arefrom around, 14,000 years ago in Oberkassel inGermany (UNEP-WCMC, 2000: 54).
Information on early human population num-bers is based heavily on inference from circum-stantial evidence, and remains on an uncertainfooting. There are some indications that the glo-bal late Pleistocene human population may havebeen between five and ten million. According tosome estimations the first cycle of primary popu-lation increase in Europe, Asia and the Mediter-ranean was brought about by the spread and fur-ther development of Neolithic agriculture, whichappears to have allowed a great increase in popu-lation density. At the start of the Iron Age in Eu-rope and the Near East, some 3,000 years ago, theworld population was believed to be doublingevery 500 years and the total probably reached100 million around this time or soon after. Afterthe Dark Ages in Europe, a second growth cyclebegan around 10th century in Europe and Asia,with numbers rising to a peak of around 360 mil-lion during 13th century. Crucially, the rate of glo-bal population growth peaked during the late1960s; it was then at just over 2% per year, but isnow about 1.7%. The medium variant of the cur-rent UN long-range forecast suggests that the to-tal in 2050 may be 8,900 million (UNEP-WCMC,2000: 56).
Importance of biodiversityfor human use
As living beings, humans are part of the Earth’sbiological systems, and their subsistence totallydepends on the functioning of ecosystems, inparticular, the composition of the atmosphere(proportion between oxygen and carbon diox-ide), the ozone layer in the stratosphere (absorp-tion of UV radiation), the primary production(transformation of energy, solar into chemical -food), climate change, etc. Although these fac-tors form the basis of life on Earth, we are stillnot fully aware of their complexity and the im-portance of their functioning.
Direct-use values of biodiversity
The direct-use values of biodiversity resourcesinclude food (plants and animals), wood/timber,drugs, building materials, clothes and animals forlabour. The biodiversity potential for researchand exploration of new substances (e.g. medi-cines, industrial materials etc.) as well as mecha-nisms of operating systems (e.g. movements ofrobots, aerodynamic properties) can, when pat-ented, have direct-use values.
Food plants exemplify the most fundamen-tal values of biodiversity. The variety of species
used is no doubt limited much more by culturalfactors, such as tradition and palatability, thanby nutrient content. Estimates suggest that some7,000 of the 270,000 described plant species havebeen collected or cultivated for consumption(UNEP-WCMC, 2000: 62). Perhaps more remark-able is the fact that very few, some 200 or so, havebeen domesticated, and a mere handful are cropsof major economic importance at global level. Adozen crop plants together provide about 75% ofthe world’s calorie intake. These comprise: ba-nanas/plantains, beans, cassava, maize, millet,potatoes, rice, sorghum, soybean, sugar cane,sweet potatoes and wheat. These crops are be-coming more and more sensitive to diseases.Additionally, due to a constant population growth(250,000 births per day) the demand for food isconstantly increasing. Biodiversity has beenrecognised as an important natural resource inthe production of new crop varieties. As an ex-ample, Zea diploperennis, a maize species unex-pectedly resistant to intensive agricultural prac-tices, has become an important source of geneticinformation on crop resistance to numerous dis-eases affecting current maize cultivars.
There are far fewer animal than plant speciescontributing to the human diet, and althoughmost consumption of wild species will go unre-ported, this must be insignificant at global levelin comparison to products from just three domes-tic forms: pigs, cattle and poultry.
Wood is one of the few commodities usedand traded world-wide that is mainly harvestedfrom wild resources; it is also one of the economi-cally most important commodities in interna-tional trade. The annual value of wood exportsworld-wide totals several billion US dollars, andsuch exports form a significant part of the earn-ings of many tropical developing countries. Mosttimber in world trade consists of softwood (coni-fers) from north temperate zones, and a signifi-cant proportion is from plantation forests. Hard-woods, including highly valued timbers such asmahogany and teak, are produced from naturalforest in the tropics.
Fishes and other fishery products makeup the second class of commodities which arederived mainly from wild sources by direct har-vest, and are of great economic importance inworld trade. These resources are also of crucialimportance to global food security. Capture fish-eries have stagnated since the start of the 1990s,the total harvest now exceeds 100 million tonneswith the deficit being filled by aquaculture pro-duction. This can have production benefits, butin many parts of the world the coastal environ-ment has been severely degraded by conversionto mariculture operations (UNEP-WCMC, 2000:69).
8 PART 1: BIODIVERSITY
Medicines. Before the advent of modernmedicine, all biologically active compoundswere derived from natural sources. The vast ma-jority of botanical material for medicinal use isstill collected from the wild. Only a few medici-nal species are cultivated, and many wild popu-lations are now at risk from over exploitation. Ofthe estimated 10,000 to 20,000 plant species usedmedicinally, the pharmaceutical properties ofsome 5000 have been laboratory tested (UNEP-WCMC, 2000: 68). They are used either as a directsource of beneficial compounds, as a blueprint
for their manufacture, or as a means for theirstudy. Amongst the top 150 most prescribed drugsin USA, 56% contain compounds which are at-tributable at some point in manufacture or de-sign to animals (23%), plants (18%), bacteria (4%)and fungi (11%). This contribution may be trans-lated into an economic value of at least 80 billionUS dollars in USA alone.
Pleasure and recreational value. Recre-ation in the preserved natural ecosystems andthe enjoyment of nature, animals and plants re-laxes people and gives them new strength. Ahealthy environment improves people’s health,working ability and motivation. Sometimes oneeven relaxes while watching TV-programmes andreading magazines about life in nature. However,such programmes and photo material can onlybe filmed where biodiversity is conserved. Theenjoyment and recreational value of biodiversityare marketed by the ‘green’, ‘eco’ or alternativetourism, and depends on preserved biodiversityand nature.
In the Orkney Islands in Great Britain (area ofpreserved nature) tourism annually contrib-utes to the local budget £ 1.7 million (ScottishNatural Heritage, 1998).Tourism in the Bayerischer Wald in Germanyannually generates approximately DEM 300-350 million and employs 3,500 staff.
Indirect-use or ecological values
The Earth is a global system of atmosphere,lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere (whichare) linked closely together. In addition to direct-use values, biodiversity provides numerous lesstangible benefits resulting from the functioningof natural ecosystems and their components.
For continuous functioning of the ecosystem,the rapid matter flow between trophic levels, pro-duction of biomass and its decomposition, is ofprimary importance. Residue, the remainingmatter which may be regarded as useless at onetrophic level, can be considered a resource (nu-trient) at another trophic level, causing constantmatter cycling. Humans are part of this cycle us-ing the resource (for example, food - cereals,meat, milk) and returning the waste into the eco-system (sewage, refuse). The importance is in thecontinuous cycling, with different organisms andgroups of organisms playing a key role. The bio-mass producers (plants as primary and domes-tic animals as secondary producers) are as im-portant as the decomposers that change the inor-ganic matter into mineral components, or as‘predators and diseases’ that regulate populationgrowth of other organisms. Due to constant flow,organic and inorganic matter is not accumulated
(Ph
oto
: Cir
il M
linar
)
Figure 3. Scorpaenascrofa. In 1983, thecatch of marine fish inSlovenia was 8076tonnes, since 1993 theaverage annual catch is2000 tonnes.
Figure 4. Gentianalutea, is threatened bynatural encroachmentof vegetation on thekarst grasslands andby people recklesslygathering its roots forits various medicalvalues. (P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
9BIODIVERSITY
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
as ‘dead capital’ hindering development of othertrophic levels in an ecosystem. Sudden environ-mental disturbances exert a lesser impact on bio-logically rich ecosystems which, in turn, succeedin retaining a good ecosystem status.
Ecosystem functioning supports ecologicalprocesses that are fundamental to human socialand economic needs. These processes preventsoil erosion, mitigate climate change (CO2 sinks),purify water, provide suitable habitats for plantsand animals. By recognising and promptly incor-porating the ecosystem functioning into thesocio-economic development, less resources areneeded for reconstruction of ecosystems andmitigation of human induced impacts, hence lessuse of public money. Experience shows that res-toration of degraded ecosystems is costly, requir-ing a considerable amount of public money, thusindicating that the precautionary approach is thecheapest alternative for the State budget. Dataavailable from some EU countries emphasisesavings resulting from the change to less inten-sive agriculture practices and to more efficientenergy consumption.
Aesthetic, intrinsic andcultural values
It is important to be aware that there still re-main areas of preserved nature and high biodi-versity, and that they are the legacy of future gene-rations. People are willing to invest money andvolunteer work for the conservation of such areas.Humans need to maintain a vital link with thepreserved nature to sustain their physical andmental balance and the quality of life, for presentand future generations.
Figure 5. Cerkniškojezero (Cerknica lake) isone of the best knownnatural wonders inSlovenia, which has forcenturies been attract-ing naturalists. Due tois numerous values -intrinsic, aesthetic,cultural and recre-ational - it is increas-ingly attracting‘recreation lovers’.
10 PART 1: BIODIVERSITY
11
12 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
13
The average yearly precipitation for the period 1961-1990
less than 800 mmfrom 800 to 900 mmfrom 900 to 1000 mmfrom 1000 to 1100 mmfrom 1100 to 1200 mmfrom 1200 to 1300 mmfrom 1300 to 1400 mmfrom 1400 to 1500 mmfrom 1500 to 1600 mmfrom 1600 to 1800 mmfrom 1800 to 2000 mmfrom 2000 to 2500 mmfrom 2500 to 3000 mmmore than 3000 mm
BIODIVERSITY
IN SLOVENIA
SOME MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SLOVENIA
Surface area: 20,273 km2
Inhabitants: 1,988,230 (31st March 2000)
Population density per km2: 98
Biggest permanent lake: Bohinjsko jezero (318 ha)
Biggest intermittent lake: Cerkniško jezero (2,400 ha)
Total length of the rivers: 26,989 km (TK 1:25)
Longest rivers: the Sava, Drava, Mura, Soča rivers
Length of the coast: 46.6 km
Highest peak: Triglav (2,864 m)
Number of local community administration units: 58
Number of municipalities: 192
Number of settlements: 5,997
(Source: SURS, http://www.sigov.si/zrs/slfig00/index.htm, 17.7.2000)
Map 2: Precipitationmap of Slovenia(Source: MOP-ARSO,Urad za meteorologijo,2001)
14 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
PANONIAN R.
DINARIC R.
MEDITERRANEAN R.
ALPINE R.
Map 4: Bio-geographicregions of Slovenia: the Alps,the Dinaric Mountains, thePannonian plain and theMediterranean basin(Source: ZRC SAZUGeografski inštitut AntonaMelika, 2001)
R. = region
Map 3: Geological mapof Slovenia (Source:Slovensko geološkodruštvo)
GEOLO[KA KARTA
SLOVENIJE
GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF SLOVENIA
KvartarQuaternary
TerciarTertiary
KredaCretaceous
JuraJurassic
TriasTriassic
PaleozoikPaleozoic
Magmatske kamnineIgneous rocks
Metamorfne kamnineMetamorphic rocks
PrelomiFaults
15
CHARACTERISTICS OFBIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE
DIVERSITY IN SLOVENIA
The small territory of Slovenia is characte-rised by a rich diversity of plant and animal spe-cies, ecosystems and landscapes. This rich diver-sity results from Slovenia’s transitional positionat the contact area of tectonic units and biogeo-graphical regions (the Mediterranean, Pannonian,Alpine and Dinaric), changing relief (from thesea bottom to the altitude of 2,864 m) and its di-verse geological, pedological, climatic and hy-drological conditions. The involvement of theSlav, German and Roman cultures influencinghuman activities has also contributed to the richcultural and landscape diversity of the present (P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Table 4: Main naturalfeatures of Slovenia
Figure 6. A view of thehighest Slovenianmountain Triglav, andthe Triglav glacierviewed from the Mt.Begunje.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Main characteristics
Geology juncture of four geotectonic units: Eastern Alps, Dinarids, Pannonian Basin, Adriatic-Apulian foothills (Placer, 2000), diverse rock structures
Biogeographic regions the Alps (30 %), the Dinaric Mountains (30 %), the Mediterranean Basin (10 %), and thePannonian Plain (30 %), covering a total area of 20,273 km2, give the country anecotone character
Relief varied relief, altitude above sea-level 0 to 2,864 metres
1/6 of the territory is of Quaternary sediments,
some 44 % carbonate bed-rock, mainly karstified areas (over 7,000 caves registered)
Hydrological two drainage systems: 2/3 to the Black Sea, 1/3 to the Mediterranean Sea
characteristics five catchment areas: the Soča, Sava, Drava in Mura rivers, and the Slovenian Littoral
relatively large karst area with no surface streams
Vegetation cover 56 % of the territory covered by forests
36 % of the territory is agricultural land
Flora about 3,200 vascular plants
60 endemic taxa, including 22 narrow endemics with predominant distribution inSlovenia
Fauna about 13,000 - 15,000 species (expected 50,000 up to 100,000)
about 4,000 endemic taxa (above all cave animals)
Slovenian territory. Well preserved forests, moun-tain areas and freshwater underground ecosys-tems with the high diversity of plants and ani-mals, including many endemic species, and thediverse ecosystems are of particular importance.(Table 4).
The natural features and the limited impactof the economic factors in the past are the rea-son for the relatively high biodiversity inSlovenia. However, the data show that it has de-clined in the last decades. The development ofindustry and agriculture, the construction oftransport infrastructure and the urbanisationhave contributed significantly to the pollution ofsurface and underground waters, soil and air andto the degradation of specific areas. The result isthe biodiversity loss at the ecosystem, speciesand genetic levels and loss of landscape diver-
Figure 7. Sinking andspring dolines - estavelsat Zadnji kraj onCerkniško polje in thedry period expose thelimestone bed-rockunderlying the alluvialsedimentation.
16 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
sity. The available data show that in the last fewcenturies 58 plant and animal species have be-come extinct in the territory of Slovenia. In total2,700 taxa are included in the Red Data List ofthreatened species (mainly at the species level).Biodiversity is threatened mainly due to the fol-lowing causes:
� insufficient awareness of the importance ofbiodiversity;
� changes in agriculture (technology, intensi-fication of production, abandonment of ar-able land, use of new cultivars and hybrids,acceleration of monoculture production,market and social changes);
� introduction of agriculture in areas of pre-served nature (forested areas in the Kočevjeregion);
� development of infrastructure (motorways,hydroelectric power plants);
� canalisation of watercourses (flood protec-tion, increase in the surface area of arableland, artificial banks);
� drainage of wetlands (land use changes forthe economic and agricultural develop-ment);
� lack of implementation of legal provisionsand deficient control measures;
� weak coordination between different stake-holders in the biodiversity conservation;
� lack of organised education, training andraising of public awareness.
The most critical are the consequences at theecosystem, species and genetic levels. They in-clude in particular:
� fragmentation of ecosystems and habitats;
� degradation, destruction and loss of habi-tats of plant and animal species and the ex-tinction of species in their natural environ-ment;
� disturbance of plant and animal species intheir natural environment;
� genetic pollution and extinction of species;
� genetic erosion;
� abandonment and loss of specific species,cultivars and breeds important for agricul-ture.
(Ph
oo
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Hu
do
klin
)
Figure 9 (right).
Risanica - landfill at theponors of the Temenicastream. Water pollutionis one of the majorproblems in Slovenia.In the karst area thewater sources are evenmore vulnerable topollution due to thewater’s low self-purification capacity.
Figure 8 . The inflowcanal to the hydroelec-tric power plantFormin is intrudinginto the agriculturallandscape and alteringthe habitat of a numberof species. Loss ofbiodiversity is theresult of intensiveagricultural practicesand monoculturalproduction.
� uncontrolled urbanisation, in particular dis-persed settlements;
� introduction of non-indigenous and inva-sive plant and animal species (to the coun-try and between regions within Slovenia);
� excessive removal of plants and animalsfrom nature (hunting, fishing, picking, etc.);
� air, water and soil pollution, and climatechange;
17
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
HABITATS - BIO-DIVERSITY AT THEECOSYSTEM LEVEL
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Almost the entire territory of Slovenia wouldhave been covered by forests if there had beenno human impact. However, people changed theprimary landscape, in particular through the thin-ning of forests, land use for agricultural produc-tion, drainage of wetlands, modifications to thecoast and canalisation of watercourses, mining,construction of roads, urbanisation, etc. As a con-sequence, on the one hand, the plant and animalspecies had been forced to find refuge in rathersmall areas. Many habitats, like lowland forestsand wetlands (bogs, fens and reed beds) havelocally disappeared and with them the popula-tions of species characteristic of such habitats.On the other hand, new landscapes, such as pas-tures, grasslands, fields, have been created whichoften interchange with the remains of forests,hedges and watercourses. Large mammals, likethe brown bear, wolf and European lynx, with-drew to the remote parts of their primary habi-tats, some species became extinct and othersadapted to the new agricultural landscapes. Thenatural habitats are getting smaller, their fragmen-tation is continuous and their ability to supportlife is reduced. One of the key features is the iso-lation of small populations which are no longercapable of maintaining the biologically impor-tant links to larger gene pools of the primary eco-systems. The number of threatened species iscontinuously increasing.
One of the main obstacles to assessing thesituation is the insufficient availability and qual-ity of data on ecological parameters for specifichabitats and the needs of the species which popu-late these habitats. In spite of its incompleteness,the overview of the habitats shows the richnessof Slovenia in the main habitat categories: ma-rine and coastal habitats, inland waters and wet-lands, scrub and grasslands, forests, barren landas well as agricultural and urbanised landscapes.
A habitat type is a spatially explicit ecosystemunit distinguished by biotope or biotic charac-teristics (Article 31 of the Nature ConservationAct).
A habitat is a natural home of a specimen, popu-lation, taxa or group. A habitat is an area wherea species lives and which is characterised byspecific living and non-living factors or a geo-graphically defined area where the specimenor population of a species live (Article 11 ofthe Nature Conservation Act).
An ecosystem is a functional unit of a non-liv-ing environment (biotope) and biotic commu-nity (biocenosis) whose components are in adynamic equilibrium (Article 11 of the NatureConservation Act).
HABITAT TYPOLOGY
The typology of habitats Habitat Types of Slo-venia was prepared in 2001 (URSVN, 2001). It isbased on the PHYSIS system for habitat codingand is organised hierarchically (Table 6). There
Figure 10. A view of thebotanically rich karstgrasslands at the edge ofmount Nanos. In thebackground are theJulian Alps.
18 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
are 7 types at the first level, followed by 35 sub-types at the second level. Further classificationof habitats is possible, however it should be justi-fied by defining conservation measures. So far,514 habitats have been described in Slovenia.Since they have not been mapped according tothe mentioned classification in the entire terri-tory, the CORINE Landcover has been used toshow the proportion of specific habitats (Table 5).
HABITATS AND THREATENEDPLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES
It is easiest to conserve biodiversity in natureif the natural equilibrium is maintained - the bal-ance of relations between organisms themselvesand between organisms and their habitats. Thenatural balance is destroyed when an activitydestroys the quantitative or qualitative structure
CORINE Landcover - 5 categories
Map 5: Distributionof main habitatcategories accordingto CORINE Landcoverclassification (1998).
Table 5: Presence ofhabitats in Slovenia in% (Source: CORINELandcover).
Additionally, wetlands are discussed also following the classification and requirements of theRamsar Convention on Wetlands.
CATEGORY CORINE LANDCOVER 5 CATEGORY CORINE LANDCOVER 15 %Forest and semi-natural areas 63.08
Forest 57.121Shrub and/or herbaceous vegetation 4.406Open spaces with little or no vegetation 1.549
Agricultural Areas 33.67Heterogeneous Agricultural Areas 21.087Arable Land 5.643Pastures 5.975Permanent Crops 0.970
Wetlands 0.15Inland Wetlands 0.120Coastal Wetlands 0.30
Artificial Surfaces 2.68Industrial, commercial and transport 0.421Artificial non-agricultural vegetation 0.149Urban fabric 2.004
Water bodies 0.42Inland waters 0.421Marine waters 0.003
All together 100
Forest and semi-natural areasAgricultural AreasWetlandsArtificial SurfacesWater bodies
19
of a plant or animal community; degrades or de-stroys their habitats; destroys or disrupts the abil-ity of an ecosystem to function; cuts off inter-connections between individual ecosystems; orcauses a significant isolation of individualpopulations. The changes result in the modifiedstructure and size of populations or species’ dis-tribution. The species whose population or dis-tribution area is declining is threatened, and canthus be included in the Red Data List of threatenedspecies. In Slovenia, more than 2,000 species wereidentified as endangered in 2001. Some of themare included in the lists of species for which con-servation measures are required in accordancewith the international regulations (Directive 79/409/EEC on the Conservation of Wild Birds, Di-
rective 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natu-ral Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, Con-vention on the Conservation of Migratory Spe-cies of Wild Animals - Bonn, 1979, and Conven-tion on the Conservation of European Wildlifeand Natural Habitats - Bern, 1979). More than 300such species are found in Slovenia.
The reasons for the decline in the populationsof species are the direct destruction of specimensor the loss of their habitats. Most of the specieson the Slovenian Red Data List are species whichare threatened because of the loss of their habi-tats. Some habitats are more threatened than oth-ers because of their specific traits (rare bedrockformations, ‘mrazišča’) and in general declining(wetlands). Among them, there are the habitats
First level Second level1. Marine, coastal and halophytic habitats
11. Ocean and seas, marine communities13. Estuaries and tidal rivers15. Saltmarshes, salt steppes, salt scrubs, salt forests18. Sea-cliffs and rocky shores
2. Non-marine waters22. Standing freshwater24. Running water
3. Scrub and grassland31. Temperate heath and scrub37. Humid grassland and tall herb communities38. Mesophile grasslands
4. Forests41. Broad-leaved deciduous forests42. Temperate coniferous forests43. Temperate mixed forest44. Temperate riverine and swamp forests and brush45. Temperate broad-leaved evergreen forests
5. Bogs and marshes51. Raised bogs53. Water-fringe vegetation54. Fens, transition mires and springs
6. Inland rocks, screes and sands61. Screes62 Inland cliffs and exposed rocks63. Eternal snow and ice65. Caves66. Volcanic features
8. Agricultural land and artificial landscapes81. Improved grasslands83. Orchards, groves and tree plantations84. Tree lines, hedges, rural mosaics85. Urban parks and large gardens86. Towns, villages, industrial sites87. Fallow land, waste places88. Mines and underground passages89. Industrial lagoons and reservoirs, canals
Table 6: Habitats inSlovenia(Source: MOP - ARSO,2001)
HABITATS
20 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
of endemic, as well as locally and globally threat-ened species.
In order to illustrate the situation, an overviewhas been prepared of the habitats of the mostendangered species (IUCN categories E and V)of birds, dragonflies, mammals, beetles,stoneflies, fish, flowering plants and ferns. Theresults are shown in Graph 1.
Among the habitats, caves stand out as a habi-tat of many endangered endemic taxa. With re-gard to the number of threatened species, thecoastal habitats, standing and running water, andgrasslands are important.
The number of threatened species is just oneof the assessment criteria because certain taxaare closely associated with a specific habitat. Thedestruction of the habitat type thus results in theloss of the species.
CRITERIA FOR THE ASSESSMENTOF HABITATS
An assessment of habitats is needed to definethe priority conservation measures, assess theenvironmental impact of activities and to planand make decisions.
In the assessment of a habitat type, represen-tativeness at the national and international lev-els is considered (EU Habitats Directive, BernConvention), as well as whether an ecosystem isendangered due to reduction of areas or habitatdegradation, and regional characteristics, andalso with regard to its importance for the conser-vation of threatened plant and animal species.
THREATS
Habitats are threatened mainly due to humanactivities. The impacts of these activities are dif-ficult to assess because information on habitatsis not available. Habitats and their interconnec-tions are one of the main areas for conservationof biological and landscape diversity. They areoften extremely vulnerable. With regard to thepast and current economic development, theoverview of the status of natural and semi-natu-ral habitats has shown that the most endangeredhabitats in Slovenia are:
� marine, coastal and halophytic habitats;
� running water and wetlands;
� dry grasslands;
� subterranean habitats (emphasis is placedon subterranean animals).
Graph 1: Habitats inSlovenia (Source: MOP-ARSO, 2001).
Figure 11. Pinnanobilis, marine faunais mainly threatened bypollution, tourismdevelopments andfishing with benthictrawl.
(Ph
oto
: Cir
il M
linar
)
21
DEGREE OF RESEARCH
Reliable substantive and spatially determineddata on habitat types are of key importance forthe efficient biodiversity conservation, in par-ticular at the ecosystem level but also at the spe-cies and genetic levels. The applicability of datalargely depends on their substantive details andspatial accuracy.
Area covered. The available information onhabitats (vegetation maps, plant communities,flora, fauna, ecology) found in the Slovenian ter-ritory is general and modest. That is particularlyevident when the detailed information, which isessential for defining nature conservation mea-sures, is needed. Quite a few areas in Sloveniahave not been studied in detail (Kozjansko, partof Zasavje, etc.), in particular data on animals aremissing. Additionally, data are not collected andmaintained systematically. Within the frameworkof the CORINE Landcover PHARE project, a mapwas drawn in 1998 on the basis of the satelliteimages (LandsatTM 1995-96). The map can beused for general analyses but it is not sufficientfor detailed nature conservation requirements.With the financial support of the Small GrantsFund of the Ramsar Convention the first inven-tory of the Slovenian wetlands has been made.The inventory provides a basis for the evalua-tion and systematic monitoring of wetlands inSlovenia.
Systematic research. Under the auspices ofthe Environmental Agency the 1:5000 scale map-ping of non-forest habitats has been organised.With the development of the methods for theplanning of forest management these data willbe applied in the overview of forest habitats.
Thematic maps. Some of them cover the en-tire territory (the map of forest vegetation) andothers only specific areas (habitats of Ljubljanskobarje, the river Mura area, etc.).
Individual mapping. Maps are thematicallyand spatially delineated (e.g. Important Bird Ar-eas, EIA).
HABITAT TYPES
The prevailing primary (natural) ecosystemsin Slovenia are forests. Of the non-forest ecosys-tems, the areas above the timber line and under itform the most important ecosystems. They in-clude the following: rock walls, sea and the seacoast, watercourses and standing waters, marshesand bogs, and subterranean ecosystems. As a re-sult of human activity, the primary ecosystemshave changed and thus their diversity has in-creased. Many secondary ecosystems haveevolved, such as agricultural land (fields, mead-
ows, orchards), urbanised areas (settlements),artificial water ecosystems (reservoirs, fishponds), etc. The anthropogenic factors are ex-tremely important for the conservation of bio-logical and landscape diversity, as long as theydo not lead to the total destruction of primaryecosystems. Nowadays, many habitats and com-munities are endangered because of the aban-donment of the traditional activities and the natu-ral encroachment of vegetation on arable land.
Ecosystems are threatened by:
� direct physical destruction and degradationof ecosystems;
� various forms of pollution;
� abandonment of the traditional farming andnatural encroachment of vegetation on ara-ble land;
� over-exploitation of all natural resources (in-organic and organic), including the exploi-tation of biodiversity components (hunting,fishing, agriculture).
Some of the negative impacts have transboun-dary implications and the relevant problems can
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 12. Ljubljanskobarje (Ljubljanamarshland) close to theSlovenian capital ismainly threatened by thecontinuous spreading ofthe urban areas.
Figure 13. TheGračnica brook.Canalisation has causeddrastic changes to thestream’s ecosystemwhich has becomeunsuitable for mostplant and animalspecies.
(Ph
oo
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
HABITATS
22 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
only be minimized and solved by bilateral or multi-lateral cooperation. For example, all forms of pol-lution, in particular air pollution (acid rain, ni-trates) and transboundary rivers flowing intoSlovenia. The emissions from Italy contribute tothe major part of depositions of oxidised nitro-gen in Slovenia (Graph 2; Source: Lešnjak et al.,2000). The exploitation of watercourses for thegeneration of electricity is causing problems be-cause it destroys ecosystems and substantiallychanges water regimes and reduces flood safety(the Čabranka and Mura rivers).
Marine and coastal habitats
General characteristics. The Slovenian seaforms part of the Bay of Trieste in the north-eastof the Adriatic. It is a semi-closed and shallowsea, characterised by heavy pollution caused byhuman activities (maritime transport, intensivefishing, mass tourism in summer). Human activi-ties have substantially modified the Sloveniancoast, except its cliffs. The important wetlandsof the area are the salinas and the mouths of therivers Dragonja, Badaševica and Rižana. The
north of the Adriatic Sea and the flysch forma-tions determine the sub-Mediterranean vegeta-tion. Halophytes grow in saltmarshes and onsandy sea shores. A special feature is the seameadow of the neptunegrass (Posidonia ocea-nica).
Threats to marine and coastal habitats. Itis generally believed that the Slovenian coastalwetlands are not as endangered as they were inthe past. All the remaining wetlands are protectedeven though the protection regimes have not yetbeen implemented. The sand banks at Valdoltra(Sv. Nikolaj) and the seashells banks near Ankaranare threatened and have not been given a legalstatus. The same applies to some other sectionsof the coastal sea and sea shore (Fiesa, Pacug),including the neptunegrass site. Marine animalsare mainly threatened by pollution, use of trawlnets in fisheries and construction in the tidal zone.
The watercourses flowing into the Bay ofTrieste contribute to the pollution of theSlovenian coastal waters. As a result, the chemi-cal and biological processes in the coastal seachange. The main cause of the transboundarypollution is the river Po, flowing into the sea fromthe Italian side. On the basis of the monitoring ofthe bathing waters, it has been established thatthey are suitable for their purpose. However, in1999 the stipulated limit levels were exceeded inŠkocjanski zatok, and the pollution killed manybirds and other animals.
Threats caused by natural factors
� hypoxic and anoxic conditions - lack of ox-ygen (hypoxia, rarely anoxia), planktonbloom and slime (‘mare sporco’) and massoccurrences of specific species (mauvestinger Pelagia noctiluca, straight-needlepteropod Creseis acicula, toxic and non-tox-ic tides of dinoflagellates).
� natural introduction of non-indigenous spe-cies.
Graph 2: Depositionsof oxidised nitrogenfrom 1985 to 1989 in ktN/year. Picture (r.):import into Slovenia;Picture (l.): exportfrom Slovenia (Source:Lešnjak et al, 2000,MeteorologicalSynthesising Centre-West of EMEP).
Figure 14. Mowingand grazing beingabandoned, vegetationtook over in the steepalpine pastures onBegunjščica.
(Ph
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: Pet
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23
Anthropogenic factors
� pollution:
� with chemical effluents; direct discharg-es of urban waste waters into the sea dras-tically change the structure of the benth-ic invertebrate communities;
� pollution of the lower reaches of the riv-ers Rižana and Badaševica and insuffi-cient waste water treatment;
� maritime transport;
� agricultural application of pesticides andfertilizes (in particular in the lower reach-es of the Dragonja and Rižana rivers);
� fishing, in particular with a trawl net (remov-al of living organisms on the bottom);
� crushing of rocks for the harvesting of seadates (Lithophaga lithophaga); indirectly theloss of endolithic invertebrates and fish;
� tourism and growing urbanisation (con-struction in the tidal zone and upper infralit-toral);
� anchoring of vessels in the area of the seameadows and also in other areas;
� introduction of non-indigenous organisms(via ballast water, as overgrowth, as a resultof mariculture, etc.) and their successfulcolonisation in the new environment, inŠkocjanski zatok, for example, nutria (Myo-castor coypu) threatens other mammals, red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) rep-tiles and among the plants an invasive spe-cies Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japo-nica).
� saltpans in Sečoveljske soline are threatenedby:
� changes in the water regime (water intru-sion or destruction of dikes because oflack of maintenance) which are the maincause for the loss of nesting populationsof the saline birds;
� ‘air-shows’ whose negative impacts on thenesting of the Common Tern (Sternahirundo) and Black-winged Stilt (Himan-topus himantopus) have been determinedby observations; low flying of aircraft andhelicopters and frequent flying in thesummer disturb birds in the salina;
� increased tourism and recreation in thesalina threaten the flora and bird fauna;the data on specific species, for exampleKentish Plover (Charadrius alexandri-nus) show that the species is in declinebecause of the high number of visitorsduring the nesting period.
The extent and intensity of these activitieshave not been topographically evaluated for spe-
Figure 15. Coastal cliffs in Mesečev zaliv (Moon Bay). These scenic cliffs were formed in Flisch, adominating bedrock of the Slovenian coastline.
Figure 16. In Slovenia, halophytes are found only in the coastal ecosystems.
Figure 17. Sečoveljske soline (Sečovlje Salinas). Inappropriate dumping of building material used forconstructing the access road.
(Ph
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: Go
rdan
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(Ph
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(Ph
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: Mar
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)
HABITATS
24 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
cific habitats. The changes of the habitat foundin the shellfish- and fish-rearing waters are ex-pected to be substantial. It is known that the num-ber of tufts of neptunegrass per surface unit islower in the Koper Bay near Žusterna than in otherprotected Mediterranean sites (near Napoli inItaly, and Port Cros in France). No relevant stud-ies have been carried out but it is presumed thatthe causes are the pollution and intensive sedi-mentation.
General degree of research. The researchon the Slovenian coastal sea has not been exten-sive. No research on habitat types has been car-ried out until now. It is generally believed that ofall habitats the coastal wetlands have been stud-ied most, in particular those of Sečovljske solineand Škocjanski zatok (sea inlet). The biodiversityof the area, in particular in/of Strunjan, Fijesa, themouth of the river Rižana and the wetlands of Sv.Nikolaj, has been discussed only in a few papers.Other coastal ecosystems, for example flyshcliffs, mudflats and limestone patches, have beenresearched to an even lesser extent. The situa-tion is similar for the human modified ecosystems.
Degree of research on fauna and flora.The flora and fauna of the coastal sea have notbeen entirely identified. The coastal wetlandshave been researched with regard to their orni-thological and floristic aspects (flora and veg-etation). Although some studies on mammals,reptiles and amphibians are available, the dataon invertebrates is scarce. The knowledge aboutthe fauna of the Slovenian sea is extremely poorand limited to data on the most typical groups(plankton copepods, tunicates, echinoderms,molluscs, plankton invertebrates in general andfish), but the data on most other groups are notavailable (Anthozoa, Bryozoa, Acanthoochepala,Gastrotricha, Kaptozoa, Rotatoria, Nemertina,Nematoda, Polychaeta, Crustacea, Amphipoda,Oniscidea, etc.). In particular the information onthe distribution, frequency and ecological char-acteristics of indicator species is insufficient.
In the 1970s a project concerning the inven-tory of the maritime fauna and flora was initi-ated by Dr Matjašič. The relevant taxonomic col-lections were compiled, but the project has neverbeen finished (the information on some taxo-nomic groups included in the catalogue is com-plete, however the data on other groups are par-tial).
Degree of research on threats. The RedData Lists for maritime flora (except for flower-ing plants) have not yet been compiled. Due tothe incompleteness of the data and insufficientinventories, it is difficult to precisely evaluatethreats to fauna and flora.
Expert coverage. The gaps in the generaldegree of research on the field arise from insuffi-cient previous studies, especially because thereare not enough specialists on specific inverte-brate groups (three experts deal with benthicmarine species and two experts work on plank-ton).
Inland waters
Inland waters consist of surface standing andrunning waters and underground waters. Inlandwaters are the key habitat of many organisms,(P
ho
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(Ph
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: Mila
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Figure 18. Octopusvulgaris, out of the twooctopus species presentin the Slovenian part ofthe Adriatic Sea,Octopus vulgaris is lessabundant than Ozaenamoschata.
Figure 20 (right).
Development pressureson the short, denselypopulated and heavilyindustrialisedSlovenian coast are stillincreasing.
Figure 19 (below).
One of the last remain-ing sand dunes alongthe coast of Ankaran isproviding a habitat forthreatened plants, suchas Linum maritimum.
(Ph
oto
: Go
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25
but water research is focused on their usefulnessfor human consumption, in particular concern-ing their physical characteristics and quality.
Standing waters
General characteristics. Standing freshwa-ters are the natural permanent and intermittentlakes, ox-bow lakes (backwaters), artificial reser-voirs and small detention basins, and fish ponds.Aquatic vegetation, from microscopic planktonto water plants, is an important element in thefood chain of an ecosystem. The vegetation typeand productivity are determined by the light andtemperature as well as the availability of nutri-ents, in particular nitrogen and phosphorus. Thesupply of nutrients in natural conditions dependson the climatic, geological, soil and vegetationproperties of a water ecosystem. However, thesechange due to human activities. Depending onthe amount of nutrients contained in water, thestanding water may be classified as eutrophic(rich in nutrients), mesotrophic and oligotrophic(poor in nutrients) standing water.
There are only two natural permanent lakesin Slovenia, Bohinjsko jezero and Blejsko jezero.In total, they cover 456.7 ha. Other smaller lakestogether cover 173.2 ha and include mountainlakes, spring lakes and backwaters. The intermit-tent lakes cover 3,151.3 ha, and are situated in theLjubljanica river catchment (Cerkniško jezero,Planinsko jezero and Pivška jezera). The size andoccurrence of these lakes depend on precipita-tion in a particular season. Among the human-made standing water which cover 3,101.6 ha, theartificial reservoirs are most numerous (2,700.4ha). Artificial lakes include larger reservoirs ofhydro-electric plants (the rivers Drava, Sava,Soča), irrigation reservoirs (Sotla, Pesnica, Klivnikand Mola), abandoned inundated gravel pits,sand pits and clay pits (lakes in Fiesa, Draga nearIg, Bobovek, ponds in Rače) and other detentionbasins such as fish and karstic ponds.
Biodiversity of standing waters
Large standing waters facilitate the develop-ment of characteristic lake flora and fauna, fromalgae and flowering plants to amphibians, fishand many other species associated with theseecosystems (birds). Small sized standing waterssuch as mountain lakes and karstic ponds arehabitats which enhance the landscape patternsand biodiversity. A special feature are the inter-mittent karst lakes where living organisms haveadapted to the changing rhythm of wet and dryperiods. Impounded waters or other artificialstanding waters can also function as importantsecondary habitats.
The quality of standing waters
In compliance with the national monitoringprogramme, the Environmental Agency monitorsthe quality of the three lakes Blejsko jezero,Bohinjsko jezero and Cerkniško jezero and theirmain inflowing and outflowing streams. Only theconcentrations of the main biogenic nutrients inwater are measured and analysed and the pro-cess of eutrophication is monitored. Most of thelakes in Slovenia are located on carbonate bed-rocks and therefore the acidification is not anissue.
(Ph
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: Mar
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)(P
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Figure 22. Blejskojezero (Lake Bled) is aglacial lake. Algae bloomcause high maximalconcentration ofchlorophyll and givewarning of an unbal-anced ecosystem.
Figure 21. Dvojnojezero (Double Lake) inDolina triglavskih jezer(Valley of the TriglavLakes) is one of theoutstanding alpinelakes away from humansettlements, yet threat-ened by sewage frommountain huts,grazing, littering andthe introduction of alien(non-indigenous) fishspecies.
HABITATS
High water flow in Bohinjsko jezero and thelow population density in its vicinity are the mainreasons for the relative good water quality of thelake. On the other hand, the biological and chemi-cal data show that the input of nutrients has in-creased in recent years. According to the interna-tional criteria for the assessment of the waterquality (trophic level), Bohinjsko jezero is con-sidered to be oligotrophic - unpolluted.
The water quality of Blejsko jezero is the re-sult of the high population density in the area
26 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
and of the hydrological conditions. An artificialinflow of water from the river Radovna has im-proved its deep water ‘aeration’ and reduced therelease of nutrients from sediments. The environ-mental burden and pollution of the entire lakebasin induce the ‘phytoplankton blooming’. Thehigh maximum concentrations of chlorophyllwhich result from the blooming of plankton al-gae indicate the biological instability of the lake.According to the assessment of the water qual-ity, Blejsko jezero is considered to be mesotrophic- moderately polluted.
The water quality of Cerkniško jezero is closelylinked to the water level in the lake and itsinflowing streams. The lake and its streams arepolluted by industrial and agricultural activitiesas well as untreated discharge of urban wastewater in the catchment area. The regular chang-ing of the lake environment, in particular the fluc-tuation of the water level, affect the nutrient con-tent of the water and, consequently, the livingorganisms in the lake. Marsh vegetation uses upmuch of the excess nutrients. The lake sediments,and occasionally waters, are polluted by heavy
metals and organic compounds. Cerkniško jezerois an intermittent lake and does not have the typi-cal features of a ‘real’ lake. According to the crite-ria for running inland waters the water quality atthe sampling point Stržen near Dolenje jezeroshows that the water is moderately polluted.
The research on 14 mountain lakes, which wascarried out in the 1990s, was extremely impor-tant for the monitoring of the transboundary pol-lution (the National Institute of Biology).
Running waters
General characteristics. Water fromSlovenian territory is drained to the Black Sea(Sava, Drava and Mura) and Adriatic Sea (the Sočariver and other inflows to the Mediterranean).The total length of running waters is 26,989 km(topographic map TK 25) and the average drain-age density of the hydrographic network is 1.33km/km2.
Highlands and mountains (average altitudeis 550 m) comprise up to 80 % of the country.Around 85 % of all water runoff is from hills andmountains. The energy potential of these streamsis the highest. Most of them are torrents with char-acteristic average annual discharge and time dis-tribution. High water usually occurs after thecontinuous autumn rain. More than 2/3 of waterin mountain streams runs off in the short periodsof high flows when a lot of material is removed.During such periods the possibility of floods ishigh. The erosion areas cover 8,800 km2 or 43 %of the territory (FGG-LMTE, 1999). Approximately5,000,000 m3 of the sediment debris derive fromthese areas. Part of the material is deposited inriver valleys and the rest is transported further tothe sea. Water velocity and the river bed struc-ture are natural factors affecting the morphologyand nature of the watercourse as well as itsbiodiversity and the changes in river freshwatercommunities. Watercourses may be divided intorapidly flowing, fast-flowing, medium-flowing,slow-f lowing and very slow-flowing water-courses. The structure of the river bed, from smallparticles to rocks (humus, peat, organic fine ma-terial, clay, silt, sand, gravel, rubble), depends onthe velocity of the flow.
In the karst systems, the natural water reten-tion capacity is relatively high because of theunderground and surface (karst polje) courses.It mitigates 75 to 85 % of flood peaks (retentionof water in the underground system of the karstriver Ljubljanica).
Biodiversity of running watersWatercourses maintain numerous habitats, the
riverbed and water body, its banks, the aquaticand riparian vegetation. They function as a link
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Figure 23 (top).
Ox-bow lake Muriša isa typical habitat of alowland river atLendava. Strengthen-ing the river-banksand altering the waterdynamics haltedformation of new ox-bow lakes. Conse-quently, the existingones are extremelyendangered.
Figure 24 (above).
Planinsko polje is aregularly flooded karstpolje. Local peopleadapted to the yearlyfloods and built theirvillages at the edge ofthe floodplain.
27
between populations and contribute to the ex-pansion of species distribution (for example Al-pine vegetation found in lowlands). Certain eco-systems, such as floodplain forests, are linked toand depend on the hydrological regime of thefloods and the level of the watertable in the ri-parian area.
Fresh waters provide a habitat for fish andmany invertebrates which spend in water all theirlives (flatworms, molluscs) or only part of theirlife cycle (larvae of dragonflies and damselflies,caddies flies, stoneflies and mayflies). Many ter-restrial species also depend on fresh water habi-tats (the need for water and food supply).
The natural dynamics of streams and riverscontributes to their biodiversity, particularly thediversity of habitats (rapids, gravel and sandshores, steep river banks, meanders, etc.).
Specific, mainly small-sized aquatic habitatswith characteristic plant and animal species arethermal and karst springs (Kerkia kusceri speciesin the river Krupa), waterfalls, tufa formations.
Conservation of the morphological char-acteristics of rivers and streams
Watercourses are complex ecosystems wherethe physical, chemical and biological processes
interact in a fragile balance. The alteration of anyof the characteristics of the ecosystem, or pro-cesses in it, affects the entire system and the con-sequences are evident from its appearance and,in particular, its functioning. In the studyCategorisation of Rivers and Streams Accordingto Nature Conservation Importance (VGI, 2000),
Table 7: Characteristicsof Slovenia’s large riverbasins, such as the Sočaand the inflowingstreams of the AdriaticSea, and the Sava,Drava and Mura rivers(Source: FGG-LMTE,1999).
Rivers Precipitation per year Flood Discharge Settlements Agriculture Industry
plains per year
106 m3 mm ha 106 m3 mm % % inhabitants % inhabitants % inhabitants
Mura 1197 861 18.700 340 245 28 7,0 23,7 6,0
Drava 367 1125 16.000 1832 561 50 20,9 24,3 20,7
Sava 20.773 1757 31.700 12.294 1040 59 59,8 45,0 62,0the Donava river 25.641 1556 66.400 14.466 878 56 87,7 93,0 88,7
catchemnt area
Soča 5469 2278 2900 3812 1588 70 6,4 4,6 6,8
Inflow to Adriatic Sea 1070 779 2200 394 287 37 5,8 2,4 4,5
Adriatic catchment area 6539 1732 5100 4206 1114 64 12,3 7,0 11,3
Slovenia total 32.180 10.088 71.500 18.672 922 58 100,0 100,0 100,0
(Ph
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the degree of morphologically preservedSlovenian rivers and streams has been evaluatedaccording to the intensity of human interferenceaffecting them. Approximately 10,000 km of26,000 km of rivers and streams have been evalu-ated. The proportion of specific quality classesin the absolute length of rivers and streams isshown in Graph 3, but the degree of their conser-vation as integral ecosystems is not evident fromit. There are not many rivers and streams whichare preserved in the larger part of their course(Map 6), and therefore they are listed as valuablenatural features. Among the best preserved rivernetworks are parts of the Soča, Ljubljanica in thekarst catchment area, Krka, Kolpa and Dragonjariver basins.
Figure 26. Tufa forma-tions are typical of theKrka river formed by thedeposition of calciumcarbonate in the water.
Figure 25 (left).
Altering the naturalriver processes andchanging the riverbanks are increasinglythreatening many birdspecies including theKingfisher (Alcedoathis).
HABITATS
28 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Rivers and streams have been classified un-der 4 classes and 3 subclasses (Graph 3):
� class 1 (naturally preserved) and subclass1-2 (insignificantly disturbed): the rivers andstreams with morphologically well pre-served channel of the evaluated section; thepotential disturbances are only aestheticwhile the functioning of the natural process-es is undisturbed or it may be influenced bythe upstream changes, for example, chang-ing regime of sediment transportation;
� class 2: sections of watercourses where in-terference is evident, but the alterations arenot technical, for example the deepening ofthe riverbed, short sections with sustainably
solidified and protected banks and individu-al low barriers, sections with thinned riv-erine vegetation;
� subclass 2-3: is in-between preserved andsubstantially modified functional propertiesof rivers and streams; sections of the riverwhich have had the overgrown side of theriver bank stabilised; sections of the water-course have been canalised;
� class 3: heavily affected watercourses; inthe evaluated section the complete canali-
Graph 3: Proportionof morphologicallyconserved Slovenianrivers and streams(VGI, 2000)
Categories of Rivers andStreams According toNature Conservation Importance
Class 1Subclass 1-2Class 2Subclass 2-3Class 3Subclass 3-4Class 4
0 10 20 km
Map 6: Categorisation ofRivers and StreamsAccording to NatureConservation Impor-tance (VGI, 2000).
29
sation is characteristic, particularly in inten-sively managed agricultural areas, where riv-erbed is heavily modified, etc.
� class 3-4: rivers and streams have been com-pletely altered and turned into the drainagecanals with constructed banks and riverbedor have even covered.
In the study, classification of watercourse hasbeen based on the assessment of physical hu-man disturbances, while the classification ofwater pollution is provided by the Environmen-tal Agency - Meteorological Office. Watercoursesas ecosystems have not been evaluated for theirbiodiversity, but their preserved morphologicalcharacteristics indicate the high biological andlandscape diversity.
Water quality of Slovenian watercourses
The Environmental Agency co-ordinates theprogramme on the monitoring of the quality ofsurface waters in Slovenia and keeps the relevantdata basis. Participating in the project are: TheNational Institute of Biology in Ljubljana(saprobiological analyses), the Health ProtectionInstitute Maribor, the Institute of EnvironmentalProtection (analyses of metals and organic com-pounds in water and sediment) and the Instituteof Public Health (bacteriological analyses).
Approximately 100 sampling points on mostimportant rivers and their tributaries comprise
the water quality monitoring network. Thesamples are taken 2 to 24 times per year. The analy-ses depend on the pollution level and the impor-tance of the section of a certain watercourse.
Biodiversity is substantially affected by thequality of water. Taking into account the hydro-meteorological conditions at the sampling point,the quality of surface water is assessed on thebasis of:
� fundamental physical, chemical and bacte-riological analyses;
� saprobiological analyses;
� metal content;
� content of organic compounds in unfilteredwater, suspended particles and sediments.
Based on the water quality, the watercoursesare classified into:
� 1st class: water which in its natural state,but potentially disinfected, may be used asdrinking water, in the food processing in-dustry and for the breeding of salmonidspecies (Salmonidae);
� 2nd class: water which in its natural statemay be used for bathing and recreation, orthe breeding of other fish species (Cyprin-idae); after the regular prior treatment (co-agulation, filtration and disinfection) it maybe used for drinking and in the food pro-cessing industry;
(Ph
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(Ph
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)
Figure 27 (left). TheDragonja is one of thebest preserved streamsin Slovenia. The riverand its tributaries havebeen already protected,while a large part of thecatchment area isproposed for a land-scape park.
Figure 28 (right).
Part of the well pre-served Sava river nearBled is threatened byreconstruction of theMoste hydroelectricpower plant.
HABITATS
30 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
� 3rd class: water which may be used for irri-gation; after the regular prior treatment itmay be used in industry, except for foodprocessing;
� 4th class: water which may be used for oth-er purposes only after the appropriate treat-ment.
Based on the analyses of specific organic com-pounds, watercourses are classified into:
� class 1: only the naturally occurring organ-ic compounds in small quantities are foundin the water;
� class 2: biodegradable compounds arefound in the water; they can be removed bythe simple processing/treatment for prepar-ing drinking water;
� class 3: not readily degradable compoundsare found in the water, which during the in-filtration into groundwater remain un-changed or are transformed into stable de-grading products;
� class 4: chlorinated compounds, which arecharacteristic pollutants, are found in thewater; they occur as the result of humanactivities and they accumulate in living or-
ganisms; they are potentially carcinogenicand mutagenic.
With regard to biological indicators, the qual-ity of surface waters is evaluated by two meth-ods: physiological and ecological. The ecologi-cal method is based on the sampling of organ-isms on living and non-living solid surfaces andof organisms found in sediments. The samplingis carried out twice a year, in winter and summerwhen the water level is low and the effects ofpollution are most evident. The bioindicators andtheir quantitative relations in a communityclearly show the conditions at the sampling point.For each sample, a saprobic index (SI) is calcu-lated by a special procedure. With regard to thesaprobic index value the trophic level and theclass of water quality at the sampling point aredetermined.
In 2000, the results of the saprobiologicalanalyses showed that the quality of water at nearly83 % of sampling points was identified as class 1,1-2 and 2, followed by 11.5 % as class 2-3 and al-most 6 % as class 3. More sampling points identi-fied class 2-3 of water quality than in 1999. Riverswith water quality at sampling points in class 3are the Ščavnica in Pristava, Ljubljanica in Zalog,Savinja in Rimske Toplice, Voglajna and Hudinjain Celje, and Hubelj in Ajdovščina.
Map 7: The biologicalevaluation of water qualityof the surface waters.(Source: MOP-ARSO, Uradza monitoring, 2000).
31
(Ph
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: Bra
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Hla
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After 1989 the quality of surface water startedto improve due to the lower quantities of indus-trial waste water discharged into rivers and dueto the construction of waste water treatmentplants. According to the data of the Hydrometeo-rological Institute, the status of watercoursesslightly degraded in 1995 and 1996 in compari-son to 1994. The quality of the Drava and Murarivers has improved because of the improved sys-tem of water treatment in Austria (the uppercourses of the two rivers). The river Sava is inclass 2-3, the river Soča and its tributaries in class1-2. The quality of water is the lowest in the fol-lowing rivers’ sections: the Ščavnica (Pristava)and Koren (Nova Gorica), occasionally theKamniška Bistrica (Beričevo) and Sotla (RogaškaSlatina) rivers.
Groundwater
General characteristics. Aquifers are an im-portant source of water. Slovenia is rather rich inwater resources (groundwater and springs)which can still be used for drinking water supplywithout substantial prior treatment. Undergroundwaters support specific subterranean habitats(caves).
In Slovenia, there are two types of aquifers -intergranular aquifers and fractured karst aqui-fers.
Intergranular aquifersThe main aquifers in Slovenia are along:
� the rivers Drava and Mura (Maribor, Ptuj,Murska Sobota, Vrbanski Plato);
� the rivers Savinja and Sava (Savinjska doli-na, Ljubljanska kotlina, Brežiško polje, Kran-jsko-Soško polje, Kamniška Bistrica);
� the rivers Vipava and Soča.They are all intergranular aquifers covered by
alluvial sediments. Regardless of the data on pol-lution caused by urbanisation, industry and agri-culture, these aquifers are still the primary sourceof the drinking water.
Fractured karst aquifersKarst aquifers are important sources of water
in the long-term. Rapid flow of groundwater in
fractured karst aquifers facilitates the fast disper-sion of pollution. That is the reason why the pro-tection of water quality is very demanding in karstregions.
Biodiversity of underground water
With regard to habitats, the intergranular aqui-fers are specific systems because their only liv-ing components are consumers and decompos-ers (animals, bacteria). Despite the seeminglyunfriendly environment animals characterised bya high level of tolerance (lack of food, low oxy-gen concentrations) or specialisation do live inthese habitats. For the survival and normal func-tioning of living organisms, the aquifers must beclosely associated with the surface habitats. Un-derground, there are no green plants whichwould be a source of food. All food is broughtfrom the surface, either through leaching or trans-port. Since the food supply is scarce, the animalpopulations are not numerous and the habitatsare thinly populated. The population density de-creases with the distance from the riverbed, andthe species found in its vicinity differ substan-tially from the species living in the remote sec-tions of the aquifer. Some organisms live at greaterdepths (a few tens of meters) even though mostare found in the upper layers of the aquifer. Thesize of organisms rarely exceeds 1 millimetre. In
Trophic level Value (SI) Quality class Description of the qualityof the water body
Oligosaprobic 1.00 - 1.5 1 no load or very low load
Oligo-beta 1.51 - 1.8 1-2 low load
Beta-mesosaprobic 1.81 - 2.3 2 moderate load
Beta-alfa 2.31 - 2.7 2-3 critical load
Alfa mesosaprobic 2.71 - 3.2 3 heavy load
Alfa-poly 3.21 - 3.5 3-4 extremely heavy load
Polysaprobic 3.51 - 4.0 4 excessive load
Table 8: Assessment ofwater quality based onsaprobic index (SI).
Figure 29. TheŠčavnica stream isa typical example ofa canalisedriverbed flowingthrough a deprivedagriculturallandscape andheavily polluted.
HABITATS
32 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Slovenia, the in-depth research on such fauna hasnot been completed. Most of the data have beengathered for the artificial wells in alluvial plains.The results of a few pilot studies show that thefauna in underground water is characterised bya high level of endemism. The most frequentlyfound animals are crustaceans (Ostracoda,Copepoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda, Bathynellaceae),snails and roundworms. A number of nationaland international research projects concerningthe fauna of underground water are currentlybeing carried out in Europe, and Slovenia partici-pates in them.
Groundwater quality
Within the framework of the water monitor-ing in Slovenia, the quality of groundwater is as-sessed by the drinking water standards. Ground-water is primarily polluted by nitrates, pesticides,metals and organic compounds. The pollutioncaused by pesticides is assessed according to thetotal content of pesticides in the water. The limitlevels are often exceeded in Mursko and Ptujskopolje and more rarely in Dravsko and Apaškopolje.
The pollution is mainly caused by agriculturewhich is evident from the high levels of nitrates,
phosphates, pesticides and potassium in water.The concentrations of phenols, PCBs, organicsubstances and heavy metals clearly show theimpacts of industry in the area. Another sourceof pollution is the water leaching from the oldand existing waste landfills. Potential accidentalspillages of dangerous substances during trans-port by road pose an additional threat to ground-water.
Threats to inland waters are discussed inthe chapter on wetlands (page 54).
General degree of research. The Environ-mental Agency and its bodies monitor the qual-ity of standing and running surface waters inSlovenia. The Water Management Institute (VGI)carried out an integral study on the morphologi-cally preserved rivers and streams Categorisationof Rivers and Streams According to Nature Con-servation Importance. In general, the data dis-persed in various institutions can be obtainedfrom individual experts and from the literature.The data on the hydrology of water bodies arelimited to large rivers and their sections whereindividual water management activities havebeen carried out or planned. One of the tasks ofthe Geological Survey of Slovenia is to map thewater resources. The research on the waters inthe north-east of the country, most of the Alpineregion and of the karst waters is still not com-plete.
Degree of research on fauna and flora.No comprehensive overview of the aquatic florain Slovenia has been published so far. Only thelists of species of specific taxonomic groups areavailable. Freshwater algae are discussed in “Dis-tribution of freshwater algae in Slovenia” (Lazar,1975), aquatic macrophytes in “Flora of Slovenia”(Martin-čič & Sušnik, 1984) and “Register ofSlovenia’s flora” (Trpin & Vreš, 1995). A numberof works deal with the distribution of one or twotaxonomic groups and their occurrence in a cer-tain region. The least researched habitats arepuddles, intermittent lakes and headwaters ofstreams. Little is known about endemic speciesand their distribution.
An example of the evaluation of biodiversityin surface waters is the publication “Life in thewaters of the Triglav National Park” (Brancelj etal., 1995) where all the data on flora and fauna ofspecific habitats are collected and spatially de-fined.
Scrubs and grasslands
Scrubs
General characteristics. In Slovenia, thescrub, as the climax of the vegetation develop-ment in the given natural conditions, is only foundabove the forest line. The prevailing vegetation
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: V
alik
a K
ušt
or)
Figure 30 (below).
Karst spring of theKrupa river is wellpreserved, yet water isheavily polluted bypolychlorinatedbiphenyl (PCB) washedfrom the industriallandfill in the hinter-land.
Figure 31 (bottom).
Troglocaris anophthal-mus, a typical represen-tative of subterraneanwater fauna isthreatened by waterpollution.
33
is dwarf pine (Pinetum mugo), heaths are onlyfragmentary. Other scrub vegetation colonisesgrasslands and riparian areas or forms hedges inagricultural land. Dwarf pine is an important habi-tat of many animal species (black grouse, cham-ois), in particular in connection with high moun-tain habitats (Alpine grassland, rock chasms,screes). Scrub habitats are not easily passable andare therefore quiet areas with limited human im-pact. Dwarf pine vegetation is frequent in theJulian Alps, Karavanke, Kamnik and Savinja Alpsand Pohorje. Outside the Alpine region, it is foundon Snežnik. In recent years it has been graduallyspreading, in part because grazing has been aban-doned in mountain pastures and in part becauseof the climate change. Scrub functions as a corri-dor between various populations. It is a transi-tional stage in the natural succession from grass-lands to forests and its particular stages are noteasy to define.
Threats. As the result of the air pollution, thedwarf pine scrub withers locally. The scrub veg-etation of the river banks is threatened by thecanalisation and maintenance of streams. Thehedges are usually affected by consolidation ofagricultural land.
Degree of research. The research on thetypical vegetation has already been conductedbut the data on the distribution of scrubs havenot been collected. Scrubby areas are mainly con-sidered in the context of the natural encroach-ment of vegetation on grasslands.
Grasslands
General characteristics. In Slovenia, the na--tural grasslands, as the climax of the vegetationsuccession, are limited to the areas above theforest line and some wetlands. Grasslands, as thetransitional stage in the vegetation succession,occur naturally in forest areas, for example afterfires or in areas damaged by heavy snows and
winds. The human-made grasslands (mowing,grazing) and grasslands formed as a result of thenatural restoration of an area after the abandon-ment of cultivation are the most frequent grass-land habitats. From the biodiversity perspective,the most important are the Alpine grasslands,extensively cultivated (no fertilisation, mowingonly once or twice a year) dry and semi-dry grass-lands on limestone and wet meadows.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 32 (left).
Grasslands and shrubson the ridge of Čaven.
Figure 34 (right).
Pivka valley, junipershrubs are taking overwhere the traditionalland use (mowing andgrazing) has beenabandoned.
Figure 33. Daffodilson the Golica mountainare threatened sincefarmers are increas-ingly abandoning thetraditional grasslandmanagement andexcessively appliedfertilizers.
HABITATS
34 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Threats. Grasslands are mainly threatened bythe changed land-use caused by urbanisation orconstruction of infrastructure, alterations in thewater regime (stream canalisation, drainage, landconsolidation), intensive agricultural practicesand application of new technologies (forage si-lage). In the last ten years, the surface area ofgrasslands has been reduced because the tradi-tional use has been abandoned (mowing, graz-ing) and the land has been colonised by scruband forest.
Wet meadows (Molinion community) are notfertilised and are only mown once a year - in thelate summer. The proportion of rare and threat-ened species is rather high in comparison to othergrassland communities. Drainage and applica-tion of fertilizers cause the disappearance ofhighly valuable species, the species compositionchanges and the diversity depletes, all of whichleads to the formation of ‘cultivated’ meadows(Arrhenatheretum). Specific plant species of wetmeadows become endangered, for example vari-ous gladiolus (Gladiolus sp.) and orchids (Liparisloeselli, Hammarbya paludosa, Spiranthesaestivalis, Orchis palustris, O. laxiflora and oth-ers). The same applies to animal species (for ex-ample, large blue butterflies Maculinea).
The grasslands in hills, mountains and karstareas are threatened by the construction of infra-structure and the abandonment of traditionalcultivation. The endangered species are plantssuch as peony (Paeonia officinalis), Clusius’ gen-tian (Gentiana clusii), yellow gentian (Gentiana
lutea), orchids (Ophrys, Orchis, Dactylorhiza) andanimals which live in these habitats, in particu-lar insects (butterflies and moths, spiders, grass-hoppers and crickets, true bugs).
Degree of research. No comprehensiveoverview of grassland habitats of Slovenia hasbeen conducted but floristic and vegetation stud-ies of certain areas have been completed. TheMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food keepsspatial records of land-use categories, includinggrasslands. The botanical features of the grass-land vegetation types have been studied but theirspatial distribution has not yet been presented.
Forests
General characteristics. Slovenia is a coun-try of forests. They cover 56 % of the entire terri-tory - 1,142,000 ha (Veselič & Matjašič, 2001), whichmeans that Slovenia is the third country in Eu-rope according the forest cover. Forests representan essential functional and aesthetic componenton 75% of the Slovenian landscapes. The forestsprotect soils from erosion, mediate climatic ex-tremes and regulate the runoff. In addition to theecological role, forests also have many socialfunctions: they are important for recreation, pro-tect buildings and installations from various nega-tive impacts and are important for national de-fence, for example.
The forest is a natural and primary bioceno-sis in the whole of Slovenia, except in the highest
Figure 35. Wetmeadows in the centralarea on Planina polje,are one of the fewremaining naturalgrasslands inSlovenia. (P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 36. A beachforest stand on theBanjšice plateau.
35
mountains and some wetlands. It is a habitat andrefuge of many plant and animal species whichmaintain the ecological balance in the landscape.
The biodiversity and exceptional variety ofSlovenian forests, including the well preservedplant and animal species are also extremely im-portant at the European level. The Slovenian for-estry theory and practice have contributedgreatly to the conservation of various compo-nents of forest diversity. The forests are consid-
ered a renewable natural wealth and are man-aged according to the principles of sustainabilityand multipurposeness.
In the developed countries, wood production- which is the direct interest of the forest owner -is becoming less important than the ecologicaland social functions of the forest. The coordina-tion of different, even conflicting, interests inrelation to forests is one of the main tasks of theforestry service.
Table 9: Basic habitattypes and their surfacearea in Slovenianforests (Source:Classification of forestvegetation according toDušan Robič; Data onforest stands andvegetation: SlovenianForest Service)
Habitat type Area Proportion %
Hornbeam forests with Durmast Oak and English Oak forests 87,610 8.2Preserved forests 68,210 6.4
Pioneer stages with broadleaf species 9,690 0.9
Locust Tree forests 790 0.1
Pine forests 6,500 0.6
Spruce forests 2,420 0.2
Wetland forests, maple and ash forests 7,469 0.7Acidophilous and thermophilous oak forests 29,773 2.8
Preserved forests 17,593 1.6
Pioneer stages with broadleaf species 2,750 0.3
Locust Tree forests 7,260 0.7
Pine forests 2,170 0.2
Beech forests of hills and lower mountain belt 195,213 18.2Preserved forests 171,963 16.0
Pioneer stages 8,250 0.8
Spruce forests 15,000 1.4
Beech forests of mountain and high mountain belt outside the Alps 66,479 6.2Preserved forests 61,749 5.7
Pioneer stages 1,670 0.2
Spruce forests 3,060 0.3
Alpine mountain, high mountain and other beech forests 95,631 8.9Thermophilous beech forests 64,541 6.0Acidophilous beech forests 202,108 18.9
Preserved forests 126,518 11.9
Pioneer stages with broadleaf species 7,820 0.7
Pine forests 3,310 0.3
Spruce forests 64,460 6.0
Fir and beech forests 153,723 14.4Preserved forests 138,773 13.0
Spruce forests 14,950 1.4
Fir and spruce forests 69,173 6.4Basophilous pine forests 6,372 0.6Acidophilous pine forests 31,155 2.9Hop-hornbeam and Flowering Ash forests 55,171 5.2
Preserved forests 38,921 3.7
Spruce forests 16,250 1.5
High moor habitats 174 0.0Sub-Alpine habitats 6,571 0.6
Total 1,071,163 100.0
HABITATS
36 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Diversity of forests in Slovenia
The principal characteristic of Slovenian for-ests is the high diversity of habitat types whichhave developed as a consequence of the conver-gence of four biogeographical regions, manydifferent bedrock types and as a result of sus-tainable management and other factors. The ba-sic forest habitat types are shown in Table 9.
Preservation of Slovenian forests
The natural tree composition of Slovenianforests is well preserved. Natural conditions aresuitable for the growth of mixed forests (poten-tial forest vegetation) and such forests actuallyprevail. They are composed of approximately 70indigenous tree species (Brus & Kraigher, 1996).Eighty-seven percent of forests either consist ofdomestic species, adapted to the sites, or else theirspecies composition is similar to the natural one.
Not more than 13 % of forests could be indi-cated as unnatural forests. The forestry serviceis striving to change the composition of speciesin such forests and make them more natural. As aconsequence of the past forest management thetree composition in 9 % of the forests has beensignificantly changed and in 4 % of forests thecomposition has been completely changed.However, it should not be taken for granted thatthe composition of other forest organisms hasalso been altered (Smolej et al., 1997).
Deviation from the natural vegetation may bemainly attributed to the planting of Norway
Map 8: Distribution ofthe forest (Source: ZRCSAZU GeografskiInštitut AntonaMelika).
Forest
Figure 38. Theproportion of lowlandoak forests has beenreduced to a greatextent in Slovenia.Greater areas of suchforests have beenpreserved along theriver Krka (the forestof Krakovo), in theregion of Bizeljsko(Dobrova) and atPragersko (Cigonca).
Figure 39. The Karstlandscape, which wasbare not more than ahundred years ago,was intensivelyafforested mainly withAustrian pine (Pinusnigra), which is not anindigenous species inthis region.
(fo
to: M
arti
n Š
ola
r)(f
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Slika 42. Hrast
(fo
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 37. In theAlpine region Norwayspruce was given theadvantage at theexpense of othernative species.
37
spruce in the Alpine and Subalpine region at theend of the 19th and beginning of the 20th cen-tury. The European fir was promoted at the ex-pense of beech in the high karst region at thattime as well, and Austrian pine was introducedin the Karst. As an overall result, the part of coni-fers in Slovenian forests has increased at the ex-pense of deciduous species.
In the last few decades, the forestry servicehas been trying to eliminate the consequencesof the promotion of conifers. Since 1975 the shareof deciduous trees has increased by 8 % and theratio between conifers and deciduous trees isnow 48 : 52. However, the current ratio is still farfrom the natural (potential) one, which is 20 : 80.
‘Close-to-nature’ management of forests con-serves the indigenous vegetation (indigenousgene pools) because it gives preference to thenatural regeneration of the forests, not the artifi-cial (seeding).
For the biodiversity conservation it is impor-tant that forest vegetation is preserved in siteswith extreme conditions and where the standsare dispersed and cover small areas. Special at-tention should be devoted to the conservation ofriverine forests, floodplain forests and woods,thermophilic oak forests, natural forests of Scotspine and Austrian pine, spruce forests in ‘mra-zišča’, forests of sweet chestnut and others.
Fauna of Slovenian forests
Diverse and preserved forests are the habi-tats and refuges of many animal species. InSlovenia, large forest complexes are sill pre-served and many species have survived (e.g. largecarnivores), for whom adequate habitats nolonger exist in many other countries.
Forest management partly takes into consid-eration the special needs of the wild animal spe-cies. It purposefully maintains undisturbedzones, mating sites, den sites, grazing areas, grassypatches in forests, etc.
Forest management planning combines themanagement of the plant (wood) and animal com-ponents of forest communities. Special plans aredrawn up for the management of game species,whose implementation however should be im-proved after the new hunting legislation isadopted.
Surface area and the forest growingstock
The surface area of forests has been increas-ing in Slovenia for the last 120 years. The reasonsare the abandonment of land which is not suit-able for agricultural production, and the reducedpopulation in the countryside. The forest cover
has thus increased from 36% in 1875, and 48% in1961, to 56% in 2000.
The growing stock (quantity of wood whichcan be economically exploited) increased by in-dex 2.37 % in the period from 1947 to 2000. Sub-stantial increment of the growing stock indirectlyindicates that the share of mature forests has in-creased. This means that habitats for numerousspecies have appeared, which were not presentin younger forests. In addition, the accumulationof wood in forests also has had other environ-mentally beneficial impacts. The forests enrichedin biomass have a greater capacity to:
� influence local and global climatic condi-tions (carbon sequestration);
� sustain aquifers and guarantee the long-termsupply of drinking water;
� improve the quality of water and air and mit-igate the effects of the urban and industrialpollution of the environment;
� play an important role in the protectionagainst erosion, landslides and avalanchesin the mountains;
� provide natural protection of river banksagainst erosion;
� provide a high quality recreational environ-ment.
Natural forests are also important for conser-vation of biodiversity in soils. Forest soils are rela-tively rich in species, because they develop un-der the impact of deep reaching roots and accu-mulating humus. The prevailing soil type inSlovenia is rendzina (49.5 % of the forests). Morethan 10 % of the surface is taken up by threecambic soil types: brown carbonate soil, eutricbrown soil and dystric brown soil. Each of theremaining nine dominant types take up less than1 % of the total number and surface of compart-ments (Slovenian Forest Service, Forest inven-tory, 1994). The soil conditions in Slovenian for-ests are quite diverse. Two or more soil types are
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Hu
do
klin
)
Figure 40. Brownbear (Ursus arctos).Natural and semi-natural forests arehabitats and refuges ofdiverse wildlife.Especially important inthis sense are vastareas of continuousforests, which arehabitats of largecarnivores, such asbear, wolf and lynx.
HABITATS
38 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
frequently found in relatively small areas (Table12).
Factors which reduce the biological andecological stability of forests
� Deforestation. The total surface area offorests has been increasing for a long time.However, there are regions where forestsare scarce and the existing ones are endan-gered (north-east of Slovenia). The pressureson forests are particularly evident in the ag-ricultural and urban landscapes. Reductionand fragmentation of forests have seriousecological effects and diminish the biodi-versity of landscapes that are already underthe heavy human impact. Deforestation inthe area enervates the ecological, social andproduction functions of the remaining for-ests. A problem is the disappearance ofgroups of trees, individual trees, riverine for-ests, wind shelterbelts and hedges outsidethe forest in areas where forests as such arealready fragmented.
� Forests are under the impact of illegal ac-tivities affecting the environment,which non-selectively encroach on the mostpreserved areas, alter the landscape and dis-turb animals. Such activities are most oftenthe excavation of gravel pits and quarries aswell as all construction activities (second-ary homes and their infrastructure).
� Air pollution has an adverse effect on thevitality and overall stability of Slovenianforests. Forests are most probably affectedby climate change, which is the direct con-sequence of transboundary air pollution.The Slovenian Forestry Institute and the Slo-venian Forest Service have been recordingin detail the vitality of forest trees in morethan 700 sample plots with almost 20,000trees in regular five-year intervals. Everyyear they inventory 36 sample plots of the16 x 16 km European bioindication grid (Ta-ble 11). The most affected species are fir,pine, oak and spruce.
� Damage caused by extreme weathersituations, diseases and pests. In addi-tion to the regular felling, provided for inthe forest management plans, a consider-able share of felling is carried out in Slove-nia, which is not aimed at commercial goals,but primarily for removal of damaged andill trees by which the degradation of forestsis prevented. In the five-year period from1996 to 2000 the share of trees felled for san-itary reasons amounted to 33.6 % of the to-tal cut. Most of the felled trees were coni-fers (71 %). The usual reasons for the sani-tary and protection felling was damagecaused by ice (28.3 %), snow (19.5 %), dis-eases or fungi (13.7 %) and insects (13.5 %).While carrying out sanitary felling, someproportion of damaged trees is usually leftin the forest for biodiversity purposes.
Forest related Forest related Threatened
threatened species species species - total
plants 47 950 330
amphibians 11 17 18
reptiles 10 10 20
birds 46 95 116
mammals 25 70 29
Table 10: Assessednumber of forestrelated threatenedplant and animalspecies according tothe assessment madefor the Ministerialconference (Source:Annual Report of theMinistry of Agricul-ture, Forestry andFood).
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 41. Quarriesand gravel pits canusually be qualified asserious wounds innatural ecosystemsand the landscape.
Table 11: Proportion(in %) of moderatelyand heavily damagedtrees (degree of defolia-tion over 25 %) in 1987-2000 period - the 4x4 kmgrid data (Source:Slovenian ForestryInstitute)
1987 1991 1995 2000
Conifers 30,1 19,7 37,6 32,3
Broadleaved 8,4 6,3 17,6 16,7species
Total 17,1 10,9 24,6 22,2
� Herbivorous game. Herbivorous game istoo abundant in certain areas and threatensthe forests. Severe damage caused by reddeer - in particular rubbed bark - sometimesnecessitates the felling of young stands, thusresulting in economic damage. From theecological point of view, the eaten forest treebuds and seedlings are a cause of greaterconcern because the natural regenerationof forests is hindered, which is of utmostimportance for the preservation of natural
39
populations of forest trees and for the biodi-versity of forests at the genetic level. In ar-eas where herbivorous game damages morethan 25-30 % of seedlings the natural resto-ration processes are seriously disturbed.
ble areas such machinery causes intolera-ble impacts, contradicting the nature con-servation interests, as well as creating ero-sion and all sorts of disturbances.
� Unregulated grazing of cattle and smallruminants in forests. Pursuant to the For-ests Act it is prohibited to graze cattle andsmall ruminants in forests (exceptions arepossible in accordance with the criteria laiddown in the forest protection regulation andin line with a silviculture plan). In Sloveniathe problem is strictly limited to nationalforests, in particular those in the Julian Alps(11,000 ha) and the Kamnik and Savinja Alps(9,000 ha). Grazing in forests used to be anissue in the Pohorje region but it has beenreduced substantially.
� Forest management activities are often car-ried out in an inappropriate manner, in-cluding utilisation of unsuitable machinery(erosion, soil compaction, possibility of fueland mineral oil spills, tree felling in periodswhen animals are particularly sensitive todisturbances).
Soil type Soil code Number of (%) Surface area of ( %)
sub-compartments sub-compartments (ha)
Undefined 00 998 1,16 17.416,94 1,61
Rendzina 01 41.544 48,17 536.256,60 49,54
Ranker 02 431 0,50 8058,90 0,744
Brown carbonate soil 03 10.039 11,64 153.917,19 14,22
Terra rossa 04 141 0,16 1662,84 0,15
Elluvial soil 05 208 0,24 2616,07 0,24
Eutric brown soil 06 15.446 17,91 179.306,45 16,57
Dystric brown soil 07 14.485 16,80 154.009,23 14,23
Brown podzolic soil 08 691 0,80 9202,82 0,85
Podzol 09 141 0,16 1538,87 0,14
Riparian soil 10 742 0,86 5682,21 0,52
Pseudogley 11 810 0,94 9092,21 0,84
Gley 12 560 0,65 3508,14 0,32
Peat soil 13 10 0,01 137,47 0,01
Total 86.246 100.00 1.082.405,94 100.00
Table 12: The share ofsoil types in Slovenianforests, expressed in thenumber of forestmanagement compart-ments and the relevantforest surface area(Source: SlovenianForest Service, Forestinventory, 1994)
� Overfelling of old and rotten treeswhich provide habitats for and food supplyto numerous invertebrates and vertebrates(bats, birds, dormice).
� Forest fires affect the development of for-ests, in particular in the Karst where mostfires occur. Appropriate preventive protec-tion measures against fire, the improvedtechnical means for rapid information andeffective response by firemen have facili-tated the reduction of fires and the totalburned area in the last 25 years. However,fires remain an important cause of threat toforests. Most fires are caused by trains, fol-lowed by farming, visitors and military train-ing (Table 14).
� Changes in the water regime of forestsites. Lowland forests are threatened bychanges in the water regime caused by agri-cultural drainage and construction of hydro-electric power plants.
� Impact of unsuitable recreational ac-tivities and tourism. The development ofsome activities, such as tourism and recre-ation, is not harmonised with the conserva-tion of forests and nature. The tourist andrecreational programmes do not adequate-ly take into account forests and other envi-ronmental features.
� Forest roads facilitate the access to forestsand thus increase the possibility of nega-
tive impacts on plant and animal species,for example disturbances and excessivepicking of forest fruit. Unsuitable heavymachinery is often used for the construc-tion of forest roads. In sensitive and vulnera-
1966-1975 1976-1984 1991-2000
Number of fires 103 65 50
Burned surface area (ha) 1295 689 662
Table 14: Averageannual number offires and averageannual burnedsurface area in theperiod 1991-2000;comparison with pastperiods. (Source:Perko, Pogačnik,1996; Slovenian ForestService)
HABITATS
40 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Bogs, fens and marshes
Bogs and fens
General characteristics. Peatlands are ar-eas where peat is formed. With regard to thechemical composition of the bedrock, water re-gime and vegetation the peatlands may be classi-fied as bogs and fens. The surface of raised bogsis above the surrounding area and is not con-nected with the water table. Their water regimedepends on precipitation which is the mainsource of minerals. The substrate is thereforepoor in minerals and is oligotrophic. Fens are fedby groundwater or surface water rich in miner-
als. The transition mires and fens are areas wherethe poor precipitation and rich groundwater orsurface water mix.
The Slovenian raised bogs and transition mi-res are the most southern of the European bogdistribution area. They cover the mountain areasof the Julian Alps, the Pokljuka and Jelovica pla-teau and the rocky parts of Pohorje. In total, the14 preserved raised bogs cover only 100 ha. Onthe basis of the morphological properties, theyare divided into ombrotrophic and ombrosolige-nous bogs. Most ombrotrophic species found inraised and transition mires are endangered(Wraber & Skoberne, 1989; Martinčič, 1992).
In Slovenia, fens are found in the central andwestern part of the country, mostly in the low-lands and mountainous areas, up to 1,000 mabove see level. No precise data on the numberof fens is available but it has been estimated thatthere are between 70 and 100 sites which coverapproximately 300-350 ha. These are mostly smallareas where the peat vegetation is gradually sub-stituted by the adjacent vegetation. There are onlya few bogs and fens which are clearly distin-guished by their physiognomic, vegetation andecological properties from the adjacent areas.
Threats. Currently the raised bogs and tran-sition mires are not significantly threatened. Tworaised bogs have been destroyed so far (Malopolje and Ljubljansko barje), but the uncontrolledvisiting of peatlands can damage bogs that areeasily accessible (Šijec). In most other bogs thehuman impact is not evident.
FMR
Number of Share of Share of
sampling damaged damaged
plots seedlings - seedlings
total (16-150 cm)
% %
Tolmin 250 24 39
Bled 145 20 58
Kranj 186 17 34
Ljubljana 277 22 40
Postojna 171 33 48
Kočevje 213 45 57
Novo mesto 171 15 18
Brežice 203 18 24
Celje 133 16 22
Nazarje 119 7 17
Slovenj Gradec 120 12 22
Maribor 225 20 36
Murska Sobota 56 28 51
Sežana 193 46 57
SLOVENIA 2.462 24 37
Table 13: Share ofdamage to seedlingscaused by game, byforest managementregions (FMR).(Source: SlovenianForest Service,1996).
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 42. Sphagnumsp., typical moss ofraised bogs.
Figure 43. Za Blatom,a raised bog on theJelovica high plateau isone of the four stillpreserved raised bogsin Slovenia - on themost south-easternfringe of the peat bogdistribution area.
41
In comparison, fens are much more endan-gered. Many are surrounded by grasslands andarable land and are thus under constant threat byhuman activities. Indeed, land reclamation anddrainage, water reservoirs and land consolida-tion have already completely destroyed fens incertain regions (for example, the construction ofthe small industrial zone near Bled).
Degree of research. The research on theecology, flora and vegetation of the raised bogsand transition mires of Slovenia has already beenconducted. The relevant studies have been com-pleted (Martinčič & Piskernik, 1985) and the spa-tial distribution of bogs has been presented. How-ever, the data on animal species are incomplete.
Fens have not been researched in detail. Thestudies on the flora, vegetation and ecology ofthe fens have been completed for around 30 ofthese important wetland sites. No data on thedestroyed fens are available.
Marshes
General characteristics. Riverine meadows,f loodplain forests and lowlands, riparianmarshes and reed beds are directly influenced
by the fluctuation of groundwater and surfacewater and the water regime in the entire catch-ment area. It is estimated that they cover 9,145.3ha or 25.8 % of all identified wetlands. Two thirdsof this surface area are taken up by Krakovskigozd, Šturmovci and riparian forests of the Murariver which are the last extensive remains offloodplain forests in Slovenia.
Threats. Intensification of agricultural prac-tices, exploitation of gravel and canalisation ofrivers and streams. Every activity which affectsthe riparian vegetation (remains of extensive riv-erine forests) reduces the habitat of wetland plantand animal species. Human activities cause theprogression of invasive non-indigenous specieswhich at degraded sites successfully competewith the indigenous ones. Non-indigenous spe-cies invade the natural stands of riverine forests(giant and Canadian goldenrod Solidagogigantea, S. canadensis; Himalayan balsam Im-patiens glandulifera; coneflower Rudbeckia sp.;knotweed Fallopia sp.) and other riparian habi-tats of all major rivers and most streams.
Rocky habitats, screes and dunes
General characteristics. Rock masses andscrees are mostly found in the Alps where theyform habitats of specific flora and fauna (forexample, Campanula zoisii, Potentilla nitida, P.clusii, Linaria alpina, Thlaspi rotundifolium, etc.).However, such habitats with high species diver-sity are also characteristic of other parts of Slo-venia (for example, Donačka gora - Sempenirumjuvanii, cliffs above the river Kolpa, Karst escarp-ment - Moehringia tomassinii, rock walls in Baškagrapa - Moehringia villosa, Komen in Smrekovecmountain chain - Primula minima, P. villosa).
Threats. These habitats are not generallythreatened but different issues are raised at thelocal level, such as the conflict between natureconservation and the interests of climbers, ex-ploitation of gravel and quarrying.
The degree of research. The research onvegetation has been rather thorough and the mostimportant sites are known, but the data on thedistribution of these habitats have not been com-pleted.
Rural and urban landscapes
The chapter deals with rural systems, exceptgrasslands. Cultural landscape is discussed in achapter on Landscape diversity.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 44. Gladiolusillyricus, inhabiting wetgrasslands is threatenedby drainage of thesewetlands.
HABITATS
42 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Rural habitats(except grasslands)
General characteristics. Rural and urbanlandscapes include many habitats which havebeen formed by human activities. The richnessof the traditional cultural landscape arises fromthe high diversity of plants and animals and nu-merous habitats forming a colourful mosaic. Allthese factors result in the diversity of landscape.The main components of such landscapes arethe anthropogenic habitats of fields, forests man-aged for litter utilisation, orchards, etc.
Threats. The traditional cultural landscapein the Central Europe is threatened, in particularindividual habitats such as areas of traditionalrotation of crops, orchards with old varieties offruit trees, ‘steljnik’ - woodland managed for litter
utilisation, etc. In specific regions, the individualhabitats and cultural landscape types have al-ready disappeared. Among the most threatenedis the segetal vegetation, including the traditionalweed in cereal species, which has almost disap-peared outside the sub-Mediterranean region.
Agricultural ecosystems are threatened by:
� changes of land-use - land consolidation andagricultural improvements, abandonmentof specific cultivars (cereals, domestic va-rieties of fruit trees, vegetables, etc);
� changes of the social structure;
� changed agricultural technology: applica-tion of mineral fertilizes, biocides, eutroph-ication of soil, hybrids, intensive agricultur-al production, abandonment of the rotationof crops, etc.
Threats. The land use data are gathered inthe Land Cadastre but have not been maintainedand can no longer be used. The project on themonitoring of the land-use categories is carriedout at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry andFood. Results of the habitat mapping provide abasis for the monitoring of the status and guid-ing the biodiversity conservation.
Research on fauna and flora has not beenconducted. There are a few studies on segetalvegetation and weeds but the data on their actualdistribution are lacking.
(Ph
oto
: Mat
jaž
Bed
jan
ič)
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 45 (top). Peatbogs are good watersources and habitats toa number of threatenedplants and animals. Ashallow drainage ditchis enough to destroytheir sensitive naturalequilibrium.
Figure 46 (above).
Campanula zoisii, anendemic speciesinhabiting the rockcracks.
Figure 47 (right).
‘Steljnik’ a typicalhabitat type of atraditional culturallandscape in Belakrajina (south-eastSlovenia). (P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
43
Urban habitats
There are many forms of urban ecosystems:green plots in towns, parks, gardens, green zonesaround towns, river banks, fish ponds, lakes, sub-
urban forests. Open areas in towns provide shel-ter for individual plant and animal species andplay an important role in the ‘urban ecology’.Cellars, church towers and other parts of build-ings are habitats of many species (bats, kestrels).
Threats. The total surface of open areas intowns is diminishing. The urbanisation and otheractivities build up pressure on the area, in partbecause of the relatively low prices of land wherenew shopping and business centres and parkinglots are constructed. The restoration of old build-ings, the closure of openings and application oftoxic wood coatings threaten habitats of specificinvertebrates (bats and birds) in buildings.
(Ph
oto
: Bo
jan
Mar
četa
)(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 48 (above).
Falco tinnunculus,having become used tohuman presence is alsonesting in tall build-ings.
Figure 49 (left).
Corn flower is one ofthe dying out corn-weeds. Intensiveagricultural produc-tion methods arethreatening segetalassociations with cornweeds.
Map 9: Pedologicalmap of Slovenia(Source: BF Center zapedologijo in varstvookolja)
HABITATS
Soil map of Slovenia
AcrisolAcrisolAcrisolAcrisolAcrisol
Dystric Cambisol on outwash depositsDystric Cambisol on outwash depositsDystric Cambisol on outwash depositsDystric Cambisol on outwash depositsDystric Cambisol on outwash deposits
Dystric Cambisol on noncalcareous flyschDystric Cambisol on noncalcareous flyschDystric Cambisol on noncalcareous flyschDystric Cambisol on noncalcareous flyschDystric Cambisol on noncalcareous flysch
Dystric Cambisol on various siliceous rocksDystric Cambisol on various siliceous rocksDystric Cambisol on various siliceous rocksDystric Cambisol on various siliceous rocksDystric Cambisol on various siliceous rocks
Eutric Cambisol on basic rocksEutric Cambisol on basic rocksEutric Cambisol on basic rocksEutric Cambisol on basic rocksEutric Cambisol on basic rocks
Eutric Cambisol on marl and flyschEutric Cambisol on marl and flyschEutric Cambisol on marl and flyschEutric Cambisol on marl and flyschEutric Cambisol on marl and flysch
Eutric Cambisol on outwash deposistsEutric Cambisol on outwash deposistsEutric Cambisol on outwash deposistsEutric Cambisol on outwash deposistsEutric Cambisol on outwash deposists
LuvisolLuvisolLuvisolLuvisolLuvisol
Cromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic Luvisol
Lithosol and Rendzina on limestone anddolomiteLithosol and Rendzina on limestone anddolomiteLithosol and Rendzina on limestone anddolomiteLithosol and Rendzina on limestone anddolomiteLithosol and Rendzina on limestone anddolomite
FluvisolFluvisolFluvisolFluvisolFluvisol
GleysolGleysolGleysolGleysolGleysol
Dystric PlanosolDystric PlanosolDystric PlanosolDystric PlanosolDystric Planosol
Eutric PlanosolEutric PlanosolEutric PlanosolEutric PlanosolEutric Planosol
Rendzina on limestone anddolomiteRendzina on limestone anddolomiteRendzina on limestone anddolomiteRendzina on limestone anddolomiteRendzina on limestone anddolomite
Rendzina on outwash depositsRendzina on outwash depositsRendzina on outwash depositsRendzina on outwash depositsRendzina on outwash deposits
Cromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic LuvisolCromic Cambisol, Cromic Luvisol
HistosolHistosolHistosolHistosolHistosol
Humic GleysolHumic GleysolHumic GleysolHumic GleysolHumic Gleysol
Legend of soil units
44 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
SPECIFIC ECOSYSTEMS
Specific ecosystems are dealt with separately,as a special unit, because they combine varioushabitats (mountain ecosystems and wetlands),occur in most habitats (soil) or are particularlycharacteristic of Slovenia (subterranean habitats,‘mrazišča’, intermittent lakes, etc.).
Soil ecosystem
General characteristics. Soil is a naturalmatter on the surface of the Earth’s crust, whichhas formed and developed under the influenceof various factors: parent material, climate, or-ganisms, relief and time (Sušin, 1983). Soils are acomplex three-phase system composed of a solid(organic and mineral matter), liquid (soil water)and gaseous (mixture of gasses) phase. They aredefined by many properties (morphological,physical, chemical, biological, air and water, ra-diological, etc.). Many plants, animals, fungi andmicro-organisms live in soils and on them. Thefertility of soils enables the rooted plants to usethe water, nutrients and gasses in soil for theirgrowth and development.
Soil ecosystems are composed of organic andinorganic substances in various stages of decay.Individual components of soil are irregularly dis-tributed and facilitate the variability of condi-tions at various levels and in different size classes.The interaction of physical and chemical factorscontributes to the diversity of soil habitats andthus defines the structure and activity of livingorganisms in the forest soil at a specific time andin a specific place.
The individual components of living organ-isms in forest soils (plant roots, micro-organisms,animals) depend on the energy sources and nu-trients in soils in different ways. Plants and au-totrophic micro-organisms receive carbon fromCO2 in the air. Some micro-organisms are capableof fixing nitrogen from the air. Organic matter
and other living soil organisms are the source ofenergy and nutrients for most organisms in soil.Special attention should be devoted to the trans-fer of nutrients among different producers andthe sources of nutrients and consumers throughthe mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi which deter-mine the time and spatial distribution of nutri-ents (in particular in forest habitats).
The size of living organisms in soil (from 0.05µm to 5,000 µm) depends on the texture and struc-ture of the soil, its particles, size of pores andwater in soil and on the moisture tension. Thedistribution of aerobic and anaerobic micro-or-ganisms in soil depends on the atmospheric com-position, water and air properties of soil and itsredox potential. The biological activity in soil isclosely associated with its pH (soil reaction), tem-perature and illumination (surface layers). Micro-environment in soil is characterised by high het-erogeneity of organisms. Forest soils are rich inbiological components, and the various complexforms of interaction (plants, animals, micro-or-ganisms), which affect the nutrient cycle and thestability of forest ecosystems are particularlyimportant.
Soil typesAutomorphous soils are formed and devel-
oped under the impact of precipitation. Waterfreely percolates through such soils. We can di-vide them into six classes: undeveloped soils,humus-accumulative soils, cambic soils, anthro-pogenic soils and technogenic soils.(P
ho
to: A
nd
rej H
ud
okl
in)
Figure 50. Theimportance of the soil’sbiological componenthas been neglected andthe knowledge is stilllacking.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 51. A cross-section of rendzinasoil at Krnsko jezero(Lake Krn).
45
Hydromorphic soils are soils which are per-manently or periodically waterlogged becauseof the groundwater, surface water and/or floodwater. Such soil can be divided into five classes:undeveloped hydromorphic soils, pseudogleysoils, peat soils and anthropogenic hydromorphicsoils.
Soil classes include the following soil types:
� undeveloped automorphous soils: litosols,regosols, colluvium;
� humus-accumulative soils: rendzina (car-bonate bedrock), ranker (silicate bedrock);
� cambic soils: brown soils (eutric cambisol),brown acid soil (dystric cambisol), browncarbonate soil (calcaric cambisol), terrarosa;
� eluvial soils (eluvial-illuvial soils): luvisols,podzols, brunipodzol (brown podzol);
� anthropogenic soils: cultivated soil, horticul-tural soil and deposit soil;
� hydromorphic soils: fluvisols, pseudogley,hipogley, epigley, amphigley, peat soils ofraised bogs, mires and fens, drained soils.
General relevance of soil for biodiversityconservation. The living components of theforest soil are hidden to the eyes and it is noteasy to conduct research on them. Forest soilsare an integral part of the forest ecosystems. Ithas been established on the basis of individualstudies of the natural spruce stands in Slo-venia, when the biodiversity indexes of sur-face vegetation and types of ectomy-corrhizain soil were compared, that the diversity of thebiocomponent in forest soil is much higherthan above it (Kraigher, 1999). In natural beechforests the diversity in the soil and above itdoes not vary so much (Al Sayegh, Petkovšek& Kraigher, 2000). It can be concluded thatbiodiversity in forest soil significantly contrib-utes to the biodiversity of specific ecosystems.However, not enough research has been con-ducted to evaluate the contribution of thebiocomponent of the forest soil to the total di-versity in 1.1 million ha of forests in Slovenia.
Threats. Soils can be altered or destroyed bynatural or anthropogenic physical, chemical orbiological factors. Undeveloped and organogenichumus accumulative soils are sensitive to groundfires. Acidification and degradation (sitescolonised by fir trees, litter utilisation of forests)affect dystric soils, poor in nutrients. Loose sedi-ment depositions and soft bedrock are sensitiveto erosion (forest clearcuts). Land reclamationalters the water and air properties of hydromor-phic soils.
Causes of the threats. Land use, acidifica-tion, eutrophication, degradation, input of heavymetals and forest management. In Slovenia theimpacts on the biocomponents in soil have beendocumented taking into account the soil erosion,changes in land use, direct input of pollutants,soil compaction caused by the use of unsuitablemachinery and impacts as a result of other badlyorganised activities (recreation, grazing, pickingof forest fruits which should be limited to spe-cific trails and small areas within forests).
Soil is in particular affected by clearcuts, agri-cultural use in sensitive ecosystems (mountains),agricultural improvements in lowland forests,pollution of groundwater by discharges fromfarms, ‘natural’ acidification caused by sprucestands, construction of roads, etc.
Degree of research. Slovenia is well cov-ered with soil maps of different scales and thegeneral degree of research is satisfactory. How-ever, the soil texture and soil biocomponent havenot been studied in detail. So far, a system ofsystematic and methodological research has notbeen established.
Most research and inventory projects havebeen, or are, conducted at the Biotechnical Fac-ulty, mainly at the Department of Agronomy, atthe Agriculture Institute of Slovenia, SlovenianForestry Institute and the Biological Institute atthe Scientific Research Center of the SlovenianAcademy of Sciences and Arts (ZRC SAZU).
Degree of research on soil biocompo-nent. The diversity of biocomponent in soil isstudied at the Slovenian Forestry Institute(biodiversity of ectomycorrhizal types and mul-tiple symbiosis in the forest mycorrhizosphere),the Agriculture Institute of Slovenia, the NationalInstitute of Biology (bacteria in rhizosphere ofparticular vegetables), the Department of Biol-ogy (edaphic fauna) and the Department of FoodScience and Technology of the Biotechnical Fac-
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
Figure 52. Ljubljanskobarje, a cross-section ofthe peat soil. In the past,peat was cut for fuel,today only fractions ofpeat remain.
HABITATS
46 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
ulty (bacteria, nitrogen fixators). Until now, ap-proximately 60 ectomycorrhizal types on sprucehave been described, 40 on beech and 10 on oak.Of the mentioned ectomycorrhizal types morethan two thirds have not been described in Cen-tral Europe, where around 120 ectomycorrhizaltypes on spruce have been identified so far. Dur-ing the project concerning the research on bacte-ria in soil, the spruce mycorrhizosphere and my-corrhizal fungi Amphinema byssoides, 157 bacte-ria strains have been identified, of these 68 inmycorrhizal roots, 56 in hyposphere of therhizomorph (in total 80 % of strains) and 33 innon-mycorrhizal and unrooted soils (approxi-mately 20 %). It has been established that the di-versity of bacteria in the mycorrhizosphere is 4times richer than in unrooted soil and the bacte-ria strains vary. In view of the potential numberof mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria in themycorrhizosphere it is estimated that the diver-sity of that part of soil biocomponent is extremelyrich, even though it has not been researched yet.The subjects dealt with in these studies could becompared to the studies of edaphic fauna, but
the latter has a much longer tradition and as aresult the degree of research is substantiallyhigher (Tarman, 1967-96, Mršić, 1987-97, Kos, 1988-2000 and others).
Mountain ecosystems
General characteristics. The common char-acteristic of mountain ecosystems is the altitudespan between the bottom of the valleys and thetop of the summits. Various habitats are foundon a relatively small surface and the mountainecosystems are therefore rich in species. Theseare well adapted to the extreme conditions (shortvegetation period, water shortage, UV-radiation,wind). Glaciations were important in the distri-bution of plant and animal species. Specific habi-tats are rock chasms, screes and Alpine grasslands(35-40 % of endemic species in the Alps are foundin rocky habitats and screes).
Many mountain ridges are divided by stateborders and international cooperation is a neces-sity when the integrated nature conservationpolicy is considered.
Threats. The biodiversity of the mountainsis threatened by numerous human activities:
� Pollution. The less obvious but importantfactors are the transboundary pollution andglobal changes:
� local sources of pollution can be con-tained;
� more problematic is the transboundaryair pollution originating in industrial andurban centres; it has been recognized thatthe impact of such pollution is substan-tial, many sensitive species have disap-peared, the communities have been al-tered and the functioning of ecosystemshas been disrupted (withering of dwarfpine); in addition, mountain lakes are ad-versely affected by such pollution;
� the impact of global changes, such as cli-mate change, depletion of the ozone lay-er in the stratosphere and the increasedUV-radiation, is considerable; mountainorganisms, living in extreme conditions,are effective bioindicators of such chang-es.
� Human activities affecting the environ-ment. The activities which affect the envi-ronment most are: forestry, agriculture,transport, energy generation, tourism andrecreation:
� mountain forests have traditionally beenmanaged in a sustainable manner, and themain problems are game management(conflict with agriculture) and the net-work of forest roads;
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 53 (top).
Papaver alpinum, atypical representative offlora on the alpinelimestone fans. It is avery diverse species,with a number of sub-species, some of whichare endemic.
Figure 54 (bottom).
Saxifraga sp. isinhabiting the rockcracks.
47
� mountain agriculture has traditionallybeen oriented towards the sustainable ex-ploitation of natural resources; the prob-lems arise from the non-selective appli-cation of modern cultivation techniqueswhich are not suitable for mountainousregions (agricultural improvements andapplication of fertilizes on mountain pas-tures); mountain agriculture is an activityin decline (emigration from remote moun-tain farms) and with regard to the conser-vation of biological and landscape diver-sity the problem of natural encroachmentof vegetation on grasslands (hay mead-ows, pastures) is becoming increasinglyserious;
� the loss of habitats is caused by econom-ic exploitation of screes and gravel andsand deposits (for example, the exploita-tion of gravel in Matkov kot).
� Mass tourism and leisure activities havean adverse effect on the diversity of themountains. The causes are:
� expansion of ski centres in sensitive ar-eas which affects soil; on the Kanin moun-tain, the caves are physically threatenedand polluted;
� pollution of mountain lakes;
� non-compliance of the strategy concern-ing the construction of cable ways withthe nature conservation guidelines;
� mass mountaineering;
� modern outdoor activities (rafting, can-yoning, mountain biking, para-gliding,
riding motorcycles and motor sledges)invade the last peaceful corners of themountains.
All these activities adversely affect mostlyanimal populations. In addition, the animals liv-ing in mountains have not been studied as muchas plants. The populations are usually small andspatially limited groups on the edge of the areaof species distribution. Every activity affectingtheir environment could lead to their extinctionif the current status is not analysed in detail.
Degree of general research. Data on thestatus of preserved nature in the mountains aremore the consequence of the unplanned, partialstudies carried out by individuals than of the stra-tegic research programmes focused on the over-view of the status of nature in the mountains. In-terdisciplinary studies at the ecosystem level,which would provide information on relationsbetween species, conservation of natural re-sources and impacts of pollution factors, are rare.Most work has been done in mountain forestsand the current studies focus on forests and thedwarf pine zone. The zone above the forest line
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Bib
ič)
Figure 55 (top).
Salamandra atra, thissalamander speciesdoes not have the yellowfreckles typical ofcommon salamander.
Figure 56 (above).
Vršič: larch standsabove the tree lineinterchange with dwarfpine.
Figure 57 (left). Falcoperegrinus, nesting inthe crags, is sensitive todisturbance during thebreeding period. Thespecies is additionallythreatened due topesticide use infarming.
HABITATS
48 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
has not been studied with regard to ecosystems,even though the best indicators of global changesare the communities in high mountains (trans-boundary pollution, climate change). The ad-verse effects of human activities (tourism, trans-port, energy generation) in the mountain areashave not been studied in depth. In addition, notenough basic data are available for an integratedenvironmental impact assessment of the moun-tain areas.
Degree of research on habitat distribu-tion. The mapping of habitats, ecosystems andecologically important areas in mountains is inits initial phase. With regard to the degree of re-search, the mountains in Slovenia could be di-vided into two areas: on the one hand, the TriglavNational Park, where many studies have beenconducted and records and inventories com-piled, and on the other hand, other mountainsfor which the data are fragmentary and incom-plete (except for forest ecosystems - projects con-cerning bioindication, conservation of endan-gered wild life in forest ecosystems and land-scapes).
Degree of research on fauna and flora.The data on the distribution of plant and animalspecies are fragmentary and limited to specificlocations or taxonomic groups. The critical re-view and the collection of the existing data couldresult in a record on the status of plants and ani-mals and their communities. However, it shouldbe supplemented by the systematic research onthe less known taxonomic groups, in particularanimals. Another problem is that the collecteddata are not only fragmentary but also obsolete,and thus unsuitable for assessing the status ofspecies and habitats and for the relevant action.
Karst and subterranean habitats
General characteristics. Karst is an areacomposed of porous and highly soluble bedrockwhere water flows underground. Specific surfaceand subterranean landforms are characteristic ofthe area. In Slovenia, the limestone areas, wherekarst forms occur most frequently, cover approxi-mately 35 % of the territory. Additionally, around8 % is covered by dolomite, where karst phenom-ena are not rare. Karst types can be classified bydifferent criteria, according to the altitude, sur-face morphology, isolation from or connectionto other karst areas, depth of epikarst zone, catch-ment areas or the water flow. Caves are an excel-lent indicator of the extent of the karst area. Sofar 7,405 caves have been registered in Slovenia.In total, more than 450 km of cave passages havebeen explored (Kataster jam IZRK & JZS, 2001).
The exceptionality of the natural phenomenais the result of the geology and hydrology of thearea which are manifested in the surface andunderground morphology. The features of inter-national importance are:
� geomorphological forms and the landscape;
� hydrological features;
� karst terminology;
� endemic animal species.
Subterranean habitats are more or lessclosed and spatially limited systems with no avail-able light. They include caves, crevices andchasms on land and in fresh water (groundwa-ter). Their characteristics are:
� relatively well preserved subterranean hab-itats as a result of inaccessibility in the pastand low population density in the areaabove the cave systems;
� soil erosion caused by the felling of forestsand intensive grazing, consequently thereis no intensively cultivated arable land inthe area, except vineyards;
� relatively low but specific biodiversity withnumerous endemic species and high ecolog-ical sensitivity (impact of surface activities);
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 58. Alpinekarst pavement (theview below Rombonmountain) is a truerocky desert. Therainwater is caught inthe karst grooves andflows underground.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 59. Brinščicacave in Matarskopodolje (Matarijavalley) is a naturalmonument known forits cave pearls.
49
� exceptional scientific as well as cultural andhistoric importance of the area, related tothe presence of specific species (Proteusanguinus, Leptodirus hochenwarti);
� the aquatic and terrestrial subterranean fau-na of Slovenia is among the richest in theworld.
Threats. Karst ecosystems (including caves)are threatened by water pollution (urbanisation,agriculture and tourism). Disposal of householdwaste in karst caves is a serious problem. Drygrasslands are primarily threatened by natural en-croachment of vegetation on arable land causedby its abandonment. The introduction of inten-sive livestock breeding threatens these ecosys-tems while the controlled grazing maintains them.Unregulated and uncontrolled cave tourism andinappropriate closure of entrances into caves andshafts threaten the subterranean habitats of spe-cific bat species.
Causes of the threats:
� fast economic and social development:
� dispersion of small industrial plants in thelandscape;
� settlement and construction of infrastruc-ture outside urbanised areas in the vicin-ity of towns due to available transport fa-cilities, low prices of land and good drink-ing water supply;
� decentralised decision-making and regu-lating procedures and control of devel-opment;
� pollution from various sources:
� inadequate public utility infrastructure(the amount of waste material is increas-ing);
� disposal of waste in karst caves and shafts- the most threatened are those near vil-lages and roads;
� spills of dangerous substances;
� uncontrolled tourist visits to caves;
� increased emissions of pollutants andamounts of organic and inorganic sub-stances in water;
� agriculture - fertilisation, spraying;
� physical interference:
� hydro-technical interventions on the sur-face or underground;
� forest felling, in particular in the vicinityof ice and snow caves;
� erosion;
� threats to habitats - pollution and invasionof non-indigenous species threaten mainly
Map 10: Map ofSlovenia’s 7,405registered caves. Theposition of cavesindicates the location ofkarst areas in Slovenia(Source: Cave Registerof the SpeleologicalAssociation of Slovenia,2001).
Figure 60. Leptodirushochenwarti, discov-ered in 1831 inPostojna cave, was thefirst discovered anddescribed cave animalin the world.(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
HABITATS
Caves in Slovenia
50 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
the animal species of the underground wa-ters;
� it is difficult to predict the consequences ofthe impacts on the cave environment butthe threats to the area can be seen in acces-sible parts; however, they do reflect thethreatened biodiversity in remote and hid-den parts of the underground.
General degree of research. The mostcomplete collection of data is the Cave Registerof the Speleological Association of Slovenia. Thecave types are identified with regard to the alti-tude, surface morphology, isolation, connectionto other karst regions, river basins and hydrol-ogy. The climate of caves has only been re-searched in ice-caves.
Degree of research on individual karsthydrological systems. The hydrological sys-tems of the karst rivers Ljubljanica, Reka andRižana, the waters of Bela Krajina, Dolenjska andparts of the Alpine region, the water sources inTrnovski gozd, the Hrušica and Nanos plateauxand the watersheds in Slovenia have already beenstudied.
Figure 61. Theentrance shaft toBrinščica cave with adumped Fiat car.Shafts are often usedas local illegal landfills.People are still notaware that all therubbish dumped inthem finds its way tothe water springs usedfor drinking water.
and in particular mites (Acarina) are frequentinhabitants of the underground, but the knowl-edge about the specific species and their distri-bution is insufficient.
The subterranean aquatic fauna has been wellresearched in the “Notranjska triangle” (the areabetween Cerknica, Planina and Postojna) wheremany endemic species have been found. The re-search on other water caves has been focusedon specific animal groups, such as snails andslugs (Gastropoda), isopods (Isopoda) and terres-trial amphipods (Amphipoda). Other animalgroups (primarily Entomostraca) have not beenresearched in detail, except in specific large cavesystems (the cave system of Postojna and Planina,Škocjanske jame, Dimnice, Osapska jama).
The research in the past showed that the di-versity of cave animals is outstanding at the Eu-ropean and global levels. A few tens of endemicspecies live in the area. From the geographicalperspective, the least researched karst is the Al-pine (mountain) karst. The least known habitatsare the jets of underground water in karst caves.It is expected that the current research (2000/2001) will reveal a series of new species, most ofthem endemic.
The knowledge about other undergroundwaters is merely rudimentary, but it is evidentthat the diversity of species is almost as rich as inthe caves.
Experts. Karst science and the environmen-tal aspects of karst are well covered with regardto the staff. However, the research on the subter-ranean fauna is hindered by the lack of expertson specific animal groups.
‘Mrazišča’
General characteristics. ‘Mrazišče’ is an ex-treme habitat where the cold air trapped in a de-pression results in temperature and vegetationinversions. These habitats clearly differ from theimmediate surrounding and are a result of spe-cific micro- and mesocli-matic conditions. The soiland ground level temperatures are substantiallylower than in the surrounding area and are oftenjust a few degrees above zero. A special tempera-ture regime is the consequence of the tempera-ture inversion in the typical funnel-shaped de-pressions. Such extreme conditions are oftencaused by extremely cold soil, as a result of itscoarse structure or soil chemistry (chert). ‘Mra-zišče’ is a rather usual habitat in Slovenia. Most ofthem are found in the mountain karst, particu-larly in Trnovski gozd plateau, Snežnik range andin Kočevje region, where they had developed indolines and collapse dolines. There are only afew in the Alps and sub-Alpine area, and they areextremely rare in the sub-Mediterranean region.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Degree of research on fauna and flora.Due to the lack of light no flora is found under-ground. Vegetation only develops near entrancesto the caves where there is enough daylight. Theexception are tourist caves where algae andmosses develop under the artificial lights. So far,the inventories have been made of algae, mosses,ferns and vascular plants, growing near entran-ces to caves.
The terrestrial fauna in caves is extremely rich.Most is known about beetles and snails whichwere intensively collected in the past (and stillare). These animals have been studied mostly bythe experts at the Karst Research Institute (IZRK)and ZRC SAZU. Less abundant but highly en-demic species are chilopods (Chilopoda) andmyriapods (Myriapoda). Springtails (Collembola)
51
A specific temperature regime defines ‘mra-zišče’ as an important source of biodiversity sinceit occurs as an ‘isle’ within the ecosystems of thearea. The bottom and the lower slopes of depres-sions are covered in psychrophilic vegetation,glacial relicts in low latitudes are frequent (twin-flower Linnaea borealis in a gorge near BohinjskaBela, dwarf pine Pinetum mughii in Smrekovadraga in Trnovski gozd). Outside the Alpine phy-
togeographic region such plants are found inVelika udorna dolina in Škocjanske jame (Alpineauricula Primula auricula and rockfoil Saxi-fraga). Inversion of vegetation zones is charac-teristic for some of these habitats (for exampleParadana and Smrekova draga in Trnovski gozd,Kolobarnica in Snežnik). Indigenous spruce for-ests in these habitats are found in Kočevski rog(for example Prelesnikova koliševka).
Threats. Most ‘mrazišča’ are not threatenedbecause they are not easily accessible. There haveonly been a few cases when destructive humanactivities affected ‘mrazišča’ (construction ofintervention skid trail in Soteska and disposal ofwaste in Unška koliševka).
Degree of research. The past studies pre-sented well the characteristics of the tempera-ture regime in ‘mrazišča’ (Martinčič, 1977;Piskernik, 1973) and their flora and vegetation.With regard to fauna, only partial data onmesoarthropods are available. It should be men-tioned that not all ‘mrazišča’ in Slovenia havebeen recorded.
Wetlands
General characteristics. Wetlands are verydynamic ecosystems with characteristic plantand animal associations. They combine the prop-erties of terrestrial and aquatic habitats whichare interconnected and often mixed.
Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland orwater, whether natural or artificial, permanentor temporary, with water that is static or flow-ing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas ofmarine water the depth of which at low tidedoes not exceed six metres (Article 1 of theRamsar Convention on Wetlands).
Wetlands are found all over Slovenia andmany are among the most biologically rich eco-systems. Human-made wetlands (saltpans, fishponds, karstic ponds, abandoned clay and gravelpits) are important habitats of plant and animalspecies, in particular in areas where natural wet-lands have disappeared due to the human im-pacts.
The Ramsar Convention classifies wetlandsinto three basic groups which are further dividedinto 12 types of marine and coastal wetlands (inSlovenia 9), 20 types of inland wetlands (17 inSlovenia) and 10 human-made wetland types (8in Slovenia). The first inventory of all known lo-calities was made by the Water Management In-stitute (VGI, 2000) and includes more than 3500
Figure 62. The collapsedoline Smrečje inTrnovski gozd. Largecollapse dolines in theDinaric mountains aretypical examples of‘mrazišče’. The cold airtrapped in a depressionresults in temperatureand vegetationinversions.
Figure 63 (right).
‘Mrazišče’ between Bledand Bohinj is one ofthe rare localities ofLinnaea borealis in thesouthern part of theAlps.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
HABITATS
52 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
wetland sites. The list is incomplete because itdoes not include all wetland types in Slovenia.However, it provides a good basis for the furtherevaluation of wetlands and a systematic data col-lection.
Wetland Type Area covered Number of(> 0.15 ha) all sites
MARINE / COASTAL WETLANDS
J Coastal brackish/saline lagoons, 74.986 4
INLAND WETLANDS
M Permanent rivers/streams/creeks;* 61.77 61
N Seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers/streams/creeks;* 0 1
O Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); 456.685 2
P Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); 3,151.297 6
Tp Permanent freshwater marshes/pools; (below 8 ha) 168.692 279
Ts Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools; 2,959.55 171
U Non-forested peatlands; 102.805 17
Xf Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; 6,184.289 28
Zg Geothermal wetlands 0 2
HUMAN-MADE WETLANDS
1 Aquaculture (e.g., fish/shrimp) ponds 225.308 312
2 Ponds; (generally below 8 ha) 134.38 1517
4 Seasonally flooded agricultural land (including intensively managed or grazed wet meadow or pasture)
18,079.597 304
5 Salt exploitation sites; salt pans, salines, etc. 662.376 2
6 Water storage areas; reservoirs/barrages/dams/impoundments (generally over 8 ha)
2,700.268 72
7 Excavations; gravel/brick/clay pits; borrow pits, mining pools 363.438 584
8 Wastewater treatment areas; sewage farms, settling ponds, oxidation basins, etc.
16.792 1
9 Canals and drainage channels, ditches 0 156
0 no data on wetland type 3.067 6
Total 35,345.3 3525*The inventory does not cover watercourses, only small wetlands along them.
Table 15: Wetlands inSlovenia, identifiedaccording to theRamsar ClassificationSystem for WetlandType. In the inventorythe surface area ofwetlands exceeding 0.15ha was entered, smallerwetlands have only beenitemised (Source: VGI,2001).
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
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e)
Wetlands are included in all main habitat types(PHYSIS), mostly those in inland waters andcoastal and marine habitats. Of all sites, only athird exceed 0.15 ha. The total surface area ofwetlands covers 1.74 % of the country. If all flood-plain areas are taken into account the percent-age does not exceed 5 %. The human-made eco-systems prevail (83 % of sites and 61 % of thetotal wetland area), mainly seasonally floodedagricultural land (wet meadows), mostly foundin Ljubljansko barje. Within the number of natu-ral wetlands, small lakes prevail but the largestsurface area is covered by intermittent lakes andmarshes. The most extensive inland wetlands arefound in the lowlands, along the lower andmiddle courses of the rivers (Mura, Drava, Sava),in karst poljes (the karst catchment of theLjubljanica river with Cerkniško jezero andPlaninsko polje) and in the river headwater areas(Pokljuka, Bloke, Pohorje). Due to the geologicaland climatic diversity of the territory the inlandsurface waters and wetlands of Slovenia are richin plant and animal species. Around 1,700 algae
Figure 64. Marsileaquadrifolia, an endangeredspecies at the European levelhas the only confirmedlocality in Slovenia, nearPtuj.
53
species and subspecies and almost 100 speciesof water and marsh flowering plants have beenrecorded in the identified wetlands. In addition,around 2000 water animals, including fish andamphibians but not insects, have been identifiedso far (Sket et al., 1991). It has been estimated thatthere are approximately 1,000 species of insectswhich spend part or all of their life in water. Plantand animal species, which are new to Slovenia’sidentified flora and fauna, are found in wetlandseven today.
Slovenian wetlands of international im-portance
Wetlands are included in the list of the inter-nationally important sites according to two setsof criteria:
� a representative, rare or unique wetland typein a biogeographical region;
� an area which is important for the biodiver-sity conservation (criteria include speciesand ecological communities, waterbirds,fish).
According to these criteria, the following wet-lands have been listed as internationally impor-tant:
� Sečoveljske soline (1993) as the first RamsarSite in Slovenia. These saltpans are a human-made wetland where the typical saline eco-system and economic exploitation of thearea merge with the historic and culturalheritage. From the nature conservation per-spective the rich flora and fauna are partic-ularly important. Halophytic vegetation andwaterbirds (more than 260 species) are char-acteristic of the area. The mixing of salt andfresh water enhances the diversity of habi-tats in the area. The saltpans of Sečovlje havebeen designated a Landscape Park and anImportant Bird Area - IBA . Under the Barce-lona Convention they have been listed asan important protected area of biodiversityin the Mediterranean.
� Škocjanske jame (1999) are a subterraneanwetland. The cave system is characterisedby substantial fluctuation of undergroundwater and by various water forms. Water inthe cave system forms typical karst phe-nomena. The important part of the cave sys-tem is its fauna. Škocjan Caves have beendesignated a regional park. In 1986, theywere inscribed on the UNESCO World Her-itage List because of their hydrologic char-acteristics and spatial components.
The data show that the following areas of highbiodiversity meet the Convention criteria for in-clusion on the list of Wetlands of InternationalImportance:
� the Mura river floodplain characterised bywet woods and meadows, oxbow lakes and
backwaters; the biodiversity of fauna andflora is rich, over 600 plant and almost 3,000animal species; it is an IBA;
� the section of the Drava river between Mari-bor and Središče ob Dravi is an importantwaterbirds habitat; almost a half of all win-tering birds in Slovenia are found on thewater reservoirs of hydroelectric powerplants; they feed along the old riverbed ofthe Drava river; it is an IBA. The habitat andspecies diversity of the area is extremelyhigh (750 plant and numerous animal spe-cies, among them 9 fish, 9 amphibians, 50odonates);
� Krakovski gozd is one of the largest remainsof the alluvial forests in Slovenia (4,000 ha);forest of common oak (Quercus robur) withmarshes and wet meadows rich in charac-teristic plant and animal species (134 plantspecies, 120 bird species (100 nesting birds)and many other animal species); it is an IBA;
� riparian wetlands of the lower Sava river in-clude floodplain woodlands, wet meadowsand backwaters, numerous sand and gravel
(Ph
oto
: Mat
jaž
Bed
jan
ič)
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 65 (top).
Sečoveljske soline(Sečovlje Salinas) anexceptional habitat ofanimal and plantspecies and a culturalheritage site, was thefirst wetland site ofinternational impor-tance in Sloveniaincluded in the RamsarList.
Figure 66 (above).
Floodplain wetlandsalong the Mura River(eastern Slovenia)provide habitat for thebiggest population ofRana arvalis inSlovenia. For a fewdays during the matingperiod in spring themale frogs turn blue.
HABITATS
54 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
banks and eroded banks. Jovsi, a floodplainarea with wet meadows where 132 plantspecies have been identified; the area is im-portant for birds, among which are the rar-est nesting birds in Slovenia;
� Ljubljansko barje is an extensively cultivat-ed cultural landscape which is regularlyflooded during the spring and autumn rains.It is an internationally important bird area(IBA), in particular for rare and threatenedspecies which live in the meadows. Half ofthe Slovenian population of Corn Crake(Crex crex), a globally threatened species,lives in this area. More than 30 % of the pop-ulations of four other endangered meadowspecies live in the wetland.
� the karst catchment area of the Ljubljanicariver and fens of Bloke, a complex system ofsurface and subterranean wetlands; themost important are the karst poljes of Cerkni-ca (IBA) and Planina (IBA), Rakov Škocjanand the valleys of the Pivka and Nanoščicarivers (IBA), a special feature of the area isendemic underground fauna. The wetlandson the Bloke plateau are the most importantfens in Slovenia.
� Čezsoški prodi and Vrbulje are extensive grav-elbanks of the river Soča with numerouschannels, islets and puddles as well as karstsprings in the floodplain zone; the area isan outstanding complex of rare plant andanimal species.
Threats. The degradation and loss of wet-lands is the consequence of intensive humanactivities. Most wetlands have been intentionallydrained for agricultural purposes. The writtendata show that since the 18th century more than100,000 ha of land were drained. Between 1973and 1991, 70,000 ha of land were drained in order
to obtain new arable land, mostly in the north-east part of the country (Matičič, 1993). Accord-ing to the statistical data, approximately 40 % ofwetlands were lost between 1952 and 1990. How-ever, the data does not cover all wetland types.The marine and coastal wetlands have been pre-served only in fragments. Of the inland wetlands,mostly those along the middle and lower coursesof rivers are threatened. Even though the human-made wetlands - which prevail in number andtotal surface area - have taken over the functionsof the lost natural wetlands and are importantareas for conservation of biodiversity. Neverthe-less, the research shows that the lost natural wet-lands are irreplaceable (for example biodiversityof oxbow lakes in the Mura floodplain).
Beside the physical destruction, wetlands arealso threatened by pollution and the introduc-tion of invasive non-indigenous species and tour-ism (inland waters as well as coastal and marinehabitats).
A particularly problem is the introduction offish in mountain lakes (Krnsko jezero, lake inPlanina pri jezeru, Dvojno jezero and Črno jezero).In 1999 and 2000 the project concerning the rena-turation of Dvojno jezero was carried out. Thepurpose of the project was to take out most of theAlpine char (Salvelinus alpinus salvelinus).
Causes of threats to inland waters andwetlands
� physical interference:
� urbanisation: construction affects the nat-ural retention capacity of watercourses -the retention zones; the flood controlmeasures affect the hydrological regime,the land use and the aquatic environment;
� construction of buildings and infrastruc-ture (roads) often affects the wetlandswhich are being partly or completely in-filled;
� building of small and large hydroelectricpower plants significantly alters the hy-drological system of the area;
� excessive need for drinking water due tothe uneconomic functioning of the ab-straction and supply system (up to 40 %of abstracted water is lost);
� inadequately controlled exploitation ofsand and gravel;
� constantly increasing number of fishfarms and other users of water resourcesaffect the use and quality of water;
� industry is the largest consumer of water;most of the used water is returned to thesystem by the waste water discharges(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 67. The area ofintermittent lakes inthe Pivka valley formsone of the two branchesof the upper reaches ofthe Ljubljanica river.Due to its particularcharacteristics it is onthe list of Slovenianproposals for RamsarSites.
55
(chemically and thermally polluted wa-ter); the situation is gradually improvingbecause the relevant administrative mea-sures have been taken and together withthe tax system force the industry to im-prove the technologies.
� pollution:
� untreated urban and industrial waste wa-ters from urbanised areas are the mostimportant water polluters in Slovenia;
� agriculture is the main cause of the bur-dening of underground water resourcesand watercourses; the pollution is causedby the application of fertilizes (also inwinter) and pesticides (including the pro-hibited atrazine); the results of such pol-lution have been proven and the conse-quences are evident in the areas of inten-sive agricultural production;
� collection, recycling, combustion and fi-nal disposal of waste are in the initialphase; the main problem of the old andstill used landfills is the untreatedleachate;
� intentional or accidental introduction ofnon-indigenous plant and animal (invasive)species changes the structure of a wetlandand threatens its biodiversity and functions;
� social aspects:
� lack of integrated approach towards theprotection of wetlands and land use;
� insufficient awareness about the impor-tance of wetlands for the conservation ofbiodiversity (in particular small wetlands -puddles and flooded gravel pits) and in-sufficient knowledge about biodiversityat the local level;
� insufficient involvement of science in rais-ing public awareness.
The degree of research on wetlands is com-parable to the research conducted on inlandwaters and coastal and marine habitats. The stud-ies are limited to a specific habitat, species orwetland feature. There are almost no comprehen-sive studies available. The Conservation andManagement of Wetlands in Slovenia in the Con-text of European Policy (Beltram, 1996) is so farthe only example of an interdisciplinary study inthe field.
General degree of research. In the inven-tory of the Slovenian wetlands (VGI, 2001), thebasic data on wetlands, their extent, hydrology,flora and fauna were initially presented. Anotherproject, which had been carried out by the NGOsfrom Slovenia and Croatia (Centre for the map-
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: A
nd
rej B
ibič
)
Figure 69. Drosera rotundifolia, is a typical representative of raised bog flora and threatened byalteration of its habitats (e.g. drainage, liming, application of fertilizers).
Figure 70. Calidris alpina, during migration also feeds in Slovenian wetlands.
Figure 68. An illegal landfill on Ljubljansko barje is just one of many such cases occurring inSlovenia.
HABITATS
56 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
ping of fauna and flora and Societas Herpeto-logica Slovenica, a Society for the Study of Am-phibians and Reptiles of Slovenia), is a study onKarstic ponds - the network of aquatic biotopes.Individual studies on the flora and fauna dealwith Cerkniško jezero, Blejsko jezero andBohinjsko jezero, the oxbow lakes in the Murariver floodplain, Ljubljansko barje and the moun-tain lakes in the Triglav National Park.
Degree of research on flora and fauna.A number of works deal with the distribution ofone or two taxonomic groups and their occur-rence in a certain region. The least researchedhabitats are puddles, intermittent lakes and head-waters of streams. Little is known about the en-demic species and their distribution. The DOPPS- BirdLife Slovenia has been monitoring thewaterbirds on all wetlands which are importantbirds habitats.
57
SPECIES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
According to the data compiled, the diversityof species in Slovenia is extremely high, despitethe smallness of its territory. Only a small pro-portion of the species which are believed to live
in Slovenia has so far been identified. Approxi-mately 22,000 species have been recorded. Theestimated number is between 50,000 and 120,000,which reflects the outstandingly rich biodiversityfor such a small area.
Table 16: The estimateddata on diversity offlora and fauna in theworld (according toUNEP-WCMC, 2000)and the data forSlovenia (according toMršić, 1997; andcorrected by Sket, 1997;supplemented byexpertise in theframework of the RedData List revision).
Data given by authors for the Red Data List of 20001 Lipej Lovrenc (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of marine animals)2 Tome Saša (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of reptiles)3 Velkavrh France (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of terrestrial and freshwater molluscs)4 Brancelj Anton (Status of biodiversity of freshwater entomostracans) and Sket Boris (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of freshwater malacostracans)5 Poboljšaj Katja (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of amphibians)6 DOPPS (Red Data List of nesting birds of Slovenia)7 Kryštufek Boris (Analysis of the status of biodiversity of mammals)8 including marine taxa
Group Number of TaxaScientific Name World Slovenia Slovenian Sea
Bacteria + Archebacteria 3000Cyanobacteria 1000“Phycobionta” 26.000“Mycota” 72.000 5.000“Lichenes” 13.500 860Bryophyta 10.000 790Pteridophyta 19.000 71Spermatophyta 280.000 31958
“Protozoa”Porifera 10.000 4 1091
Placozoa 1 - 1Cnidaria 9400 5 841
Ctenophora 100 - 5Kamptozoa 150 0 5Plathelminthes 20.000 295 50?Nemathelminthes 28.900 1500? 121
Gnathostomata 80 - xNemertina 900 1 21
Mollusca 70.000 3413 5281
Sipunculida 150 - 41
Annelida 15.000 155 2561
Tardigrada 750 40 xArachnida 75.000 1000 xPantopoda (with Arach.) 0 6Crustacea 40.000 3724 4201
Myriapoda (with Ins.) 250 -Insecta 950.000 17.000 xPhoronidea 14 - 1Bryozoa 4000 6 361
Brachiopoda 350 - 1 ?Echinodermata 7000 0 421
Chaetognatha 70 0 71
Enteropneusta 90 - 1 ?Tunicata 1400 0 571
Acrania 23 - 1 ?Cyclostomata 75 3 11
Pisces (sldk.) 21650 (freshwater) 85 1881
Amphibia 4015 235 -Reptilia 5955 21 32 (1) 1
Aves 9090 233 (gn)6 -Mammalia 4215 837 61
58 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
THREATENED SPECIES
It is considered that taxa are threatened if theirabundance decreases and their extinction is pos-sible. The degree of threat is defined accordingto the World Conservation Union (IUCN) catego-ries. In 1972 the first standardised system was
presented. In the 1988-92 period the system wasused in the preparation of the Red Data Lists ofthreatened plant and animal species in Slovenia.In 1994, the IUCN adopted the enhanced systemto assess the threats to plant and animal species.The criteria are elaborated, they leave less roomfor subjective assessments, and they also take
Ex (Extinct). Taxa which are no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated searches of their typelocalities and other known or likely places.Ex? (Presumably Extinct). The category denotes that it is virtually certain that the taxa has recentlybecome extinct.E (Endangered). Taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continueoperating.V (Vulnerable). Includes taxa of which most or all the populations are decreasing because of over-exploi-tation, extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental disturbance (e.g. ‘mrazišča’, marches, ther-mal springs, peat bogs).R (Rare). Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or Vulnerable, but are atrisk. These taxa are usually localised within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scatteredover a more extensive range.nt (not threatened). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which are close toqualifying for Vulnerable. These taxa do not belong on Red Data Lists, but they are listed due to specialcharacteristics (e.g. endemism). In these cases their state is monitored.K (Insufficiently Known). Taxa that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to any of the abovecategories, because of lack of information. In this category belong e.g. problematic taxa or those mentionedonly in old literature and without confirmed data.I (Indeterminate). Taxa known to be Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is not enough informa-tion to say which of the three categories is appropriate.O (Out of danger). Taxa formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now consideredrelatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken, or the previous threat to theirsurvival has been removed.
Table 17: Threatenedplant and animalspecies in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories (Basic data:Vidic, 1992, Wraber &Skoberne, 1989; datagiven by authors forspecific groups havebeen taken intoaccount)
* data for indicated invertebrate taxa refer to the Red Lists of 1992;1 number of taxa refers to freshwater and terrestrial Mollusca (Velkovrh)2 number of taxa refers to family Lumbricidae (Mršić)3 number of taxa refers to Entomostraca of inland waters (Brancelj)4 number of taxa refers to Malacostraca of inland waters (Sket)5 number of taxa refers to Macrolepidoptera (Verovnik - butterflies; Carnelutti et al.- moths)6 number of taxa refers to freshwater Pisces & Cyclostomata7 number of taxa refers to birds nesting in Slovenia
SYSTEMATIC Number Ex Ex? E V R O I K Total ThreatenedGROUP of taxa (Ex, Ex?, species (v %)
E, V, R)
Musci 790 1 10 57 100 98 266 33Pterydophyta 71 2 1 3 9 15 21Spermatophyta 3195 27 16 79 251 248 128 621 19Hydrozoa 9 1 1 11Mollusca 3411 4 9 30 108 7 4 6 151 44Lumbricidae* 752 29 12 29 39Hirudinea 25 4 6 10 40Entomostraca 1693 8 22 5 4 30 18Malacostraca 2034 1 10 18 46 1 32 75 37Chilopoda 98 10 28 3 38 39Diplopoda* 169 33 38 71 42Araneae 530 2 8 41 51 10Opiliones 63 12 4 6 22 35Ephemeroptera 77 4 12 21 16 7 53 69Odonata 73 1 2 11 17 8 1 39 53Plecoptera 100 2 6 9 13 30 30Orthopteroidea 153 21 16 3 40 26Coleoptera 6000 7 6 77 94 81 7 265 4Neuropteroidea 104 1 19 3 1 14 23 22Mecoptera 9 1 1 1 3 33Hymenoptera 542 25 3 57 246 331 61Trichoptera 208 1 1 9 36 1 5 47 23Lepidoptera5 3200 1 174 36 10 221 7Heteroptera 643 1 15 29 77 122 19Pisces & Cyclostomata 856 2 2 32 9 7 52 61Amphibia 21 1 3 14 1 3 19 90Reptilia 24 7 11 2 4 20 83Aves 2337 10 10 58 47 10 12 135 58Mammalia 83 6 14 15 1 7 2 36 43
59
into consideration the entire population regard-less of the political borders in an area. The 1994categories will be used in the revision of the Lists,but in the overview the 1972 criteria were usedfor the available data and the recent expertiseundertaken.
DEGREE OF RESEARCH
The knowledge about the areas of distribu-tion of plant and animal species in Slovenia isinadequate. The detailed data are available onlyfor vascular plants and mosses. With regard tofauna, the detailed data are available for specificvertebrates. The knowledge about most inverte-brates is highly insufficient and the assessmentsof threats to individual groups are merely approxi-mate figures. It is therefore difficult to enforcethe protection regimes for invertebrates, exceptfor specific butterflies and moths, and beetles ofinterest to collectors. The protection of ecosys-tems, important for some key species (brownbear, wolf, European lynx) and other selectedvertebrates and invertebrates (dragonflies andstoneflies), has not been sufficiently emphasised.The nature reserves, which have been establishedin the last decade, are either very small or unim-portant for the conservation of the viable popu-lations of vertebrates. The concept of conserva-tion of species through the conservation of theirecosystems is even more important for inverte-brates than vertebrates.
It is important to conserve the classical or typi-cal sites (Locus typicus and Locus classicus), siteswhere an individual species was described. Suchsites are the source of a ‘prototype’ for the mor-phological or biochemical comparison withother species. In the case of endemic, in particu-lar cave species, these are simultaneously theonly sites where a species is found.
The following data are important for the con-servation of plant and animal species and theirviable populations:
� taxa catalogues by individual taxa;
� data on the species’ distribution area;
� basic biological data;
� population density and trends;
� data on threatened species (at the local, na-tional, European, global levels);
� data on the causes of threats.
INVASIVE SPECIES
In addition to human alteration and fragmen-tation of natural habitats, the introduction of in-vasive non-indigenous species is one of the mainthreats to biodiversity loss all over the world(IUCN/SSC, 2001). The development of transpor-
tation has increased human mobility, and tour-ism and trade are spreading throughout the worldproviding opportunities for the distribution ofplant and animal species to areas where, due tonatural constraints, they could not be normallypresent. Proliferation of invasions could becaused by the abolition of natural barriers be-tween biogeographical regions (for example, in1869 the Suez Canal joined the Mediterranean andthe Red Sea; or the construction of canals be-tween different river basins), as well as inciden-tal (e.g., ballast waters) or intentional introduc-tions for decorative, agricultural (nutrition) orsports purposes.
Introduced species can either die out or es-tablish well in the new environment. Accordingto Jogan (2000: 32) 10% of introduced speciescolonised well in Europe. Some of those that areestablished could also spread easily and becomeinvasive. For Slovenia, data are available forplants and freshwater fishes, but it is estimatedthat similar problems occur for other taxa as well.
The highest proportion of invasive plant spe-cies is in ruderal habitats (e.g. along railway linesand streets, in landfills, etc...), clear-cuts and ri-parian communities of tall herbs where non-in-digenous species have entirely out-competed thenative ones (e.g., Impatiens glandulifera, Echy-nocystis lobata, Fallopia sp.). Among the woodyinvasive plants, Ailanthus altissima and Robiniapseudoaccia spread considerably.
Figure 71. Fallopiajaponica, was intro-duced to Europe in1825. Since then it hasspread enormously andis a typical example ofan invasive non-indigenous species.(P
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In the last hundred years, 14 non-indigenousfish species have been, intentionally or inciden-tally, introduced to Slovenia (M. Povž & R. Ocvirk,1990), mostly from America and Asia. Out ofthem, seven reproduce successfully. Mosquito-fish (Gambusia affinis) was introduced in thePrimorska region to reduce the number of mos-quitoes, while other fishes were mainly intro-duced to increase the number of angling fishingspecies. The American trout is spawning wher-ever it has been introduced and it has spread allover Slovenia. It is successfully invading the na-tive species, brown trout and grayling. Pumpkin-seed and largemouth bass are also on the list ofinvasive species (illegally introduced also intothe accumulation lake of Vogeršček). Ctenopha-ryngodon idella has been successfully intro-duced into stagnant waters threatening waterplants and, in turn, all the vegetation dependentspecies.
In addition to these introductions, local fishesare threatened by exchanges of fish species be-tween the two neighbouring catchments, theAdriatic and the Danube. Two species, Chondro-stoma genei and Chondrostoma soetta, have be-come extinct in the Adriatic catchment due tothe introduction of nase (Chondrostoma nasus)native to the Danube catchment. This species wasintroduced into the Soča basin in the 1960s (M.Povž, 2001).
PRESENTATION BY TAXONOMICGROUPS
Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are prokaryotes (bacteriaand archaea), eucaryotes (certain fungi, includ-
ing those which form lichens, slime moulds andyeasts, algae and protozoans) and viruses. Theyare an essential component of biodiversity butare often neglected. Without micro-organisms theecosystems could not be maintained and the sur-vival of macro-organisms would be impossible.
Micro-organisms occupy important ecosys-tem niches and contribute to the formation ofbiomass (80 % of the sea biomass are planktonalgae), recycling of elements in nature, forma-tion of soil, maintenance of climate balance andbalance of atmospheric gasses. Bacteria, fungiand protozoans in the intestines of insects andherbivorous animals play an important role inthe processing of cellulose and lignin. Most ofthe vascular plants form mycorrhizal associa-tions with fungi. Micro-organisms have alwaysplayed an important role in the traditional andmodern biotechnology, but with the developmentof the genetic engineering their importance haseven increased.
Until now, approximately 159,000 micro-organ-ism species (3 % of the expected number) havebeen identified. The scientists believe there arebetween 5 and 6 million micro-organism speciesin the world. The data for Slovenia are not avail-able, the taxonomic basis has not been devel-oped, and only a few modern monographies,keys and similar instruments for the identifica-tion of microbes have been published. Takingaction at the national and international levels isof primary importance.
Slovenia’s distinctive feature is its rich diver-sity of habitats, not only of habitats with numer-ous plant and animal species but also of extremeenvironments important for microbes. The areasand habitats with a high diversity of macro-or-ganisms are at the same time rich in micro-organ-isms, the host-specific parasites, mutualists,saprobes and symbionts. However, many habi-tats can not be populated by macro-organismsbecause of the unfavourable abiotic conditions,yet are still important for the conservation of thediversity of micro-organisms. These habitats areextreme environments, such as:
� areas of extremely low water activity: dry-ness caused by the lack or surface runoff,high concentrations of salt or ice;
� high concentrations of heavy metals, sul-phur and other, mostly toxic, substances;
� extremely low or high pH;
� extremely low or high temperatures;
� anaerobic environments;
� environments with no light (caves).
The only living forms found in such environ-ments are micro-organisms which conserve andstabilise the system.(P
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Figure 72. One of themany mineral springsin the Ščavnica valleynearby Ivanjševci.Mineral springs areconsidered extremeenvironments.
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Extreme environments are a rich source ofmostly unknown organisms belonging to differ-ent groups. Therefore, such environments shouldalso be in the preparation of the international andnational plans of protected areas. The examplesof extreme habitats in Slovenia are:
� saltpans (microbe crust - ‘petola’);
� thermal waters, waters rich in sulphate, mag-nesium and iron ions;
� marshes, peatlands, bogs, intermittent lakes;
� mountain areas above the forest line;
� rocks covered with lichens in all climatezones;
� karst caves and mine shafts.
In Slovenia, the areas rich in micro-organismsare the naturally preserved forests, wetlands,grasslands and mountains. Moreover, the karstareas are populated by many endemic and rarespecies. It is expected that many new microbespecies will be discovered when the mutualismof microbes with other organisms is studied. Itshould be pointed out that specific karst areashave remained virtually intact and represent eco-logical niches where microbes have developedin isolation.
The Convention on Biological Diversity, amongother topics, deals with micro-organisms. How-ever, its implementation is still partial. The rea-sons for insufficient coverage of micro-organismsare:
� psychological:
� people are not familiar with micro-organ-isms, in particular with the role they playin biological processes;
� what one can not see may be close toone’s mind but not to one’s heart;
� micro-organisms are known to the publicmainly as potential pests (pathogens);
� not much is known about the importanceof the diversity of microbes for the econ-omy and for human benefits (traditionaland modern biotechnology, ecology);
� scientific:
� there is no clear evidence of the extinc-tion of microbe species, except for obli-gate symbionts of plants and animals (ex-tinction of coral reefs caused by the ex-tinction of symbiotic algae species);
� evolutionary adaptability of microbes ishigh;
� the concept of species is rather ill-defined;
� others:
� ignorance of the problems;
� insufficient protection of various envi-ronments, in particular extreme ones;
� insufficient financial support for the exsitu conservation of micro-organisms;
� overexploitation of areas which are im-portant for micro-organisms, for touristpurposes or intended ‘rehabilitation’ of aspecific area;
� extinction of a host affects all its sym-bionts, saprobes and parasites; the prob-lem is particularly evident for the rare orendemic plant and animal species.
In 2000, none of the areas in Slovenia wereprotected with the purpose of conserving the di-versity of micro-organisms, yet most of the exist-ing protected areas include environments whichare important for micro-organisms (for examplethe Sečovlje saltpans).
Micro-organism habitats have not been stud-ied enough. The only exception are the still func-tioning saltpans at Sečovlje, where it is of utmostimportance to protect the microbe crust ‘petola’which covers the bottom of the crystallisationbasins. Seven hundred years of constant devel-opment have resulted in the diversity of micro-organisms which can only be found in a fewsaltpans in the world.
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VirusesIn 1993 it was estimated by the International
Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses that around5,000 species had been identified and that thenumber of known viruses will grow to 500,000.Unknown viruses are expected to be discoveredon the yet unstudied crops and insects, sea plank-ton and fungi plasmids. Bacteriophages are ex-pected to be found on uncultivable bacteria.
Bacteria
In 1991 approximately 3,000 bacteria species,4,000 including cyanobacteria, were identified.It is estimated that the final number is around
Figure 73. Recon-structed saltpans in themuseum complex ofSečovlje Salinas.Traditional saltproduction is based onthe ‘petola’.
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3 million meaning that only 0.1 % of all bacteriaare known to humans. In recent years the under-standing of the diversity of bacteria has furtherdeveloped because of the application of molecu-lar techniques which facilitate the indirect assess-ment of the species’ diversity. It has been estab-lished that many uncultivable bacteria exist indifferent environments: soil, deep-sea sediments,extreme habitats. Many live in mutualistic rela-tionships with other organisms and, with regardto their number, the symbionts with insects andcrustaceans are important.
In Slovenia the biodiversity of bacteria is stud-ied on:
� symbiotic bacteria in view of biologicalconversion of nitrogen in soil;
� bacteria in associations with plants’ roots;
� plant bacteria;
� bacteria used in medicine, in particularmycobacteria;
� bacteria mutualism in the intestines of ru-minants;
� diversity and importance of symbiotic bac-teria in the intestines of crustaceans.
Fungi
It is estimated that there are approximately1.5 million fungi species in the world (Hawks-worth, 1991). Until now, approximately 72,000species have been identified (55,000 micromy-cete species and 17,000 macromycete species)(Hawksworth et al., 1995). Of the expected 15,000species (10,000 micromycetes and 4,000 - 5,000macromycetes) around 5,000 fungi, includingthose forming lichens and mycorrhiza, have beenidentified in Slovenia.
For practical reasons fungi are artificially di-vided into micromycetes and macromycetes.
Micromycetes form basidia which are usuallyextremely small, microscopic structures directlyconnected to the growth substrate. Macromy-cetes form clearly visible fruiting bodies of vari-ous shapes, growing out of the substrate (mush-room).
Micromycetes
Some micromycetes are parasites, mutualists,symbionts or saprophytes and thus depend onother organisms for their food supply (plants,animals, other micro-organisms). Because theylive in various habitats they also depend on thespecial characteristics of the environment.
Until now, approximately 2,230 micromycetespecies have been identified (but not stored anddocumented properly) in Slovenia. Most data ontheir abundance is based on the references inthe literature, and no samples are available forinspection in herbarium collections. Studies havemostly been focused on the parasitic micromy-cetes which cause plant diseases. No systematicresearch on the generally spread micromyceteshas been conducted and no relevant data areavailable. An interdisciplinary research has beenconducted for lichenised and lichenicolousfungi, of which 860 species are found in Slovenia(Suppan et al., 2000).
On the basis of the studies concerning thespecies composition of micromycetes it has beenestablished that there is a constant ratio betweenthe species of higher plants and micromycetes(Hawksworth, 1991). In a moderate climate theratio is 1 : 3 in favour of micromycetes. Accord-ing to that estimate, around 10,000 micromycetespecies could be found in Slovenia. The otherestimate (Rossmann, 1994) is based on the analy-sis of the potential species composition of fungiin an individual ecosystem. It is expected that10,000 - 50,000 fungi species grow in a specific
Kingdom Phyllum* No. of genera No. of species Approximate number ofin the world in the world micromycete spec. in Slovenia
PROTOZOA Acrasiomycota 4 12 50Dyctiosteliomycota 4 46Myxomycota 74 719Plasmodiophoromycota 16 45
CHROMISTA Hypochytriomycota 7 24 90Labyrinthulomycota 13 42Omycota 95 694
FUNGI Ascomycota 3,255 32,267 1,300Basidiomycota 1,428 22,244 260Chytridiomycota 112 793 ?Zygomycota 173 1,056 ?Deuteromycota 2,547 14,104 530
Total 72,065 2,230
Table 17: Overview ofthe number ofdescribed fungi speciesin the world andmicromycetes inSlovenia (specificfungi species do notbelong to the kingdomof fungi but areclassified as protozo-ans and chromists)
* Only the phylum Ascomycota (sac fungi) in Basidiomycota (club fungi) include macromycetes. All other phyla include merely micromycetes. Of all world sac fungialmost half belong to taxa which form lichens. Only 3,000 - 4,000 species are macromycetes. Of club fungi, there are 13,857 macromycetes and 8,198 micromycetes (7,134species of rust fungi and 1,064 smuts). The data in the table are based on the work of Hawksworth et al., 1995 (world data) and all the available Slovenian sources (datafor Slovenia).
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homogenous terrestrial ecosystem on a surfacearea of 50,000 - 100,000 ha. With regard to the highdiversity of terrestrial ecosystems the number offungi species in Slovenia is much higher accord-ing to the latter estimate. The comparison of thenumber of the determined species (2,230) withthe probable number of micromycetes (morethan 10,000) shows the insufficient knowledgeabout this group in Slovenia.
Causes of threats to micromycetes - ac-cording to the insufficient knowledge about thegroup, it is assumed that the main causes ofthreats are:
� changes in the habitat caused by direct phy-sical destruction and alterations;
� extinction or removal of host organism, af-fecting all symbionts, saprobes and para-sites which are attached to (or inside) it.
Macromycetes
A part of club fungi (Basidiomycota) and apart of sac fungi (Ascomycota) belong to macro-mycetes (hereinafter referred to as fungi). Fruit-ing bodies, also referred to as mushrooms, cangrow to a considerable size but they are only areproductive phase in the fungi life cycle. Fungiare microscopic organisms in the form of a veg-etatively reproducing mycelia in the ground, asparasites inside their hosts or as symbionts in therhizosphere.
According to the UNEP data there are 22,500club fungi species (Basidiomycota) and 30,000sac fungi species (Ascomycota) in the world.There are only 17,000 macromycetes. It is esti-mated that 4,000 - 5,000 macromyceta speciesgrow in Slovenia but so far only 2,700 specieshave been identified (Poler, 1998). With the de-velopment of biochemical methods and system-atics of fungi the number of identified specieswill increase.
In comparison with the vascular plants, thenumber of endemic macromycete species islower because fungi are cosmopolitan. One ofthe rare endemic species is Tricholoma gonios-permum which grows in the Karst.
Fungi are a unique group of organisms charac-terised by:
� close adaptation to a specific substrate,mycorrhizal partner or host;
� sensitivity to changes in the environment,in particular pollution;
� need for a stable living environment in thelong-term, in particular with regard to myc-orrhizal fungi;
� specific mycocenosis that develops in longperiods (tens and hundreds of years);
� unpredictable formation of fruiting bodiesand irregular mushroom seasons.
Due to all these characteristics, the long-termobservation periods (10 to 15 years) are neededfor the monitoring and identification of fungi.
Assessment of macromycete studies. Theinitial studies of fungi began early. Fungi werefirst mentioned in the work by Mattioli (1569).Clusius (1601) discussed them in a written formand added a collection of water-colour paintingsof the Pannonian macromyceta (Codex Clusii).An extensive work in the field of macromycetawas done by Scopoli. He described more than ahundred fungi species in the first and secondpublication of his Flora Carniolica (1760, 1772).Others, like Voss (1876-1892), Robič, Plemel andDolšak were also interested in fungi. Dolšak leftan extensive collection. After 1945 only individualworks could be found. In the second half of the1970s the picking of mushrooms for food becamepopular. Dušan Vrščaj (1990) contributed substan-tially to the development of mushroom pickingand mycology. At that time an important myco-logical work was done by Stana Hočevar and hercolleagues who dealt with fungi in the primevalforests of Slovenia (1975, 1976, 1980, 1985, 1995).In the period from 1960 to 1990, the fungi werestudied by the only professional mycologist onthe territory of Yugoslavia, Milica Tortić fromZagreb. In the last two decades higher fungi havebeen studied by Andrej Piltaver, who participatesin the main projects in this field. Within the(P
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Figure 74.
Macrolepiota sp. acommon fungi speciesoften picked.
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64 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
projects carried out by the Slovenian ForestryInstitute, macromycetes are being surveyed inpermanent observation plots in forest reserves.The research on micorrhyzal fungi is carried outas part of the project dealing with the rhizosphere.However, it can be concluded that macromyceteshave not been studied in detail. It is difficult totaxonomically identify fungi - in addition to theknowledge of taxonomy, the genetic and bio-chemical methods are also becoming increas-ingly important. The data on fungi are insuffi-cient, the list of identified fungi is not available,nor are the data on the area of distribution ofspecific fungi species in Slovenia. Moreover, nonational studies at the loss of fungi species areavailable. The specific taxonomic groups havenot been equally studied, and most research hasbeen focused on lignicolous fungi in primevalforests of Slovenia.
Areas important for the conservation ofmacromycetes
Areas which are particularly important for theconservation of macromycetes are the naturallypreserved areas and cultural landscapes, sincemany fungi species live in these ‘semi-natural’habitats which were created by humans.
Forests are the most important habitats offungi. The diversity of mycorrhizal fungi is therichest in the sustainably and extensively man-aged forests where litter is occasionally exploited,the cutting residues and dry branches are re-moved and there is not much undergrowth. For-ests which were maintained in such a mannerused to be an important part of the cultural land-scape. More than one hundred of the fungi spe-cies can be found there.
Abundant wood biomass is important for thegrowth of lignicolous fungi. Their diversity istherefore highest in forests where all wood bio-mass remains intact. Primeval forests and forest
reserves are essential for the survival of suchspecies. The beech forests of Slovenia are ex-amples of the longest uninterrupted periods ofnatural succession in Europe.
Most grasslands are anthropogenic. On theregularly but non-intensively mown dry grass-lands with low nitrogen and phosphorus input -which are at least 30 years old and used to bemanaged constantly for a long time - specificmycocenosis develops. They are unique habitatsfor species of various genera, for exampleHygrocybe, Entoloma, Dermoloma, and familiesGeoglossaceae and Clavariaceae. Thesemycocenosis are extremely sensitive to fertili-sation. A good example are Hygrocybe species.In the current Danish studies, the abundance ofHygrocybe species in a certain meadow is usedas a direct indicator of the preserved conditionof a site. On the basis of the abundance ofHygrocybe species, the non-fertilised and wellpreserved meadows can be considered as biodi-versity rich sites of local, regional, national andinternational importance.
Meadows, riverine meadows, parks andtree-lined roads. The cultural landscape ofsmall sites of open, light forests, riverine wood-lands, pastures and meadows is gradually disap-pearing. These habitats are rich in mycorrhizalfungi. Some species, which are abundant andusual at these sites, are rarely found in thick for-ests. Lines of old trees along the roads and largeparks surrounding mansions, churches, monas-teries, graveyards and similar buildings, whichhave been sustainably managed for decades, arerich in mycoflora. Specific lignicolous fungi spe-cies develop a long time before they form theirfirst fruiting bodies, which occur exclusively onold trees, which would already be cut down in amanaged forest. Such species are frequentlyfound in parks. An interesting phenomena arelignicolous fungi occurring exclusively on thetrees in seeded park gardens and tree-lines, forexample Ganoderma pfeifferi.
Wetlands. Wet meadows and raised bogs, arerare and threatened habitats in Europe. In the past,the alternation and disappearance of these habi-tats were the result of the drainage, exploitationof peat and changes in land-use categories foreconomic land development. Wetlands alsochanged naturally, through succession. In raisedbogs many specific mycocenosis are found andfor many species these are the only sites. Thesame holds true for mineral bogs, which havebeen drained and cleared for cultivation. Theyare sites of rich flora and fauna and importanthabitats of fungi saprobes and parasites. Manyspecies of the order Leotiales only live in mineralbogs.(P
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Figure 75. Coprinuscomatus, in themeadow next to atennis court near theKokra River.
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Other fungi habitats. Fungi grow in vari-ous, often extreme, living environments and cantherefore be found almost everywhere. In theseareas the number of species may not be as highas elsewhere but they are often endemic. Grass-lands above the forest line, where specific myc-orrhizal fungi occur, should be mentioned. Therole of the mycorrhizal partner is played by thedwarf willow (Salix) and other dwarf scrub, suchas mountain avens (Dryas) and Scots broom(Cystus).
Threats. In Europe, the problem of the disap-pearance of fungi became evident in the secondhalf of the 20th century. The process is difficultto assess because it is slow and long-time moni-toring is needed. On the other hand, no detaileddata from the past studies are available for com-parison. The observations carried out in the last30 years show that the growth of the fruiting bod-ies of mycorrhizal fungi has reduced. It is esti-mated that between 10 and 15 % of species faceextinction. Among the most threatened are(ecto)mycorrhizal fungi which are extremely sen-sitive to air pollution. This applies in particularto species which grow on acid soil, poor in miner-als. These species are so sensitive that 10-15 kg/haof annually deposited nitrogen from the air threat-ens their existence. Lignicolous fungi, which dis-appear from managed forests, as well as fungi ofold, dry and extensively managed meadows andorchards, are also threatened.
An essential condition for the assessment ofthe threatened fungi is their systematic researchat three levels:
� mycofloristic, horologic, ecological and tax-onomic field studies, with the purpose ofestablishing what species live in the re-searched area, what is their area of distribu-tion, abundance of organisms and the fre-quency of occurrence of fruiting bodies andthe quantity production of fruiting bodiesand what are the ecological requirementsof specific species with regard to the siteand substrate;
� research on permanent observation plotswhere the impact of human activities onmycoflora is assessed;
� laboratory research for assessing the impactof specific chemical, physical and bioticfactors on fungi organisms.
Due to the lack of national data, the status inSlovenia can only be assessed by the compari-son of European studies and the results of moni-toring in Slovenia. The decline in fungi speciesin Slovenia and elsewhere in Europe can be com-pared, although in Slovenia the process is not soobvious and is somehow delayed. The reasonsfor this delay may lie in the relative stability ofecosystems, which resist the adverse environmen-
tal impacts, and in the lower level of pollutionthan in the west European countries.
The Decree on the protection of wild fungilists 70 species which are undoubtedly endan-gered. However, the list is still incomplete becauseit merely takes into account the larger, noticeablespecies, which are interesting for mushroom pick-ers who pick and often destroy them. Conserva-tion measures are not focused on the micro-scopic, tiny species, which are threatened by thedegradation of their habitats, environmental pol-lution and changes in the management. Thesespecies are usually not even noticed andrecognised by mushroom pickers but present thelarger and more important part of the threatenedmycoflora. A Red Data List of threatened fungishould be drawn up, which would facilitate theimplementation of the conservation measures incompliance with the current legislation.
Causes of threats� Habitat fragmentation - is every decrease
in the surface area of habitats. Changes inthe land use result in reduced natural siteswhen large areas are gradually divided intosmaller patches. The increased distancesbetween individual sites hinder the repro-duction and spreading of fungi species. Thefragmentation of sites into smaller unitscontributes to the reduction of populationsand thus threatens the stability of the entireecosystem. The problem is particularly evi-dent in respect to heterothallic fungi.
� Interference with the water regime -Canalisation of rivers and streams and thedrainage of land cause the changes in thewater table which affect habitats in the long-term.
� Changes in traditional farming - Aban-donment of the traditional (extensive) farm-ing directly threatens dry grasslands whichare being colonised by scrubs and trees.One of the important reasons for the re-duced growth of mycorrhizal fungi is over-growth where large quantities of biomassare not removed. Due to the introduction ofintensive agricultural production (fertilisa-tion, application of biocides, agriculturalimprovements) the input of the fossil fuelenergy in the food production process hasincreased. The consequences are the wasteand pollution which drastically affect thediversity of fungi.
� Pollution of the environment - is one ofthe main causes for the loss of fungi spe-cies. Particularly significant is the pollutionof air as the result of emissions from trans-port, industry, energy and the pollution fromhouseholds. These all have transboundaryeffects. Soil acidification and the input of
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organic nitrogen directly affect the mycor-rhizal fungi. They are affected first and thedying out of trees follows. In polluted anddying forests, mycorrhizal fungi are reducedand the number of parasites and sapro-phytes increases. It is possible to evaluatethe degree of forest damage on the basis ofthe ratio between mycorrhizal fungi andsaprophytes.
� Mushroom picking can seriously threat-en rare and sensitive species. The pickingof fungi in the wrong way damages the myce-lium and threatens the site. It prevents fungifrom concluding their life cycle. Removalof unripe fruiting bodies from the forestsprevents ripening and spreading of sporesand thus reduces the possibility of poten-tial colonisation of new sites. The threat ofexcessive picking is increasing becausemushrooms are valuable market goods. In-tensive picking of mushrooms (spatially lim-ited to the vicinity of large settlements andknown mushroom sites) directly damagesthe sites and results in compaction of soiland damage to ground vegetation. The at-tempt to educate the pickers and widen theselection of edible species and thus reducethe pressure on boletes (Boletus sp.) andchanterelles (Cantharellus sp.) has provena mistake, for it simply led to an increase inthe pressure of pickers on other edible spe-cies. Complex, intensive and long-term field
studies are necessary for the quantitativeassessment of the impact of excessive pick-ing on the occurrence of mycorrhizal fungi.The development of mycocenosis in forestis closely linked to the life cycle of individu-al trees and the entire forest. From the timeperspective, these processes exceed the life-time of one generation. The current short-term studies do not suffice because of thenatural fluctuation in the occurrence of fruit-ing bodies of fungi. These fluctuations canbe statistically evaluated by taking into ac-count the results of long-term studies. Thetime dimension of the development of indi-vidual mycocenosis of mycorrhizal fungi isindicated by the studies concerning the pos-sibilities of accelerating the growth of truf-fles (Tuber) in sustainably managed sites. Ithas been established that the processes areextremely slow and that the first signs ofchanges can be expected only after ten ortwenty years.
� Introduction of non-indigenous treespecies grown from seeds reduces the di-versity of mycorrhizal fungi because suchtrees are not their hosts. The adaptation offungi to a new mycorrhizal partner is a long-lasting process and the diversity of suchfungi is rather low in forest stands of non-indigenous trees.
Fungi symbioses(Lichens and mycorrhizae)
Lichens
Lichens are an ecological and taxonomicgroup. They are formed by two or more fungi andalgae species which have already been classified.According to Kušan there are 244 lichen speciesin Slovenia. According to Suppan and his col-leagues (2000), 787 species have been identified.The expected number is around 1,200 species.The studies of lichens began in Slovenia ratherearly. J. A. Scopoli mentioned 64 taxa in his FloraCarniolica (vol. 2, 1772). Many others contributedto the knowledge about lichen flora, for exampleWulfen (1787-1790, 20 taxa), Biasoletto (1846),Glowacki (1846-1915), Kernstock (1889, 1893),Schuler (1893, 1902), Robič (1876, 1877), and inthe 20th century the Czech Servit (1934-1955),who studied lichens in the Julian Alps, and theSwede G. Degelius according to whom some in-teresting taxa can be found in Slovenia. In 1953the Croat Kušan published Prodromus of theYugoslav flora. In his work he listed 244 taxa. Theresearch on lichens began again after 1965. Inthe first two years of studies the number of iden-tified taxa increased by almost 60, mostly withinthe framework of the mapping of the reserves ofprimeval forest in Slovenia (Hočevar et al., 1980,(P
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Figure 76. Clathrusruber, a rare andendangered species hasbeen legally protectedin Slovenia.
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1985, 1995). The interest in lichens awakenedwhen it had been established that they are animportant indicator of air pollution. The creditfor the research should go to the high school bi-ology professors and the Natural History Soci-ety of Slovenia. At the time, the Natural HistorySociety organised a campaign concerning li-chens. The students and pupils of primary andhigh schools, together with their teachers andprofessors, mapped lichens all over Slovenia,resulting in the first map of lichens in Slovenia(Batič, 1984). Before that, some maps of local dis-tribution of lichens had been published(Skoberne, 1975). However, due to the difficul-ties concerning the taxonomic identification oflichens, it was mainly the thallus types of lichenwhich were inventoried (crust, foliose and shrublichens). The method, supplemented by new dis-coveries, has since 1985 been used for recordingthe forest damage (Batič & Kralj, 1989; Batič, 1990;Batič & Mayrhofer 1996; Mavsar et al., 2000). Sinceno measuring equipment is installed in forests,the epiphytic lichens are used as bioindicatorsfor assessing air pollution in these inventories.Trends in the results of inventories and the com-parison of the measured content of sulphur di-oxide in the air as well as the total content ofsulphur in spruce needles collected at observa-tion plots show that the status of epiphytic lichensreflects the quality of air in the area. Significantprogress in the research on lichen flora ofSlovenia was achieved by cooperation with theUniversity of Graz, Austria (Karl-FranzensUniversität Graz, Institut für Botanik). Within thejoint projects of Graz University and the SlovenianForestry Institute, the intensive research on li-chens in Slovenia began, in particular in view ofbioindication techniques for assessing the qual-ity of air in the study of forest damage. Participat-ing in the project were biology and forestry stu-dents from Slovenia, who studied the lichens ofdifferent regions of Slovenia to include the resultsin their graduation papers, master’s and doctor’stheses. In the period between 1994 and 1996 a EUTempus project was carried out which led to regu-lar cooperation between the Universities ofLjubljana and Graz. As a result, a reference lichencollection was compiled (Jurc et al., 1998) at theSlovenian Forestry Institute. It forms a part of theherbarium of Ljubljana University. In 1997, theherbarium comprised 3639 exsiccates of 582 li-chen species, including the exsiccates of formerperiods. As a result of the extensive field map-ping of Slovenia’s various regions, Catalogue ofLichens of Slovenia (Suppan et al.; 2000) was pub-lished. It is a compilation of all lichens found inSlovenia. The number of identified species in-cluded in the Catalogue is substantially higherthan in the previous publications. According tothese data the lichen flora in Slovenia comprises860 taxa, 787 of which are lichenised fungi (“true
lichens”) with 9 subspecies, 22 varieties and 2forms, and 24 are fungi, traditionally discussedin the literature on lichens.
In view of the global diversity of lichens with13,500 (Gilbert, 2000) to 20,000 species(Hawksworth, 1974) the number is relatively low.However, in comparison with the size of the ter-ritory and the fact that the flora of Britain andIreland comprises approximately 1,700 species,the lichens are relatively abundant in Slovenia.The Austrian colleagues believe that more than1,000 species will be identified when the entireterritory is researched. That is certainly possiblebecause only a few studies have been carried outlately concerning epilithic lichens whose diver-sity is much higher than that of epiphytic lichens.Large sections of Dolenjska and Primorska re-gions, parts of the Julian Alps and large sectionsof the Karavanke and the Kamnik and Savinja Alpsremain unresearched. The diversity of lichens istherefore relatively high in Slovenia. Neverthe-less, it is lower than expected because of the lim-ited patches of acidic bedrock, in particular barerocks and barren land of mountain taiga and tun-dra. Such flora is not as well developed inSlovenia as in Austria because of the significantlylower mountains. There are no eumediterraneanareas nor any steppe in Slovenia, and the lichenflora reflects such conditions. The attention haslately been focused on the study of epiphyticvegetation. That is why the current knowledgeabout epilithic and terrestrial lichens is insuffi-cient. Despite the high air pollution the epiphyticlichens are quite abundant, because Slovenianforests are well preserved and the agriculturalproduction is not too intensive.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 77. Epiphytelichens are good bio-indicators of airpollution.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 78. Much hasstill to be discoveredfrom lichens growingon the solid bedrock.
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68 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Distinctive features of lichens at the na-tional level
Contrary to the higher plants, there are noendemic lichen species in Slovenia because oftheir cosmopolitan nature. It should be taken intoaccount that extreme sites, such as deserts,steppes, arctic and mountain tundra and taiga,tidal areas and specific bedrock, where most en-demic lichen species occur at the global level,can not be found in Slovenia. However, it is pos-sible that endemic species will eventually be iden-tified in Slovenia.
With regard to the biogeographical and eco-logical conditions, the epyphytic lichens in for-ests stand out. In this respect two factors shouldbe mentioned: firstly, the relatively well preservedforests contribute to epyphytic and other lichenflora and, secondly, the extreme precipitationwhich together facilitate the growth of oceaniclichens in the Alps and Snežnik area. The lichenflora in Slovenia is characterised by species foundon limestone and dolomite. In Slovenia, the crys-talline bedrock, which is rich in lichens, is rarelyexposed. The lichen flora in lowlands, in particu-lar of the oak forests, has not yet been studied.Unfortunately, it has been significantly reducedbecause of the air pollution, deforestation andeutrophication.
Threats to the group. As a group, lichensare mostly threatened by air pollution. In the past,the most problematic were the emissions of sul-phur compounds, in particular sulphur dioxide,and, in specific areas, hydrogen fluoride. Theconsequence is the poor epiphytic lichen florain large cities (Ljubljana, Celje, Maribor, Kranj,Jesenice), in the vicinity of thermal power plants(Šaleška dolina, Zasavje) and in old industrialcentres (Mežiška dolina, Zasavje, Celje, Kidričevo,Idrija). The improved technologies, the closureof non-profitable companies and the rehabilita-tion of thermal power plants (Šoštanj) substan-tially reduced the emissions of sulphur com-pounds into the atmosphere. On the other hand,the emissions from transport and industry (vola-tile organic compounds, resistant polychlori-nated aromatic hydrocarbons) have increased inthe last decades. These substances pollute air, soiland water. It should be mentioned that thermalpower plants have reduced their emission of sul-phur compounds, but not the emissions of nitro-gen oxides and other pollutants. Lichens are ad-versely affected by large amounts of nitrogencompounds and biocide residues from agricul-ture. Due to the geographic position of the coun-try, the sources of pollution are not merely do-mestic. The movement of air masses from thewest towards the east contributes to thetransboundary pollution. Such pollution hasbeen recorded by the mapping in the Snežnikarea, Trnovski gozd and upper Posočje, where
most of the polluted precipitation deposit andwhere epiphytic lichens are significantly af-fected. The same factors cause the destructionof flora, in particular of epiphytic lichens, in theeast and north-east of Slovenia.
In addition to air pollution, the lichen vegeta-tion is slightly affected by the changes in the land-use, in particular by chemisation in agriculture.The most critical factors are eutrophication,caused by mineral and natural fertilizes, and theapplication of biocides. In comparison to thecountries with a well developed agricultural sec-tor, the situation in Slovenia is rather favourable.The intensity of production and the chemisationis limited to specific areas (the vicinity ofLjubljana, Kranj and Kamnik, Savinjska dolina,Podravje and Slovenske gorice, Prekmurje andthe wine-growing areas).
Undoubtedly, the guarantee of high diversityof lichens is the sustainable forestry which hasbeen enforced in Slovenia for decades.
The collecting of lichens for medical andother trade purposes does not present a seriousthreat, however the eutrophication promotes thespreading of indigenous but more adaptable spe-cies. The crust lichen species Scoliciosporumschlorococcum is now widely spread even thoughit was not listed in the past inventories.
The preliminary list of threatened species inSlovenia was compiled according to the catego-ries which are taken into account in the assess-ment of the threatened lichens in the world (Batič,1996).
Mycorrhizal fungi
Mycorrhiza, a permanent symbiotic associa-tion between plant roots and fungi hyphae, fa-cilitates the normal growth and development ofplants. It is of specific importance for their sur-vival in stress conditions. In the forest ecosys-tems of the north moderate (and boreal) climate,including 56 % of the territory of Slovenia,ectomycorrhiza prevails. Most absorption rootsof the prevailing forest tree species areectomycorrhizal roots. The mycelium ofectomycorrhizal fungi combines various bioticand abiotic components in forest soil and forestecosystem into an integral unit. The species com-position and abundance of mycorrhizal fungichange in various development stages of forests,in different sites and under the impact of variousdisturbances in the forest ecosystems. The effi-ciency of the symbiosis depends on the physiol-ogy of specific species and populations of allsymbionts in the mycorrhizosphere. The struc-ture of associations of mycorrhizal fungi is there-fore an important factor in the stability of forestecosystems.
69
The importance of mycorrhiza for the diver-sity of other organisms in terrestrial ecosystemsis evident from the fact that the diversity of fungicomponent in the soil is the essential conditionfor the diversity of flora and, very likely, for thestability of terrestrial ecosystems. This has beenconfirmed by many studies. It has been estab-lished on the basis of the research on the mycor-rhizal potential of sites, the impact of distur-bances in an ecosystem and the structural distri-bution of other ecosystem components, such aslarge wood residues, that the diversity of plantsand the productivity of an ecosystem increasewith the increased number of fungi symbionts.
Threats. Mycorrhizal fungi are mostly threat-ened by environmental pollution; the effects ofrecreational activities, (tourism and picking offorest fruit) on the compaction of forest soil; theexcessive picking of mushrooms; the impact offorest machinery during the felling and skiddingof wood on the compaction and damaging offorest soil; the effects of agricultural practices,the fertilisation with nitrogen compounds andthe pollution caused by discharges from animalfarms; the input of nitrogen compounds fromthese farms into the soil; the solid air depositsand precipitation; the fragmentation of extensiveforests; and the changes in the land-use catego-ries of natural terrestrial ecosystems. The intro-duction of non-indigenous mycorrhizal fungi isnot an issue in Slovenia. However, the situationabroad shows that negative impacts on the natu-rally occurring associations of mycorrhizal fungican be expected.
The conservation of ectomycorrhizal fungi isclosely associated with the conservation of natu-ral forest ecosystems in various developmentstages, the diverse species and diameter struc-ture of trees, the conservation of various forestmanagement practices and ‘protective’ forests,forest reserves, eco-cells, etc.
The issues related to endomycorrhizal fungiconcern grasslands, agricultural land and forestecosystems. Cooperation between experts in dif-ferent fields is needed for their research. Com-plex studies of associations of sensitive plantspecies with ericaceous, arbutoid, orchid andmonotropoid mycorrhiza are essential for theresearch on other forms of mycorrhiza.
In Slovenia, the mycorrhiza has been re-searched since the 1960s. However, the mappingof ectomycorrhizal types, which indicates thediversity of the mycorrhizal fungi component inthe forest soil far better than the mapping ofmushrooms, was systematically introduced inthe studies in the 1990s. The main advantage ofthe mapping of ectomycorrhiza over the map-ping of mushrooms is its reliability, since thedevelopment of fruiting bodies is highly irregu-lar and mushrooms are rather hard to find. Onthe other hand, the identification of the ectomy-corrhizal types is a lengthy and demanding pro-cess. It is necessary to combine the mapping ofmushrooms with the mapping of ectomycorrhizaand the mapping based on molecular ecology.
The uniform method for the identification andclassification of ectomycorrhizal types was de-signed in 1987 when the Colour Atlas ofectomycorrhizal types was first published. Themethod has been used in Slovenia since 1990. Inthe 1998 - 2000 period, the experts in Sloveniadesigned an internationally comparable databaseon samples of mycorrhizal fungi, by which fastidentification of an ectomycorrhizal type up tothe species level is possible, even for the ana-tomically extremely similar groups (Mycologicalcollection and herbarium of the Slovenian For-estry Institute).
Plant species
Plants are algae, mosses, vascular plants. Likeanimals, they are characterised by the diversityof species as the result of the geographical posi-tion, relief and geology of the area. The degree ofendemism is lower in algae and mosses, whichare highly cosmopolitan, than in seed-bearingplants where 66 taxa of limited range have beenidentified.
The conservation of the diversity of algaedepends mainly on the quality of the water.Mosses are threatened by the changes in their
Figure 79. Mycorriza,a symbiotic associa-tion between plantroots and hyphae ofcertain fungi, isessential for the growthof vascular plants.(P
ho
to: H
ojk
a K
raig
her
)
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70 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
living environment. These changes are the pre-vailing reason for the threats to vascular plants,which are additionally affected by the commer-cial exploitation as well.
Until now, no comprehensive overview of al-gae species and their area of distribution hasbeen done in Slovenia, except for the private da-tabase DABA. Algaeology has not been organisedwithin the national scientific institutions. The RedData List of threatened species has not yet beencompiled.
The catalogue of ‘true’ mosses and the rel-evant Red Data List, comprising the third of iden-tified species, are available. Liverworts have notbeen studied in detail, but the causes of threatare similar to those of mosses. Bryology is yetanother science which has not been organisedwithin the national research institutions.
More data are available for vascular plants.However, they are dispersed and of unequal qual-ity. The Red Data List of threatened species (1988)indicates one tenth of species found in Sloveniaas being endangered. Twenty-seven species be-came extinct over the last 100 years.
Freshwater algae
Algae is a general term used for a large groupof organisms which contain chlorophyll and arecapable of photosynthesis. That is why botanistsclassify them as plants. Indeed, many algae re-
semble true plants but, on the other hand, thereare algae which do not have a lot in commonwith plants. They are the most diverse group ofplant organisms. Some algae have remained atthe same developmental stage as their fossil re-mains from billions of years ago, while othersspecialised significantly during evolution and arenow found all over the world.
The simple structure, fast growth and repro-duction as well as the ability to adapt to the mostextreme ecological conditions enabled algae toinhabit sites where other organisms could notsurvive. Algae are found in different ecosystems:on land, in the sea and freshwater, and in extremeecosystems, such as snow, thermal waters andcaves. Some live in symbiosis with other organ-isms, such as fungi, but also in lichens and withother plants and animals. The overview of thestatus of algae is focused merely on speciesfound in freshwater ecosystems. Such algae sig-nificantly differ in size. Some are microscopic,their size is only one micrometer. Others can growup to one meter. Photosynthetic pigments enablealgae to feed autotrophically. However, amongthese species some can constantly or occasion-ally feed on organic substances. Even though theaquatic environment seems more uniform thanthe terrestrial, the diversity of species in water ismuch higher. With regard to the actual locationin water, algae are divided into two main groups:algae floating in water (phytoplankton), and al-gae adhering to the bottom (periphyton). Mostalgae in freshwater habitats are blue-green algae(Cyanophyta), green algae (Chlorophyta), dia-toms (Bacillariophyta) and red algae (Rhodo-phyta). Other taxa occur as well, such as goldenalgae (Chrysophyta), yellow-green algae (Xantho-phyta), cryptomonads (Cryptophyta) and fire al-gae (Pyrrophyta) which are mostly found as phy-toplankton. Even though these species differ inevolution, genetic traits and chemical character-
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 80. Eryngiumalpinum, is rare andendangered, therefore alegally protected species.
Table 19: Number offreshwater algaespecies and subspeciesidentified in Sloveniafrom 1900 to 2000(DABA database,2000).
Taxonomic No. of speciesgroup (subspecies included)Cyanophyta 421Euglenophyta 135Cryptophyta 8Dynophyta 29Chlorophyta
- Chlorophyceae 395- Zygnematophyceae 477
Heterokontophyta
- Bacillariophyceae 279- Chrysophyceae 59- Xsantophyceae 62
Phaeophyceae 1Rhodophyceae 20Total 1,886
71
istics, their form is common. The morphologicaldiversity of blue-green algae, green algae and dia-toms, with their unicellular, colonial and thread-like structure, is rich.
In view of the ecology and environmentalpollution, algae are useful as indicators of thepollution of aquatic ecosystems. The problemsconcerning the pollution of water occasionallyarouse the interest of the public in algae, for ex-ample at the time of the algal bloom of lakes(Sedmak & Kosi, 1997) and the Adriatic sea.
Diversity of freshwater algae in Slove-nia. The first data on research on algae inSlovenia date back to 1845 when Kützing men-tioned Slovenia in his Phycologia germanica. Afew studies followed, which indicated algae sitesin Slovenia. The first systematic research wasdone by Lazar. In the period from 1937 to 1957, heidentified 977 algae species and varieties in morethan 1,000 sites. Prior to his studies, only 512 spe-cies had been identified in Slovenia. His work,Algae of Slovenia was published in 1960. It listedall known freshwater species, their sites and theidentification keys, including the relevant illus-tration material. He concluded his rich and ex-tensive research with Distribution of freshwateralgae in Slovenia which was published by theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1975.All algae of Slovenia, identified by him or his pre-decessors, are listed in that publication. Lazar wasfollowed by Golubić, who studied lithophyticalgae in certain regions of Yugoslavia, includingŠkocjanske jame where 11 blue-green algae spe-cies were found. In 1974 Munda supplementedthe list of algae in Slovenia by 97 new species ofwhich 82 were diatoms. After 1990 the idea of asystematic overview of algae in Slovenia was re-vived again. First, the old, already published datawere arranged in the data base. It was soon foundout that specific geographical areas had not beenresearched and that some water ecosystems haddisappeared. That stimulated the Slovene algolo-gists to supplement the already started work withmodern and applicable aspects. By 1998 the gapwas filled and some less known geographicalregions were researched. It is estimated that thereare approximately 26,000 species of freshwateralgae in the world (Stevenson, 1996). So far 1886species, including blue-green algae, have beenidentified in Slovenia. It is not easy to verify thisnumber because the data relate to water ecosys-tems which are long gone or have been changedor polluted. However, the number of newly dis-covered species keeps increasing. The data onalgae in Slovenia, which are constantly supple-mented, are entered into the DABA data basewhere different users have access to them.
A comparison of the national data with theUNEP data is not possible because the UNEP listsinclude freshwater and marine algae.
Threats. In view of the fact that most algaeare cosmopolitan, but still associated with spe-cific aquatic ecosystems, they are not consideredas a threatened group. Moreover, it is difficult tosay that any algae species are threatened.
Due to the insufficient research, the problemsconcerning threats to individual species seem lessacute in comparison to higher plants and ani-mals. When a specific species disappears it isvery likely that it will emerge again, but only if asupporting ecosystem is available which facili-tates their colonisation and competitiveness.
More problematic are threats to water ecosys-tems. The loss of specific ecosystems, and thechanges within them, cause the quality and quan-tity changes in algae associations. These changescan be seen in the drainage of marshes, the canali-sation of rivers (expansion of urbanised areas,construction), the construction of reservoirs andthe pollution of river ecosystems. The canali-sation of rivers and streams drastically alters itsbasic ecological conditions, such as substrate,light and water flow. The pollution of water inwatercourses causes the changes in the structureand functioning of the periphyton (Smolar, 1997).Similar are the consequences of intensive touristand recreational activities (bathing, canyoning,rafting). In most of the indicated cases the diver-sity of species is lost. Species which easily adaptto the changes in an ecosystem become abun-dant. An example is the river Sava where the num-ber of species decreases downstream from theheadwater area (Zelenci) (Vrhovšek, 1983). Ifthese changes are the result of the canalisationof rivers and streams or the pollution of waterbodies, the diversity of an ecosystem may be re-stored with its revitalisation and reduced pollu-tion. In cases when the changes are permanent,for example the drainage of wetlands, the algaespecies in this area are lost forever.
A special category of water bodies are lakeecosystems and artificial reservoirs where thechanges in the algae associations can be observedin short-term periods. Lake Blejsko jezero is themost studied of such water bodies. More than200 algae species were found there in differentperiods. Many of them have already disappeared(Vrhovšek & Kosi, 1981). In artificial reservoirs,the transitions from the diverse pioneer associa-tions of phytoplankton algae after the contain-ment of water to the intensive bloom of specificalgae species, usually blue-green algae, are fre-quent. These phenomena are caused by the an-thropogenic, not natural, ageing of lakes. The re-sult is the direct confrontation of algae with hu-mans, in particular when the toxic blue-greenalgae occur masively (Kosi, 1999).
Threatened species. Only a few countrieshave compiled a complete Red Data List of fresh-water algae (Germany, Lange-Bertalot, 1999). No
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72 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
data on endemic freshwater algae species areavailable in Slovenia. It is generally believed thatall oligotrophic freshwater systems are threat-ened because the pollution and canalisation ofsuch water bodies increases the threats to algae.In Slovenia enough data have been collected tofacilitate the compilation of the lists of rare andthreatened freshwater algae species.
On the basis of the DABA database on algae itwould be possible to prepare a list of specieswhich live exclusively in specific areas but it isbelieved that the list would not reflect the actualstatus of rare and threatened species due to theinsufficient research on such sites.
The knowledge about the extreme freshwaterecosystems will supplement the understandingof the presence of algae and facilitate their rea-sonable protection. Regular studies will providean insight into the diversity of algae and facili-tate meeting the requirements of the ratifiedagreements which are stipulated and proposedby the international organisations dealing withbiodiversity and threatened species.
Mosses, liveworts andhornworts (bryophyta)
On the basis of the taxonomic approach ac-cording to Corley and colleagues (1981), Corleyand Crundwell (1991), Düll (1992) and Groll(2000) the Europe flora of mosses comprise intotal 1 96 species. Of these, 1235 are ‘true’ mosses(Musci), 453 liverworts (Marchantiopsida) and 8hornworts (Anthocerotopsida). In Slovenia 790species have been found, 632 ‘true’ mosses, 156liverworts and 2 hornworts (Düll et al., 1999).
Slovenia is relatively rich in mosses (51 % of‘true’ moss species found in Europe and 33.5 %of liverworts and hornworts).
The research on mosses began relatively earlyin Slovenia. The first data were provided byScopoli in the first edition of Flora Carniolica(1760). In the second edition (1772), he indicated75 moss species that were found in the territoryof Carniola. Until the 20th century most informa-tion on moss flora in Slovenia was provided byforeigners, for example J. Breidler and J. Glo-wacki. Among the rare Slovene researchers S.Robič (1893) and J. Šafer (herbarium collection)should be mentioned. In the last 50 years, the re-searchers interested in mosses were S. Grom andA. Martinčič.
Characteristics of bryoflora. Mosses inSlovenia are mainly psychrophilic species foundat higher altitudes, such as arctic-orophytic,orophytic and boreal mosses, which representone fourth of ‘true’ moss species. Particularly in-teresting are specific old species, presumably
Tertiary, which are limited to the south fringe ofthe Alps (for example Anoectangium aestivum,Geheebia gigantea, Scopelophila ligulata,Mielichhoferia mielichhoferioides). The influenceof the Mediterranean moss flora, which is ex-tremely rich and diverse to the south of Slovenia,is minute. From the ecological point of view, theAlpine, grassy or rock moss species, and the spe-cies found in raised bogs and fens, are impor-tant. A significant group, in particular with regardto the liverworts, comprises the species whichgrow on rotten tree trunks and stumps.
No ecological analysis has been conductedfor liverworts but the characteristics are undoubt-edly similar to the ‘true’ mosses.
In mosses the level of endemism is muchlower than in vascular plants. In many macro-disjunct ranges identical moss taxa occur in indi-vidual disjunctions even though they are distantand had been separated a long time ago. No en-demic Bryophyte species have been found inSlovenia. However, more than 10 endemic taxahave been described (in particular by Glowacki,Grom), mostly of the form level. The status ofother Bryophyta, which had first been describedas species or subspecies, is dubious. Only thefollowing taxa, all of the Musci group (Martinčič1966), should be considered:
� Bryum intermedium (Brid.) Bland. subsp.carniolicum (Glow.) Podp.
� Ctenidium molluscum (Hedw.) Mitt. var. dis-tinguendum Glow.
� Dicranum scoparium Hedw. var. harteliiGlow.
� Eucladium verticillatum (Brid.) B. S. & G.subsp. styriacum (Glow.) Amann
� Fissidens crassipes (Wils.) ex B. & S. var. re-kaënsis Pilous
� Orthotrichum cupulatum Brid. subsp. to-mentosum (Glow.) Martinčič
No endemic taxa of liverworts have been de-scribed.
Threats. A third of all moss species are in-cluded in one of the threatened species catego-ries. In comparison to some Central Europeancountries the number is relatively low. The rea-son lies in the restrictive approach. If new crite-ria, based on the number of sites, were used, theshare of threatened species would increase to 50%. The assessment of the degree of threat is closelyassociated with the degradation of moss habi-tats which disappear because of the natural pro-cesses, such as the natural encroachment of veg-etation on marshes and grasslands. Mosses areeven more threatened by human activities whichaffect the natural and semi-natural habitats - landreclamation, agricultural improvements, urbani-sation, construction of roads and the resulting
73
degradation of tree species. The threatened “true”mosses, as well as their sites, have been enteredin the Red Data List (Martinčič, 1992). However,the liverworts have only been listed by names(Martinčič, 1996).
Degree of research. Even though the terri-tory of Slovenia has not been evenly researched,the available data show that mosses are most di-verse in the Alpine and Dinaric regions wherethe amount of precipitation is the highest. Higheraltitudes contribute to the higher moisture con-tent of the air. The impact of the geology is re-flected in the increased diversity of mosses innon-carbonate bedrock dominated areas (silicatebedrock in Pohorje, andesite rock in Smrekovecrange, areas of porphyritic rock in the valley ofthe river Kokra). The bedrock has an indirect ef-fect. It alters the temperature and, in particular,moisture regime. In Slovenia, many habitats arestill preserved where the conditions for the de-velopment of mosses are suitable: raised bogs,fens, marsh grasslands, marsh forests, Alpine re-gions with bare rocks, snow-covered valleys andgrasslands, well preserved forest associationswith rotten trunks, primeval forest stands, numer-ous watercourses, in particular in the headwaterarea, rocky patches at all altitudes as well as thesecondary habitats - cultivated land, old fruittrees, stone walls, fish ponds.
The degree of research on ‘true’ mosses andliverworts is not equal. Musci species are rela-tively well known with regard to their number.Only a few new discoveries can be expected dur-ing further research. However, the situation isquite different for their area of distribution. Flo-ristically, the territory of Slovenia has not beenequally researched. Most data have been col-lected for the Julian Alps, Kamnik Alps, Pohorjeand the Dinaric region. The research on the sub-Alpine regions has been extremely irregular. The
data concerning the sub-Mediterranean and thesub-Dinaric area are scarce, but even less dataare available on the mosses of the Karavanke andthe sub-Pannonian region. The liverworts havenot been researched as well as ‘true’ mosses. It isexpected that another 190 to 200 species couldbe identified. Overall, the knowledge about thedistribution of moss species in Slovenia is ratherpoor. Moreover, many floristic data are over 50years old.
Ferns and angiosperms andgymnosperms
Approximately 250,000 ferns, angiospermsand gymnosperms are found in the world. TheEuropean flora is poorer than the flora of thetropics. Areas of high biodiversity of this group(species’ area of distribution centres) are in theAlps and the Mediterranean. In Slovenia, 3,266taxa of ferns and seed-bearing plants are found(Martinčič et al., 1999), making it a floristicallyrich European country.
The Slovenian flora is characterised by theAlpine and Central-European floristic elements.Its diversity is emphasised by the Pannonian,Dinaric and Mediterranean species
Threats. Around 19 % of all vascular plantsare threatened. In total 636 species were listed inthe Red Data List of threatened plants (Wraber &Skoberne, 1989, supplemented in 2001), 29 extinct(Ex), 80 endangered (E), 254 vulnerable (V) and257 rare (R).
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 81. Half of theEuropean species of“true” mosses can befound in Slovenia.
Ex Ex? E V R Total
‘True’ mosses 1 10 47 85 74 217
Liveworts &
hornworts 0 0 12 15 24 51
Table 20: Mosses inSlovenia by IUCNcategories (Martinčič,2000).
Figure 82. Matteuciastruthiopteris, consid-ered a rare species, yetthere are by now anumber of knownlocalities.(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the main causeof threats to plant species was the excessive pick-ing of attractive specimens, often with commer-cial interest. Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum)was protected as early as in 1896 in the Goricaregion. In the second half of the 20th century, themain causes of threats to plants were the changesin their living environment. Extensive canalisa-tion of rivers and streams, in association with ag-ricultural improvements, significantly affectedthe marsh vegetation, in particular in Vipavskadolina (Vipava Valley) and the north-east ofSlovenia. The number of sites of leper lily (Fritil-
SPECIES
74 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
laria meleagris) in the vicinity of Trzin and Pesnicaand along the river Ledava, as well as swampgladiolus (Gladiolus palustris) in Vipavska dolina,dropped significantly.
Grasslands are no longer cultivated and arebeing colonised by scrubs and trees. That threat-ens heliophilous species, such as yellow gentian(Gentiana lutea), Koch’s gentian (Gentianakochiana) and orchids of dry grasslands. Theflora of karst grasslands is also endangered (forexample, Paeonia officinalis, P. mascula, Fritil-laria tenella). The intensification of agriculturalproduction (mainly fertilisation) substantiallyreduces the number of species. Some turf spe-cies keep disappearing, for example Clusius’ gen-tian (Gentiana clusii), orchids and globeflower(Trollius europaeus).
A few species have died out due to thechanges in their habitats: pillwort (Pilulariaglobulifera) - the canalisation of the stream Lijak;dwarf birch (Betula nana) in Velo polje - the de-struction of the peatland; sea holly (Eryngiummaritimum) - the destruction of the sandy seashores.
A few local populations have been destroyed,in particular the species found in fens (construc-tion of a small industrial zone near Bled inhelocrene springs), for example the isolated in-land populations of maidenhair fern (Adiantumcapillus veneris) in the thermal spring in Pirniče.
Causes of threats are:
� changes in the habitat (changes in the waterregime and soil chemistry, urbanisation);
� commercial exploitation (herbs);
� direct destruction (picking).
Special attention and responsibility should bedevoted to the conservation of endemic taxa. Intotal 66 ferns and seed-bearing endemic plantscan be found in Slovenia (Table 15 - Wraber, 1996),22 of which grow mostly in Slovenia.
Graph 4: Threatenedfern and vascularplant species by IUCNcategories (Wraber &Skoberne, 1989 -supplemented 2001).
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
The research on the Slovenian flora reachesback to the 16th century (Mathioli, Clusius). Theimportant milestone was the publication of FloraCarniolica (1760 and 1772) by J. A. Scopoli. Hewas followed by a number of botanists who ac-cumulated a lot of data in their written work andherbariums (F. K. Wulfen, B. Hacquet, F. Hladnik,K. Zois, M. Tommasini, Ž. Graf, H. Freyer, A.Fleischmann, O. Sendtner, V. Plemel, F. Krašan, A.Paulin). The first identification key by A. Piskernikwas published in 1941. After the Second WorldWar, E. Mayer published List of flowering plantsand ferns of the Slovenian territory (Seznamcvetnic in praprotnic slovenskega ozemlja). In1969, Flora of Slovenia (1999), Register of Slovenia’sflora (Trpin & Vreš, 1995) and Materials for theAtlas of Flora of Slovenia (N. Jogan, 2001) werepublished.
In addition to the herbarium collections com-piled by institutions and individuals, the two cen-tral collections are kept at the Ljubljana Univer-sity Herbarium (LJU) and the Herbarium of theSlovenian Natural History Museum (PMS). An-other collection is kept at the Ljubljana BotanicalGarden which has been operating since 1810.
Despite the long tradition of research, it hasbeen established that the field regressed in thelast decade. The funds available for the principalactivities of the institutions are not equal to fundsin other fields, and the status of the herbariumsand the botanical garden has not been evaluatedand formalised. The data on flora are kept at vari-ous institutions. They are not connected and arethus not easily available.
Figure 83. Anemonehortensis, athermophyte inhabit-ing warm localities onlimestone bedrock, forexample at Stena in theDragonja valley.
Figure 84. Pulsatillagrandis, is anendangered species ofsteppe vegetation. InSlovenia it has onlytwo localities.
75
Animal species
General characteristics. With regard tobiodiversity, the status of animal species is rela-tively favourable. The level of endemism is fairlyhigh, in particular of the subterranean fauna.However, the populations of many species are indecline. Only the populations of a few speciesare increasing. It is suspected, that the generalstatus of specific groups, as well as areas, hasdeteriorated (subterranean species, impact oftransport and pollution, night lighting, etc.). Hu-man activities and the presence of humans innature cause increasing disturbances in ecosys-tems.
The taxa of subterranean organisms are ex-tremely important for biodiversity and musttherefore be protected. As an example, 170 taxafound in interstitial systems (groundwater) andunderground waters should be mentioned. Theyplace Slovenia among the richest areas in theworld with regard to the subterranean animals(Sket, 1995). Many of these species are endemicand some are found only in restricted sites (steno-endemic species). Olm (Proteus anguinus) wasdiscovered in Slovenia and is the endemic spe-cies of the Dinaric karst region (from Doberdobin Italy to Montenegro). An example of the steno-endemic species is Jugogammarus kusceri.
Table 21: Endemicangiosperms andgymnosperms inSlovenia (Wraber,1996).F
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 85. Primulacarniolica, is one of themost popular protectedendemic species inSlovenia.
Scientific name
Aconitum angustifoliumAconitum tauricum subsp. hayekianumAlchemilla carniolicaAlchemilla gracillimaAlchemilla illyricaAlchemilla pseudoexiguaAllium kermesinumAlyssum montanum subsp. pluscanescensAthamanta turbithCampanula justinianaCampanula marchesettii subsp. marchesettiiCampanula x vrtacensisCampanula zoysiiCentaurea haynaldii subsp. julicaCantaurea x vossiiCerastium julicumCerastium subtriflorumFestuca calvaFestuca laxaGentiana froelichiFestuca spectabilis subsp. carniolicaGentiana x komnensisGentianella liburnicaGentianella pilosaHelictotrichon petzenseHeracleum austriacum subsp. siifoliumHieracium crucimontisHieracium dragicolaHieracium leiocephalumHieracium pseudoborealeHieracium sanctoidesHladnikia pastinacifoliaIris acuta (I. erirrhiza)Iris cengialti f. vochinensisKnautia fleischmanniiLeontodon beriniiLeontodon brumatiiLeucanthemum lithopolitanicumMedicago pironaeMoehringia tommasiniiMoehringija villosaNigritella lithopolitanicaPapaver alpinum subsp. ernesti-mayeriPapaver alpinum subsp. victorisPastinaca sativa var. fleischmanniiPedicularis elongata subsp. julicaPotentilla micrantha subsp. carniolicaPrimula carniolicaPrimula x serratifoliaPrimula x venustaRanunculus aesontinusRanunculus pospichaliiRanunculus thora f. pseudoscutatusRanunculus traunfellneriRanunculus wraberiRubus trifoliatusSatureja x karstianaSaxifraga exarata subsp. atropurpureaSaxifraga exarata subsp. carniolicaSaxifraga hohenwartiiSaxifraga paradoxaSaxifraga tenellaScabiosa cinerea subsp. hladnikianaScopolia carniolica subsp. hladnikianaSempervivum juvaniiSilene veselskyi subsp. glutinosaSilene veselsky subsp. widderi
SPECIES
76 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Threats. The basic cause of threats to animalspecies is the degradation of habitats and eco-systems. The threats are posed by pollution,urbanisation and alterations in land-use. Theyinclude:
� activities (infrastructure, buildings) affect-ing the natural environment and sensitiveecosystems (wetlands, waters, caves, etc.);
� insufficient knowledge about the areas ofdistribution of threatened species and theirhabitats;
� abandonment of the economic exploitationof land which maintained the secondarybiodiversity (mowing of dry grasslands,grazing, meadow orchards);
� intensification of agriculture (drainage, fer-tilisation, etc.);
� hunting and fishing of specific threatenedspecies;
� collecting;
� insufficient knowledge, and ignoranceabout the factors which affect animals andthe degree of their endangerment;
� lack of information available to the deci-sion-makers, insufficient education on theconservation of animals and habitats;
� lack of systemic and financial support forthe ex situ and in situ conservation.
The general degree of research is irregu-lar. The basic biological data concerning numer-ous species are dispersed in scientific literature.
Degree of taxonomic research. The listof vertebrates of Slovenia is nearly complete (B.Kryštufek & Janžekovič, 1999). It is not expectedthat many new, non-confirmed species will befound, except marine vertebrates. Main gaps inthe taxonomic data concern amphibians (com-plexes of Rana esculenta, Hyla arborea/italicaand Bombina bombina/variegata) and reptiles(complex of Lacerta viridis).
As a result of the neglected taxonomic re-search on one hand, and the diversity of specieson the other, the situation is worse for inverte-brates. Except for some groups, the data werecollected unsystematically. Taxa lists (mostlypublished in the catalogues of the flora of Yugo-slavia) were compiled for the terrestrial and fresh-water molluscs (Bole, 1969), aquatic worms(Kerovec & N. Mršić, 1981, N. Mršić, 1991), isopodcrustaceans (B. Sket, 1964), amphipods (Karaman,1974), pseudoscorpions (Ćurčić, 1974), daddy-lon-glegs (J. Hadži, 1973), spiders (Nikolić & Polenec,1981) and myriapods (Strasser, 1971). Cataloguesof insects include springtails (Bogoević, 1968),grasshoppers, crickets and katydids (Us, 1968),dragonflies and damselflies (M. Kotarac, 1997),scorpion flies (B. Devetak, 1988), stoneflies(Sivec, 1980), true bugs (M. Gogala & A. Gogala,1986, 1989), butterflies and moths (J. Carnelutti,1992) and bees (A. Gogala, 1999). With regard tobeetles, the catalogues were compiled for cara-bids (B. Drovenik & Peks, 1994), cave Calosoma(Pretner, 1968), ground Calosoma (Nonveiller etal., 1999), longhorn beetles (Althof & Danilevsky,1997) and hydrocanthares (Gueorguiev 1971).
Biology and ecology of species and popu-lations. The marine meiofauna and benthic in-vertebrate fauna, including their ecology, are in-ventoried and researched at the Marine BiologyStation in Piran (Avčin & Vrišer, 1983, and Vrišer,1989). Biological data were compiled for mam-mals (B. Kryštufek, 1991), birds (J. Gregori &Krečič, 1979, Božič, 1983, A. Sovinc, 1994, I. Geister,1995), reptiles (N. Mršić, 1997), freshwater bonyfish and hagfish (M. Povž & B. Sket, 1990), grass-hoppers, crickets and katydids (Us, 1992), drag-onflies and damselflies (M. Kotarac, 1997) andthreatened butterflies (T. Čelik & F. Rebeušek, 1996).
Degree of research on distribution. Themaps on species area of distribution (point dataor data according to the UTM system) are available
Figure 86 (above).
Proteus anguinus, anendemic species of theDinaric karst, is thebiggest subterraneanvertebrate species anda symbol of Sloveniannatural history.
Figure 87 (below).
Euscorpius sp., dataare lacking on thestatus of endangeredscorpion species.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
77
for mammals (B. Kryštufek, 1991), birds (A.Sovinc, 1994, I. Geister, 1995), reptiles (S. Tome,1996), dragonflies and damselflies (M. Kotarac,1997) and threatened butterfly species (Čelik & F.Rebeušek, 1996). Distribution maps of specificspecies or lower taxonomic groups have beenpublished.
Threatened species. The national Red DataList of threatened animal species had been com-piled (J. Vidic, 1992) and was later on updated inthe Overview of the status and perspectives innature (J. Gregori et al., 1996). Specific Red DataLists were drawn up for dragonflies and dam-selflies (M. Kotarac, 1997) and birds (Bračko etal., 1994). Detailed analyses were conducted onbirds (I. Geister, 1998) as well as butterflies andmoths (Čelik & F. Rebeušek,1996).
Of 635 vertebrates, identified in Slovenia(Vidic, 1992), 238 are threatened (Ex - 19, E - 56, V- 116, R - 47) (Graph 5). The most threatened taxaare amphibians. The data on invertebrates areincomplete and limited to specific taxa.
Groups of vertebrates No of species
freshwater fishes and lampreys 85
marine fishes 188
amphibians 22
reptiles 24
birds 233
mammals 83
Overview by taxonomic groups. In detail,those groups are presented for which the dataare available and which are studied by at leastone expert. The overview starts with inverte-brates, followed by vertebrates. A special groupare subterranean freshwater species which are acharacteristic of the Slovenian karst regions andfor which special conservation measures shouldbe established.
Molluscs - terrestrial andfreshawater (Mollusca)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Molluscs are a large animal taxa with al-
SPECIES
most 70,000 species recognised world-wide. Therepresentatives of 6 classes live in the sea. Theland and freshwaters were inhabited only bysnails and slugs (Gastropoda) and bivalves(Bivalvia). More than 20,000 species are terres-trial. They belong to two subclasses, proso-branchs (Prosobranchia) and pulmonates(Pulmonata). On the surface, both groups live inwater and on land. The subterranean Prosobran-chia species almost exclusively inhabited waters,and the subterranean Pulmonata species theland. Most slugs and snails are herbivorous, someare omnivorous. Among them, predators and can-nibals can be found. Subterranean species feedon microscopic organisms and organic materialmixed with clay. Most are hermaphrodites, somespecies are unisexual and some reproduce by par-thenogenesis. In inland Slovenia, the bivalves ofthe subclass Heterodonta include 3 families. Mostare undemanding and well adapted to their envi-ronment and can be found in various aquatichabitats.
Table 22: Number ofvertebrate species bytaxa in Slovenia.
Graph 5: Threatenedvertebrates in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories (Vidic, 1992).
Degree of reasearch. In Slovenia 323 slugand snail species and 18 bivalve species havebeen identified. With regard to the size of the ter-ritory, Slovenia is probably among the richestregions in the world, because one sixtieth of allterrestrial slugs and snails and bivalves are foundhere. In total, 62 aquatic prosobranchs of the fam-ily Hydrobiidae, of which 44 are endemic spe-cies, can be found in Slovenia. Of 38 subterra-nean prosobranchs found, 28 are endemic. Amember of the family Carychiidae is Zospeumspelaeum which was found in Postojnska jama inthe first half of the 19th century. It is the first iden-tified cave snail in the world. The most frequentbivalve genus of the family Spheridae is pea mus-sel (Pisidium) with eight species. The familyUnionidae is represented by 4 genera and thefamily Dreissenidae by 2 genera with one spe-cies each.
Endemic species. There are 12 species ofsnails of Zospeum genus in Slovenia. Of these, 10are endemic. All 12 species represent more thana half of all world species of this genus which isdistributed from the Pyrenees to Montenegro.
Graph 6 : Threatenedmolluscs in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories.
78 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Slovenia is the genus’s range centre and here thelevel of differentiation is highest. The endemicspecies are also Kerkia kusceri and Hadziella krkae.
Molluscs are threatened by:
� decline in the diversity of surface standingwater and number of river sources;
� changes in the water regime;
� introduction of non-indigenous species.
Leeches (Hirudinea)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Leeches mainly inhabit freshwaters. Somespecies are inland and some marine. Most ofthem live in eutrophic standing and slow, run-ning water. More than a half of them are preda-tors and some are parasites - they live on aquaticwater snails, fish and endothermal vertebrates.Medicinal leeches (Hirudo medicinalis) are oc-casionally used for medical and pharmaceuticalpurposes.
Endemic species. The endemic species,whose area of distribution extends from the southof Slovenia to the Croatian Istria and Italian Karst,is Dina krasensis.
Threats. The two main causes of the threatsare:
� destruction of eutrophic puddles and simi-lar habitats;
� water pollution.
Figure 88. Helixpomatia, the Romansnail is appreciated asa culinary speciality. Itused to be massivelygathered. The species isprotected in Slovenia,meaning that onlyfarm-bred snails areallowed to be sold. (P
ho
to: M
atja
ž B
edja
nič
)(P
ho
to: M
atja
ž B
edja
nič
)
Degree of research. In Slovenia, around 25leech species have been identified. One of themis a marine species, two are inland and otherslive in freshwaters. The number of species is simi-lar to that in the neighbouring countries sincethe areas of distribution of the Central Europeanspecies are rather extensive. The mentioned num-ber represents more than 25 % of all Europeanleeches (90 species). Leeches in Slovenia are rela-tively well studied. However, it can be expectedthat the current molecular research will helpsolve some of the taxonomic classification prob-lems.
Figure 89. Haemopissanguisuga, is stillcommon in Sloveniaand can be found inponds, puddles andcanals. The Horse Leechis not a blood-suckerbut feeds on carcasses,unlike the endangeredspecies, Hirudomedicinalis, for whichit is often mistaken.
Spiders (Araneae)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Spiders are a numerous animal taxa. Mostspecies are predators feeding on a wide range ofprey. Their diversity mostly depends on the di-versity of habitats. Spiders inhabit various terres-trial habitats, from karst cave rockwalls, under-ground passages, leaf litter, all sorts of vegeta-tion, rocks, screes and even glaciers. More than
Graph 7 (left):
Threatened leeches inSlovenia according tothe IUCN categories.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 90. Karstmeadows are rich inthermophilic species,including spiders.
79
40,000 spider species have been identified. Notmany of them inhabit caves and other subterra-nean habitats, which indicates that such habitatsare not suitable for them. In the humid, entranceparts of caves mostly troglodytic species arefound. These species are rather generally distrib-uted. Subterranean spiders are found all over theSlovenian karst regions. They are mostly truetroglobionts and their area of distribution is there-fore rather limited. A number of species are mi-cro-cavernicolous which means they do not livein real caves but in pits and tunnels made by smallmammals and in rocky rubble.
Degree of research. The first cavernicolousspider Stalita taenaria was discovered and de-scribed in Postojnska jama. The Slovenian spiderfauna is not well researched. Until now, 530 spe-cies (29 subterranean) have been identified butthe experts believe that over 800 species couldbe found in Slovenia. The east of the country isinhabited by poor forest communities of spiders,mainly of the Central European species. How-ever, in the south-west, much richer forest com-munities of Mediterranean, Central Europeanand Dinaric species can be found. The typicalMediterranean elements stretch from the coastover the Karst escarpment to the slopes of Nanosmountain and Vipavska dolina. Among the im-portant Dinaric species, those of the genera Stalita,Mesostalita, Parastalita in Troglohyphantes shouldbe mentioned.
Endemic species. Most endemic specieshave been identified in the Alpine region becausethe area was researched in greater detail. Otherendemic species can be found in karst caves andhigh karst regions. The areas of distribution of alltroglobionts are rather limited and thereforethese are endemic species. A few species, someof them exclusively, live in karst areas which bor-der on Croatia, Italy and Austria.
Threats. The main causes of threats to spi-ders are:
� anthropogenic changes of landscape, inparticular agriculture;
� drainage of standing water;
� direct destruction and tourist exploitationof caves;
� pollution of caves.
Daddy-longlegs (Opiliones)
Basic characteristics and number of species.With regard to the number of species, daddy-lon-glegs (Opiliones) are considered a smaller groupof arachnids (Arachnida). Around 5,000 specieshave been identified around the world. They canbe found from the tropical areas to the sub-Arc-tic regions. Approximately 300 species live inEurope. Daddy-longlegs live in terrestrial ecosys-tems and habitats, on and in the soil. Some caneven be found underground.
Degree of research. Until now, 63 Opilionesspecies have been identified in Slovenia. Themaximum potential number is expected to be 68.Slovenia is believed to be one of the evolutioncentres of the genus Trogulus with 8 identifiedspecies.
Endemic species. None of the Opiliones havebeen found only in Slovenia, although two spe-cies are endemic to the Julian Alps (Ischyropsalis
SPECIES
Endemic species Locality
Zelotes oblongus (C.L. Koch) Kubed, DivačaZodarion scutatum Wunderlich SlavnikZodarion italicum (Canestrini) KubedTroglohyphantes diabolicus Deeleman DobrovljeTroglohyphantes confusus Kratochvil Ivanje selo (Pivka),
Žirovski VrhTroglohyphantes helsdingeni Deeleman Menina planinaTroglohyphantes poleneci Wiehle Mala Hrastnica, Osovnik,
Preska, Šmarna goraTroglohyphantes thaleri Miller & Polenec Slovenske gorice,
Goričko, RaduhaTroglohyphantes vicinus Miller & Polenec Ratitovec, ČešnjicaTroglohyphantes wiehlei Miller & Polenec Storžič, Golnik, Logarska
dolina, Križna goraTroglohyphantes trispinosus Pasja ravan, Dravh,Miller & Polenec Jelovica
Graph 8 (left):
Threatened spiders inSlovenia according to theIUCN categories.
Graph 9 (right):
Threatened Opilionesspecies in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories.
Table 23:
Endemic species ofAraneae in Slovenia andtheir localities(Polenec, 1992).
80 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Table 24: Number ofEntomostraca speciesin Europe andSlovenia.
muellneri) and the Kamnik and Savinja Alps andEast Karavanke (Ischyropsalis hadzii).
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� degradation of forest soil - clearcuts, remov-al of waste biomass, litter utilisation of for-ests, etc. (forest management);
� ploughing, fertilisation, spraying, intensivecultivation of arable land;
� changes in riverine habitats and wetlands;
� intensive tourism in specific mountain ar-eas.
Entomostracans (Entomostraca)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. The inland waters of Slovenia are inhab-ited by 4 groups of entomostracans (Entomo-straca): fairy shrimps, phyllopods, copepods andseed shrimps. In Europe around 36 fairy shrimp(Anostraca) species have been identified. Theymainly live in intermittent water holes. Approxi-mately 400 Phyllopoda species have been discov-ered in the world, in Europe around 150. Mostspecies live in standing or slow running water. Anumerous group are copepods (Copepoda). Sev-eral thousands have been globally identified.They are mainly free living but some are para-sites. Seed shrimps (Ostracoda) are tiny (0,5 - 2mm) benthic crustaceans. Many species live un-derground. Around 50,000 species have been iden-tified around the world. Due to their high abun-dance, entomostracans are very important innutrient cycling and energy flow in a variety ofaquatic ecosystems.
Degree of research. In the past, entomost-racans were not studied in detail in Slovenia.Only in the last two decades have the freshwaterspecies been researched intensively. The waterflea fauna of the mountain lakes in the JulianAlps and in the plankton of the lowland lakes, aswell as the copepods of large cave systems, have
been studied well. In total, 4 species of fairyshrimps, around 60 species of phyllopods andmore than 105 species of copepods have beenidentified in Slovenia. The research on seedshrimps (around 18 species) is incomplete.
Group No. of species No. of species
in Europe in Slovenia
Anostraca 36 4
Cladocera 150 60
Copepoda 460 105
Endemic species. Most endemic species arefound in karst areas. There are 16 known endemicspecies of Entomostraca in Slovenia: 2 phyllo-pods (Alona stochi in Kompoljska jama and Alonasketi in Osapska jama) and 14 copepods. It is ex-pected that many more endemic Ostracoda andCopepoda species will be discovered in the karstareas. An interesting species is Chirocephaluscroaticus which is endemic to Dalmatia andSlovenia. Here it has only been found in lakePetelinje jezero and in the sporadically occurringwaterholes in the area of Cerkniško jezero.
Threats. The two main causes for threats are:
� pollution of underground and surface wa-ters;
� drainage of marshes.
Freshwater and brackishwater malacostracans
(Malacostraca)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Malacostracans (Malacostraca) are dividedinto several groups: isopods (Isopoda), amphi-pods (Amphipoda), decapods (Decapoda) andBathynellacea. Around 50 Bathynellacea specieshave been identified in Europe. Most of them areomnivorous, feeding on decaying organic mat-ter on the surface or detrital material in the un-derground.
Degree of research. Freshwater and brack-ish isopods found in Slovenia belong to around20 species and subspecies. The fauna of the fresh-water isopods (Isopoda) is among the richest inEurope, owing exclusively to the subterraneanspecies. Around 50 species of freshwater andbrackish amphipods (Amphipoda) can be foundin Slovenia. In the inland waters, 3 crayfish andlobster species (Astacidae) and 4 shrimp andprawn species (Atyidae and Palaemonidae) havebeen identified. In the interstitial waters ofSlovenia two Bathynellacea species have beenfound (Bathynella natans and Parabathynellastygia). The mentioned crustacean groups havebeen researched only moderately. The range of(P
ho
to: J
ana
Vid
ic)
Figure 91.
Austropotamobiustorrentium, inhabitsthe waters of theDanube catchment.
81
specific species is not yet known. Some speciesand races have not yet been described.
Endemic species. Among the isopods 16 en-demic species have been identified in Slovenia(Table 25). Proasellus istrianus is an endemic spe-cies to Slovenia and the border areas of Italy andCroatia. Several species of the same genus aredistributed in interstitial and cave waters aroundthe territory. Mostly they are endemic.
Moreover, several stigophilic and stigobionticNiphargus species are also endemic. In all, 12endemic species of amphipods can be found inSlovenia (Table 26).
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� pollution of karst underground streams,cave waters and groundwater;
� pollution of watercourses and lakes,
� pollution of coastal fresh and brackish wa-ter;
� landfilling, drainage and pollution of back-waters.
Chilopods (Chilopoda)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Chilopods are predatory myriapods. Theyare the most numerous predators of largearthropods in European forests. They play animportant role in controlling the sizes of popula-tions of terrestrial invertebrates. More than 3000chilopods have been identified world-wide, ap-proximately 500 in Europe. They mostly live insoil, under rocky rubble and rotten wood, in lit-ter. They can be found from the tidal zone to highmountains. Due to their predatory feedingbehaviour and position on the trophic level,chilopods are extremely sensitive to the accumu-lation of specific pollutants.
Degree of research. In Slovenia, 98 specieshave been identified but the experts believe thatat least 12 more have not yet been described. For-est ecosystems are the best researched habitatsfor chilopods. Riparian, grassland and field habi-tats have been researched to a lesser degree.
Endemic species. The species Lithobiuszveri is well known due to the first description ofa specimen found in Planinska jama. As far as itis known the species is endemic to the Postojna-Planina cave system. In Slovenia, there are 35endemic Chilopoda species with extremely smallareas of distribution.
Threats. The main cause of their threat is thepollution of their living environment.
SPECIES
Table 25 (top):
Endemic freshwaterIsopoda species inSlovenia.
Table 26 (above):
Endemic Amphipodaspecies in Slovenia;
Scientific name NoteAsellus aquaticus carniolicus SketAsellus aquaticus cavernicolus Racovitza
Asellus aquaticus cyclobranchialis SketAsellus aquaticus irregularis Sket
Asellus aquaticus longicornis Sket
Proasellus deminutusProasellus parvulus (Sket) only in Slovenia
Proasellus pavani orientalis (Sket) only in SloveniaProasellus slavus histriae (Sket) only in Slovenia
Proasellus slavus “variabilis” nomen nudum only in SloveniaProasellus slovenicus (Sket)
Monolistra (Typhlosphaeroma) racovitzai conopyge Sket
Monolistra (Microlistra) bolei bolei Sket only in SloveniaMonolistra (Microlistra) bolei brevispinosa Sket only in Slovenia
Monolistra (Microlistra) calopyge Sket
Monolistra (Microlistra) spinosissima Racovitza
Scientific name NoteNiphargus aberrans Sket only in SloveniaNiphargus hadzii Rejic
Niphargus illidzensis slovenicus St. Karaman only in SloveniaNiphargus timavi St. Karaman
Niphargus puteanus spoeckeri Schellenberg only in SloveniaNiphargus sphagnicolus Rejic
Niphargus stenopus Sket only in Slovenia
Niphargus stygius stygius (Schioedte)Niphargobates orophobata Sket only in Slovenia
Carinurella paradoxa Sket only in SloveniaJugogammarus kusceri S. Karaman
Ingolfiella beatricis Ruffo & Vonk
Graph 10 (above
left): ThreatenedMalaconstracansspecies in Sloveniaaccording to IUCNcategories.
Graph 11 (left):
Threatened Chilopods inSlovenia according tothe IUCN categories.
82 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Dragonflies and damselflies(Odonata)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Odonates are a group of insects with in-complete metamorphosis. They spend most oftheir lives, even several years, as larvae in water.Their adult stage is much shorter, usually onlyseveral weeks. Odonata species in Europe andSlovenia are divided into two suborders: damself-lies (Zygoptera) and dragonflies (Anisoptera).Odonata larvae and adults are predators and con-tribute to the maintenance of the ecological bal-ance in their living environment. Dragonflies anddamselflies are important bioindicators. The sur-vival of a species depends on various factors andstructures in their aquatic and terrestrial habitats.The diversity of dragonflies and damselfliestherefore indicates the status of preserved aqua-tic and terrestrial environment.
Endemic species. No endemic Odonata spe-cies have been found in Slovenia.
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� eutrophication and the destruction of theecological structure of the standing waterecosystems;
� excessive population of every standing wa-ter body with fish;
� altering the natural species composition offish fauna and introduction of non-indige-nous fish species;
� canalisation of rivers and streams and thusthe destruction of the natural river dynam-ics and riverine wetlands;
� drainage of marshes and periodical wetlands;
� mechanised clearing of channels and drain-age ditches;
� removal of riverine vegetation;
� reactivation of old clay and gravel pits forthe conservation of biodiversity.
Stoneflies (Plecoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Almost 3000 stonefly species are distributedaround the world, except in the Antarctic and re-mote ocean islands. They can only be found onthe islands close to the land which used to bepart of the continents. Stonflies are insects whichspend most of their lives as larvae in water. Adultslive on land and are poor flyers. They stay nearthe water, rest in the riparian vegetation or hide
(Ph
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Approximately 6000 odonates have been de-scribed around the world. They are most abun-dant in tropical areas. Only around 130 can befound in Europe.
Degree of research. Odonatology has along tradition in Slovenia. At the end of the 17thand in the 18th centuries, the odonates were ingeneral studied by J. V. Valvasor and I. A. Scopoli.After the Second World War the SlovenianOdonata fauna was first inventoried by BoštjanKiauta. In the territory of the country,54 specieswere found. Under the auspices of the SlovenianDragonfly Society, the mapping of the Odonatafauna was conducted in the period from 1991 to1997. The result is the publication of Atlas of theDragonflies (Odonata) of Slovenia with the RedData List. According to the collected data 73 spe-cies occur in Slovenia. No new discoveries areexpected.
Figure 92. Calopteryxvirgo is most com-monly found along thetorrents in the hillyareas. While males arebrightly coloured,females are drabbrown in colour.
Graph 12: Threateneddragonflies inSlovenia according tothe IUCN categories.
Graph 13: Threatenedstoneflies in Sloveniaaccording to IUCNcategories.
83
under the rocks. Most stoneflies do not feed, butlive on the food they had accumulated duringthe larvae stage. Adults do not live long, for onlya few hours to several weeks. Particular speciesonly occur during a specific season. They areextremely sensitive to the reduced oxygen con-tent and the presence of toxic substances in wa-ter and are thus important bioindicators in thebiological evaluation of the quality of surfacewaters.
Degree of research. The first data onstoneflies can be found in the works by NicolausPoda (1761) and J. A. Scopoli (1763). In Slovenia,the detailed and systematic studies of this insectgroup started in the late 1970s and early 1980s.Stoneflies are a relatively well researched group,approximately 100 species have been identified.
Endemic species. No endemic stonefly spe-cies are limited to the Slovenian territory. Numer-ous species of the Leuctra genus are typical Al-pine endemits (Leuctra helvetica, L. alpina, L.pseudorosinae, L. armata, L. braueri, L. autumna-lis, L. signifera and L. pseudosignifera). In the Alps,the following species can also be found: Protone-mura nimborum, P. julia, Isoperla lugens, I. goertziand I. pusilla. The endemic species Leuctraistenicae is found in Pohorje. Perla illiesi, Brachy-ptera tristis, Isoperla illyrica and I. inermis areendemic to the Balkans.
The two main causes of the threats are:
� water pollution;
� activities affecting the water environmentand the riparian vegetation.
Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. In the world, the genus of mayflies is repre-sented by around 2000 species. They are distrib-uted nearly all over the world, except in Antarc-tica, parts of the Arctic and some islands (forexample, the Maldives). Highest mayfly diversityis found in the running water of the temperatezones. Ephemeroptera belong to the aquatic in-sects with incomplete metamorphosis. Theyspend most of their life as larvae in water. Meta-morphosis into the adult stage has two stages. Inthe first stage they moult to a winged form (thesubimago) which is characteristic only for may-flies. After a brief period, few hours or days, theyfurther moult into a mature adults. Adults only livefor a few hours, they do not feed and merely usethe stored energy for reproduction. Due to theirwidespread distribution and sensitivity to pollu-tion, mayflies are used as bioindicators in themonitoring of water quality. Mayfly larvae mostlyfeed on periphyton and are an important sourceof food for fish.
Country Number of speciesSlovenia 65 (77)Austria 88Switzerland 82Italy 84Slovak Republic 91
Czech Republic 101
Degree of research. After the Second WorldWar the first written record on mayfly species inSlovenia was published by Tanasijević in 1974.The systematic research on mayflies only beganin 1996. In the past, 77 species were describedbut new researches confirmed the existence of65 species in Slovenia. The information on 8 spe-cies is available only in literature, and the accu-racy of the classification should be verified for 4species. The list of mayflies is still rather incom-plete. Many habitats, particularly lentic (lakes,fish ponds), have not been enough studied. Dueto the difficult sampling, the species inhabitingthe lower parts of large rivers are not well known.Some completely unknown. It is believed that themayfly fauna, in particular of the families Baeti-dae and Caenidae, is much more diverse thanhad been mentioned.
Endemic species. Based on the written data,two endemic species can be found in Slovenia.
SPECIES
Figure 93. Plecoptera,most of its brief life isspent within theriparian vegetation.
(Ph
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ern
e)
Table 27: Abundanceof mayflies in Sloveniain comparison withsome Europeancountries.
Graph 14: Threatenedmayflies in Sloveniaaccording to IUCNcategories.
84 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
(Ph
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Ecdyonurus siveci was found in the area of theriver Ščavnica near Maribor and the river Savinjanear Luče and Electrogena vipavensis in the areaof the river Vipava near Ajdovščina. During thecurrent studies none of the findings of endemicspecies were confirmed. In Slovenia, 7 speciesof the genus Rhithrogena are endemic to the Alps:R. allobrogica, R. colmarsensis, R. degrangei, R.endenensis, R. landai, R. puthzi and R. vaillanti.Rhithrogena braaschi is a species endemic to theBalkans. An interesting feature is the presence ofsubspecies Ecdyonurus carpathicus carpathicuswhich is endemic to the Carpathians.
Threats. The two main causes of the threatsare:
� pollution of watercourses and lakes,� activities affecting the water environment
and the riparian zone.
Grasshoppers, crickets andkatydids (Orthoptera)
described world-wide. Most orthopterans live onplants, except specific families (Gryllotalpa,Grylloidea, Rhaphidophoridae) which live in up-per soil horizon or caves. However, most of themfind food on the surface. Orthopterans are eco-logically linked to specific habitats and are goodbioindicators of the status of their living environ-ment. Due to this link they are extremely sensi-tive to the changes in habitats, in particular thestenotopic and non-winged forms.
Degree of research. In Slovenia Orthopterawere occasionally studied by some West Euro-pean orthopterologists, for example F. Schmidtin the 19th and W. Ramme at the beginning of the20th century. The Orthoptera fauna of Sloveniawas most systematically studied by P. Us in hisFauna of Orthopteriod Insects of Slovenia, 1992.The contribution by the Swiss orthopterologistAdolf Nadig was important. During the last fewdecades many other authors published theirworks on Orthoptera fauna but the general levelof research is relatively low. However, the inter-est among professional biologists and amateurshas increased recently. Until now, 143 species ofsuborders Ensifera and Caelifera have been re-corded in Slovenia. The areas of distribution ofmost species are unknown. However, it is ex-pected that a few more species will be discov-ered.
Endemic species. No species endemic onlyto Slovenia have been identified, but Metriopterakuntzeni is endemic to the south-west Dinaricrange, Antaxius difformis to the south Alps,Chorthippus alticola rammei to the Julian Alps,Karavanke as well as Kamnik and Savinja Alpsand Stenobothrus ursulae to the Alps.
Threats. The main causes of threats are:� drainage and filling of wetlands and particu-
lary wet meadows;� natural encroachment of vegetation on
grasslands in most karst regions and in thehills;
� intensive fertilisation of meadows and ear-ly and frequent mowing;
� loss of river gravel banks and bare soil inlowlands.
Slovenia Europe World
Ensifera 76 593 over 9000
Tettigonioidea 60 458 ?
Rhaphidophoridea 2 44 ?
Grylloidea 14 91 ?
Caelifera 67 381 10,590
Tetrigoidea 7 12 ?
Tridactyloidea 2 6 ?
Acridoidea 58 363 ?
Total 143 974 20,000
Table 28: Review of thenumber of Orthopteraspecies by superfami-lies in Slovenia, Europeand around the world.
Figure 94. Polysarcusdenticauda, the malecan grow up to 4centimetres, and is thebiggest and mostbeautiful grasshopperspecies in the country.It inhabits mountainpastures and meadows.While in Slovenia is noton the list of threatenedspecies, it is a listedspecies at the Europeanlevel.
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Orthoptera are terrestrial insects which aremost diverse in tropical areas and subtemperateregions. Approximately 20,000 species have been
85
Mantids (Mantodea)
Basic characteristics and number of species.In Slovenia only two mantid species live and theyhave been well researched. The European man-tis (Mantis religiosa) inhabits the extensivelymanaged grasslands, the forest edges, rural ar-eas and the slopes of hills where orchards andvineyards are located. The European mantis isnot an endangered species. Mantis (Empusafasciata) is a Mediterranean species which livesin thermophilic slopes of the Karst escarpmentand in the Slovenian coasts as well. It is one ofthe most beautiful species found on the Adriaticcoast. Due to the natural encroachment of veg-etation on the Karst area and the degradation ofcoastal sites it is highly endangered and is closeto extinction. It is limited to small sites whereonly a few specimens can be found.
the neighbouring countries. Only the two mostfrequent species are well known, the Europeanearwig (Forficula auricularia) and little earwig(Labia minor).
Threats. No endemic earwig species havebeen found in Slovenia. The threatened speciesare the seaside earwig (Anisolabis maritima) andshore earwig (Labidura riparia). The two maincauses of threats are:
� destruction of sandy beaches and sand riv-er banks;
� construction on the coast.
Termites (Isoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. More than 2300 termite species have beenidentified worldwide. In Slovenia only two spe-cies occur in the wild, the Reticulitermes lucifugusand Kalotermes flavicollis which live in the coastalarea. Both species are rare and can be found inthe rotten stems of conifer trees but they also at-tack the wooden parts of old houses in coastaltowns.
Threats. No endemic termite species havebeen found in Slovenia. They are threatened byloss of their habitat.
Leaf insects (Phasmoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. The scrubs of the Slovenian coast are in-habited by only one leaf insect species - Bacillusrossius. The species is extremely rare and limitedto the warm and preserved coastal areas. Leafinsects do not move far. Sometimes they spendtheir entire life on one and the same shrub.
Threats. No endemic species have beenfound in Slovenia. The main causes of threatsare urbanisation and other activities affecting theenvironment.
Roaches (Blattoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. In Slovenia the roaches have not been wellresearched. Until now, 14 species have been iden-tified. Of these, 3 are cosmopolitan and can befound in storage facilities, ports, commercialfacilities and apartments. They can not spend thewinter outside. Other roach species are indig-enous and mostly sylvan. They live in trees andshrubbery and inhabit meadows all over Slo-venia.
Threats. In view of the poor research on thegroup, roaches can not be considered threatened,but further studies are needed.
SPECIES
(Ph
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Threats. No endemic mantids have beenidentified in Slovenia. The main cause of threatsis the colonisation of grasslands by scrub andtrees in the Karst area.
Earwigs (Dermaptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Approximately 1300 earwig species, whichare a small order of hemimetabolous insects,have been identified world-wide. In Slovenia 6earwig species have been recorded but the groupis not well researched. The situation is similar in
Figure 95. A youngsand lizard (Lacertaagilis) has become preyto the European mantis(Mantis religiosa).
86 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Beetles (Coleoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Beetles are the most numerous animalgroup in the world, and in Slovenia. Among themore than one million insect species almost onethird are beetles. The most distinctive feature ofbeetles is the hardening of the forewings intoelytra which serve to protect the more delicatehind flight wings. Most species are found in tropi-cal areas. In Central Europe only around 8,000species live. Beetles inhabit all environments,except glaciers and oceans. They are of variousshapes and colours and characterised by extremespecialisation of their feeding habits and repro-duction.
Degree of research. The first data on thebeetle fauna in Slovenia were gathered in Ento-mologia Carniolica (Entomology of Carniola,1763) by J. A. Scopoli, where more than 60 new taxaof the Carniola were described. The intensiveresearch in the last 15 years has resulted in around300 new taxa identified in Slovenia. However, thedata on the fauna and species diversity are in-complete. In Slovenia, approximately 450 speciesand subspecies of Locus typicus beetles have beenrecorded. The first described cave species, beetle
Leptodirus hochenwarti was discovered inPostojnska jama. In Slovenia 110 species and 205subspecies of cave beetles have been identifiedbut even today new species and genera are foundin caves and soil. The data on cave beetles havebeen collected for around 1,000 caves, that is some13 % of all discovered caves in Slovenia. In thelast 10 years, 50 new beetle species and subspe-cies, including a new genus, were found in thesecaves and subsequently described. According tothe unpublished data, approximately 6000 beetlespecies live in Slovenia.
Endemic species. Of the classified cavebeetle species more than one half are strict en-demic species. In the case of some endemic spe-cies (inhabiting border mountain ranges or ar-eas) their area of distribution extends across thestate border to the neighbouring country, butmany live in extremely limited areas, in a spe-cific mountain range or only in a few caves. Sev-eral different species can be found in just onesingle cave. The high level of endemism can bedetected in the South East limestone Alps (theJulian Alps, Karavanke as well as Kamnik andSavinja Alps) whose beetle fauna is extremelyspecific. It is surprising that many beetle specieswere considered endemic to the Carpathianshave a disjunct area of distribution in Slovenia.
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� intensive construction of infrastructure fa-cilities and hydro-electric power plants, ur-banisation;
� intensive fertilisation of meadows;
World Slovenia % Slovenia/No. of species No. of species No. of subspecies World
Carabidae 1,180 66 132 5.6 Trechinae 1,047 52 124 5Cholevidae 600 29 55 4.8 Leptodirine 562 29 55 5.2Curculionidae 22 3 4 13.6Pselaphidae 82 6 7.3Staphylinidae 27 3 11other 49 1 2TOTAL 1,960 110 205 5.6
(Ph
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)
Graph 15: Threatenedbeetles according to theIUCN categories.
Table 29: Number oftaxa of cavernicolousbeetles (number of allidentified caverni-colous beetles accord-ing to Deco &Juberthie, 1998).
Figure 96. Rosaliaalpina, a rare species inthe Slovenian forests,ranks among the firstbeetles protected inSlovenia.
87
� disappearance of steppe and grasslands;
� removal of old and dead trees from forests;
� clearcuts;
� pollution of water and changing of the wa-ter and riparian environment;
� direct destruction of caves (filling, waste dis-posal), tourist exploitation of caves;
� indirect pollution of caves.
Neuropterans (Neuropteroidea)
Basic characteristics and number of species.Neuropterans (Neuropteroidea) are a relativelyscarce group of insects. Dobsonflies andalderflies (Megaloptera), lacewings, antlions andowlflies (Neuroptera), and snakeflies (Rhaphi-doptera) belong to this group.
There are about 4,500 species of neuropteransfound around the world. Of these, 333 specieshave been identified in Europe. They live in vari-ous habitats. The larvae of some species areaquatic (alderflies Sialidae and sponge fliesSisyridae) or live in the area between water andland (osmylids Osmylidae). Most other Neuro-pteroidea species live in trees or scrub. A few ofthe species found in Slovenia inhabit meadowsand pastures, forest clearings, shrubbery or rockythermal habitats. Adult neuropterans and theirlarvae are predatory. In ecosystems they are con-sidered useful because they feed on crop andfruit pests.
Degree of research. In Slovenia, 104 Neuro-pteroidea species have been identified: 3Megaloptera, 8 Rhaphidioptera and 93 Neuropteraspecies. With regard to the number of the identi-fied species the following families are the rich-est: brown lacewings (Hemerobiidae, 35 species),green lacewings (Chrysopidae, 29 species) andduskywings (Coniopterygidae, 18 species).
Threats. There are no endemic Neuropte-roidea species in Slovenia. The main causes ofthreats are:
� pollution of watercourses and lakes;
� canalizing the streams and rivers;
� activities affecting the riparian vegetation;
� destruction and disappearance of sand andgravel banks;
� destruction of floodplain woodlands;
� disappearance of steppe and grasslands;
� disappearance of the remains of the sub-Mediterranean forest vegetation (maquis);
� removal of old trees from forests.
Scorpion flies (Mecoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Scorpion flies (Mecoptera) are among theoldest insects with complete metamorphosis.They have an elongated head with slender, chew-ing mouthparts near the tip of a stout beak. Thedistinctive appearance of male genitalia is char-acteristic for species of the family Panorpidae.The terminal segments are enlarged and held re-curved over the abdomen like the tail of a scor-pion. More than 500 scorpion flies, which belongto 9 families, have been identified in the world.
Degree of research. In Slovenia live 9Mecoptera species: 5 of the common scorpionflies family (Panorpidae), 2 of the snow scorpionflies family (Boreidae), and 2 of the hanging scor-pion flies family (Bittacidae).
Threats. There are no endemic species ofscorpion flies in Slovenia. The main cause ofthreats is the destruction of floodplain wood-lands.
Caddiesflies (Trichoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. At the global level more than 10,000Trichoptera species have been identified, but ac-cording to the latest estimates the world faunamay contain up to 40,000 species. A little morethan 1,100 species can be found in Europe.Caddiesflies are an order of aquatic insects witha complete metamorphosis. Larvae and pupaelive in all aquatic habitats, but the richest the spe-cies diversity is at the sources, in headwater ar-eas and smaller streams. Adults are terrestrial andlive for about one month. They live off the storedfood which they had accumulated in the larvalstage. During the day they are found in the ripar-ian vegetation. They become active in the evening
SPECIES
Graph 16: Threatenedneuropterans inSlovenia according tothe IUCN categories.
Table 30:
Neuropteroidea specieswhose south/north areaof distribution limit isSlovenia.
Species Species
(southern area of distribution limit)(southern area of distribution limit)(southern area of distribution limit)(southern area of distribution limit)(southern area of distribution limit) (northern area of distribution limit)(northern area of distribution limit)(northern area of distribution limit)(northern area of distribution limit)(northern area of distribution limit)
Drepanepteryx algida Mantispa apahvexelte
Wesmaelius fassnidgei Dichochrysa zelleri
Nineta vittata Italochrysa italica
Ninetta pallida Gymnocnemia variegata
88 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
when the moisture in the air increases. Most cad-dies-flies larvae live within protective portable“cases”, which are among the most technicallydeveloped insect constructions. Some speciesconstruct tunnel-like structures, others makewebs used to entrap prey, but some larvae arefree-living and predacious.
Butterflies and moths(Lepidoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Until now, approximately 15,000 butterflyand moth species have been identified. Their di-versity is highest in tropical areas. The Slovenianfauna of butterflies and moths is among the rich-est in Europe, where 8,470 species have beenfound (Karsholt and Razowski, 1996). In Slovenia,around 3,200 species have been identified - 1,500large moths and butterflies (Macrolepidoptera)and 1,700 small moths (Microlepidoptera). Mac-rolepidoptera include 183 species of butterfliesliving in Slovenia. Within Microlepidoptera onlythe better researched groups are discussed in thisoverview.
Degree of research. Even though the initialstudies of butterflies and moths began with J. A.Scopoli the relevant taxa are not well researcheddue to the constant natural fluctuation of thepopulation. Individual foreign entomologists re-ported about the butterflies found on the terri-tory of Slovenia as early as in the 18th and 19thcenturies, but the general overviews of the rangeof butterflies were compiled in the mid-twenti-eth century when several entomologists con-ducted studies here (Rakovec, Hafner brothers,Michieli, Carnelutti and others). Of the lepi-doptera, butterflies have been studied more butnot enough to understand their distribution andecology. Of moths, more is known about the largeones, while the studies of small moths have onlyjust begun and are currently being intensified. InSlovenia nearly 50 experts and amateurs are in-terested in butterflies and moths. The threats tothe group can only be assessed for the well re-searched species, while the others will have tobe studied more.
Endemic species. Due to the insufficientknowledge about the species’ area of distribu-tion it is difficult to define endemism in Lepi-doptera. Several endemic subspecies live inSlovenia but their status is constantly changingbecause of the taxonomic revisions. With regardto the butterfly and moth fauna, the territory isrelatively small and so there are only a few realendemic species. The number significantly in-creases if the geographical areas - such as theJulian Alps, Karavanke, Dinaric region, whichreach across the borders - are taken into account.More than 30 endemic species are found in theseareas. Of the butterflies, the most known isLorkovic’s brassy ringlet (Erebia calcaria) whichis found in the Julian Alps and west Karavanke aswell as in Italy (Montaž) and Austria (KarnischeAlps) and is thus the endemic species of the south-east Alps. In Slovenia, a few subspecies have beendescribed, in particular apollo (Parnassius apollo)
Graph 17 : Threatenedcaddiesflies accordingto the IUCN categories.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)Degree of research. In Slovenia caddies-
flies were first studied in the 18th century, whenJ. A. Scopoli described new species found in theCarniola region. Research has become more sys-tematic in the last two decades and the knowl-edge about the Trichoptera fauna has increased.Until now, 218 species of 17 families and 74 gen-era have been recorded. Of these, 208 specieshave been classified. The finds concerning theremaining ten species are old, or their identifica-tion is not reliable.
Endemic species. Endemic caddiesflies spe-cies in Slovenia are Chaetopteryx clara, Chaeto-pteryx goricensis and Chaetopteryx irenae, at leastten species are endemic to the Alps, and Chaeto-pteryx marinkovicae is probably endemic toIstria.
Threats. The two main causes of threats are:
� pollution of watercourses;
� activities affecting the water environmentand the riverine zone.
Figure 97. Vanessacardui, a butterflyspecies occurring inSlovenia on theirmigratory routes fromAfrica to the north.
89SPECIES
Table 31: Mostthreatened butterfliesspecies in Slovenia.
and various species of ringlets (for instanceErebia styx trentae, Erebia pluto triglavensis), five-spot burnets (Zygaena angeliceae ternovanensis),etc.
Threats to butteflies. The main causes ofthreats are:
� intensive use of meadows;
� natural encroachment of vegetation;� drainage;
� large construction works.
Species status SI
Colias myrmidone E (CR)
Hipparchia statilinus E (CR)
Chazara briseis E (CR)
Hyponephele lycaon Ex?
Coenonympha tullia E (CR)
Iolana iolas E (CR)
Carcharodus lavatherae E (CR)
WETLAND HABITATS
Calamatropha aureliellaPelosia obtusaPhragmatiphila nexaArchanara neuricaOstrinia palustralisLaelia coenosaPhlyctaenia perlucidalis
SUBPANNONIAN AREA
Korscheltellus dacicus
SUBMEDITERRANEAN AREA
Zygaena cynaraeMalacosoma franconicum
Axia margaritaAgriopis ankeraria
HALOPHYTIC AREAS
Discestra stigmosa
OTHER
Baptria tibiale
Threats to moths. The main causes of threatsto moths are:
� increase in road traffic;
� public lighting;
� degradation of habitats;
� intensive farming;
� natural encroachment of vegetation onabandoned arable land;
� drainage of wetlands;
� urbanisation.
Bees, ants and wasps(Hymenoptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. As a group, the Hymenoptera are amongthe most successful of animals. More than100,000 species have been identified in the world.That is less than beetles but still more than allvertebrates. Bees, ants and wasps play an ex-tremely important role in the environment and atthe same time their relevance for people is no-table. Ichneumon flies, whose larvae develop asparasites in other insects, destroy many plantpests, including sawflies. Bees are among themost effective pollinators, and many plantswould not grow fruits and seeds without them.By digging the deep tunnels of their anthills theants soften, mix and air the soil, transport seedsand unknowingly plant seeds and destroy manyherbivorous insects.
Degree of research. The Hymenopterafauna in Slovenia has not been researched indetail. The only well studied group are bees(Apoidea). More than 25,000 bee species havebeen identified in the world, and 542 in Slovenia.The number is quite high for such a small area.
Endemic species. No endemic species ofbees, ants and wasps have been found. Bees areskilful fliers and their populations can not remainisolated in a small area. However, the less mo-bile Hymenoptera groups have not been studiedin detail.
Country No. of Surface
species (km2)
Spain 1,043 505,496
France 865 551,208
Czech and 690 127,859
Slovak Republics
Austria 647 83,849
Switzerland 580 41,288
Germany 546 355,805
Slovenia 542 20,256
Poland 454 311,730
Belgium 376 30,507
Netherlands 328 32,450
Luxemborg 274 2,586
Great Britain 240 244,016
Finland 230 337,032
Denmark 217 43,069
Ireland 80 70,283
Iceland 1 102,828
Table 32:
Most threatened mothspecies (category CR) inSlovenia and theirecology.
Table 33: Number ofbee species in someEuropean countries.
90 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Threats. The main causes of threats to bees,ants and wasps are:
� intensive farming, monocultural production;
� urbanisation;
� cutting of hedges and shrubberies and lossof the forest edge;
� destruction of reed beds;
� destruction of sand and gravel river banks;
� natural encroachment of vegetation on orconstruction works (wind power plants) inkarst grasslands;
� application of insecticides;
� mass breeding of domestic bee which com-petes for food with the wild species;
� expansion of non-indigenous species ofbees, ants, wasps and plants which danger-ously smother the indigenous honey beeforage plants.
True bugs (Heteroptera)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. True bugs (Heteroptera) are a diverse andnumerous group of insects with incomplete meta-morphosis. They are predators, parasites or her-bivores. Most herbivorous species are associatedwith specific plants and thus depend on them.True bugs inhabit the land, freshwaters and thewater surface. Like cicadas (Cicadidae) andaphids (Aphididae) belonging to the order Hemi-ptera, they have elongated, piercing-suckingmouthparts which they use to squirt their diges-
tive enzymes onto food and then suck it back in aliquefied form. More than 80,000 true bugs havebeen identified.
Degree of research. In Slovenia, 643 truebug species have been recorded. The currentdata should be supplemented by the informationfrom foreign publications, but the complete cata-logue of all species living in Slovenia has not yetbeen compiled. The actual number of species iscertainly higher than indicated.
Endemic species. Two endemic species oftrue bugs have been found on the territory ofSlovenia. Dimorphocoris saulii lives only in themeadows of Vremščica, and Halticus henschii,whose specimens were found near Gorica, in-habit the meadows of the Čaven, Nanos moun-tain and the Karst. In Lipnik near Golič, the grass-land plateau above Zazid in Čičarija, the third en-demic true bug species of the genus Platycranusprobably lives in the karst grasslands. The sub-species Saldula pilosella hirsuta is endemic to theAdriatic coast but is also found in Italy, and onCorfu in Greece.
Graph 18 : ThreatenedHymenoptera in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories.
Graph 19: Threatenedtrue bugs according tothe IUCN categories.
Figure 98.
Pyrrhocoris apterus, afire bug.
Table 34: Compari-son of the number ofHeteroptera species inthe World, CentralEurope and Slovenia.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Country No of speciesWorld > 80,000Central Europe 1,088Germany 868Great Britain 537Bulgaria 1,000Greece 740Slovenia 643
91
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� land-filling, pollution and overgrowing ofbackwaters, puddles and Karstic ponds;
� canalisation of rivers and streams, pollutionand impoundment of rivers;
� drainage and filling of wetlands;
� construction works, urbanisation;
� natural encroachment of vegetation onabandoned meadows and pastures.
Freshwater fishes, lampreys(pisces, petromyzontidae)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. On the basis of the species distribution pat-tern, the Slovenian ichtyofauna belongs to theNorth-European and Central-European provincewhich includes Western, Northern and EasternEurope and small regions in the south of the con-tinent. The ichtyofauna of the Central Europeincludes the well spread European, Euro-Siberianand Palearctic species. The central area is theDanube basin where most species live. The di-versity of species gradually declines towards theEast and West.
SPECIES
There are around 20,000 fish species in theworld, 5,000 of which are freshwater fish. Thenumber is not final because several new speciesare discovered every year. Only 4.5 % or 227 fresh-water fish species live in Europe. Merely 200 areindigenous. The other 27 originate in NorthAmerica and Asia. With regard to the share ofnon-indigenous species, Slovenia and Hungaryshare the 10th place in Europe (29 %).
Degree of research. The inland waters ofSlovenia, divided between the Danube andAdriatic basins, are inhabited by approximately81 freshwater fish species (68 indigenous) and 4lamprey species. Two fish species are alreadyextinct. The existence of one lamprey species ofthe Danube basin, which has not been found inSlovenia, is threatened. The Black Sea basin isinhabited by 72 fish species, 57 of which are in-digenous (including lampreys), 11 have been
Graph 20: Threatenedfishes (freshwater andmarine species) accord-ing to the IUCN catego-ries.
Figure 99. Salmo truttam. fario, is an indigenousspecies threatened by theintroduced Americantrout (Salmo gairdneri).
(Ph
oto
: Jan
a V
idic
)
ADRIATIC ENDEMIC SPECIES
Lethenteron zanandreai Vladykov, 1955Salmo marmoratus Cuvier, 1817Barbus caninus Valenciennes, 1842Barbus plebejus Valenciennes, 1842Chondrostoma soetta (Bonaparte, 1840 )Chondrostoma genei Bonaparte, 1841A. a. alborella de Filippi, 1844Rutilus rubilio aula (Bonaparte 1837)Leuciscus cephalus cabeda Risso, 1826Leuciscus cephalus albus Bonaparte, 1838Cobitis bilineata Linnaeus, 1758Padogobius martensi Gunther 1861
DANUBE ENDEMIC SPECIES
Hucho hucho Linnaeus, 1758Gobio uranoscopus (Agassiz, 1828)Gobio kessleri Dybowski, 1862Rutilus pigus virgo (Heckel, 1852)Cobitis elongata Heckel and Kner 1858Umbra krameri Walbaum 1792Gymnocephalus schraetzer (Linnaeus, 1758)G. baloni Holčik and Hensel 1974Zingel zingel (Linnaeus, 1766)Zingel streber (Siebold 1863)
Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill, 1815)Salvelinus alpinus (Linnaeus, 1758)Oncorhynchus. mykiss (Walbaum, 1792)Hypophthalmychthys molitrix (Valencinnes, 1844)Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1844)Carassius a. auratus (Linnaeus, 1758)Carassius gibelio (Bloch, 1783)Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844)Pseudorasbora parva (Schlegel, 1842)Ictalurus nebulosus (Le Sueur, 1890)Gambusia affinis Baird in Girard, 1853Micropterus salmoides Lacpede, 1802Lepomis gibbosus Linnaeus, 1758
Table 36: List of endemicspecies of freshwaterfishes and lampreys inSlovenia, endemic to theBlack Sea and Adriaticbasins.
Table 37: List of intro-duced fish species offishes in Slovenia.
92 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
brought from other continents and 4 originate inthe Adriatic basin. The latter is populated with 40fish and lamprey species, 24 are indigenous, 9introduced and 7 translocated.
Endemic species. In the Black Sea basin, 10endemic species live and in the Adriatic basin12. None are found only in Slovenia.
Threats. The main causes of threats are:
� overcatch (lake trout Salmo trutta m. lacus-tris, Danube roach Rutilus pigus virgo, sneepChondrostoma nasus);
� illegal angling (marble trout Salmo truttamarmoratus and huchen Hucho hucho);
� introduction and translocation of fish (troutSalmo trutta, pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbo-sus, Poeciliidae, Cypriniformes);
� genetic pollution (marble trout Salmo trut-ta marmoratus);
� pollution of waters and canalisation ofrivers and streams.
Amphibians (Amphibia)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Amphibians occupy a special positionamong vertebrates because they live both on landand in water. Most amphibians have thin, moistskin and are tetrapods. Their body temperaturedepends on the temperature of their surround-ing. Females lay eggs (usually in water) fromwhich tadpoles develop. These live in water andafter the metamorphosis they move to the land.The adult amphibians are carnivorous. They feedon insects, snails, ‘worms’ and other aquatic ani-mals.
More than 4,800 amphibian species are foundin the world and new ones are discovered everyday, mostly in the less researched tropical areas.In the Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles of Europe,62 amphibian species are discussed. There are19 species found in Slovenia and 4 of them have2 subspecies each. Overall, 23 amphibian taxalive on Slovenian territory.
Degree of research. Not much has beenwritten about amphibians, and most work hasbeen published in scientific literature. The firstcomplete list of amphibians in Slovenia was com-piled by B. Sket (1967). In the last decade the ex-perts interested in amphibians united in the Soci-ety for the study of amphibians and reptiles. Mostcollected data concern the olm (Proteusanguinus) which was first described in Glory ofthe Carniola Duchy by Janez Vajkard Valvasor(Slava Vojvodine Kranjske, 1689). After the sec-ond World War, numerous studies of the olmwere carried out at the Department of Biology ofthe Slovenian Museum of Natural History. In1986, a black olm specimen was found in Dobli-čica spoting in Bela krajina. Later on even moreblack specimens were found and identified asthe subspecies Proteus anguinus ssp. parkelj.
In Slovenia, the knowledge about the amphib-ian species’ area of distribution has improvedsubstantially in the last decade. Nevertheless,many ‘blank spots’ still remain on the map. De-tailed research on the populations and the ecol-ogy of species is needed as well as their long-term monitoring.
Endemic species. The black olm is an en-demic species which has been found in only twosites in less than 100 km2 of the karst area of Belakrajina.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
atja
ž B
edja
nič
)
Table 35: Red DataList of threatenedfreshwater fishes andlamprey species inSlovenia according toIUCN categories.
IUCN Ex Ex? E V R
category
Lampreys 3 1
Fishes 2 2 29 9 6
Figure 100 (below).
Hyla arborea, adhesivepads on tips of toesenable the frog to moveeasily on slipperysurfaces. It stays inwater only duringmating.
Figure 101 (bottom).
The yellow frecklestypical of the commonsalamander(Salamandrasalamandra) containpoison and warn anypossible predator thatthe animal is not edible.
93
Threats. Causes of threats are:
� uncontrolled urbanisation, in particular dis-persed settlements;
� changes in agricultural production (intro-duction of new technologies, intensificationof production, pesticides and fertilizes inthe water and soil, agricultural improve-ments, land consilidation and similar activ-ities);
� development of infrastructure (roads, rail-ways, power lines) and transport;
� canalisation of rivers and streams and floodprotection, removal of vegetation on riverbanks and in the buffer zone;
� changes in land use of restored gravel andclay pits important for nature conservation,in particular in the north-east of Slovenia(intensive fish farming, sport angling, recre-ation);
� removal of hedges and similar natural struc-tures which function as migratory corridors;
� filling and drainage of wetlands (changesin the land use categories for economic de-velopment and agriculture);
� non-maintenance, overgrowing and destru-ction of puddles and karstic ponds, in par-ticular in karst areas where they are no long-er used in a traditional way;
� introduction of non-indigenous and inva-sive animal and plant species, introductionof fish into standing water (in particularkarstic ponds and puddles, gravel pits andmountain lakes) and streams in the head-waters where there are no fish (impound-ment of headwaters of streams facilitatesthe planned or spontaneous introduction offish and fingerlings);
� water pollution.
SPECIES
(Ph
oto
: Mat
jaž
Bed
jan
ič)
(Ph
oto
: Mat
jaž
Bed
jan
ič)
Figure 102 (top).
Zoothoca vivipara, israre in Slovenia andtherefore listed as anendangered reptilespecies. Research hasproved that some femalesof lowland populationsof “live-bearing” reptilesdo not give birth to liveoffspring, but that theyare actually “egg-hatched”.
Figure 103 (above).
Emys orbicularis, theonly freshwater turtle inSlovenia is seriouslyendangered. One of themain threats is anintroduced species,Trachemys script, whichthe “nature lovers”release in ponds andpuddles all over Slovenia.
Graph 21 (left):
Threatened amphibiansin Slovenia according tothe IUCN categories.
Reptiles (Reptilia)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. In the Mezozoic Era the reptiles were thelargest and the most numerous group of verte-
brates. Of 23 orders of that time most are extinct.Only four have survived: turtles and tortoises(Testudines), crocodilians (Crocodylia), tuataras(Rhynchocephalia), lizards and snakes(Squamata). In Slovenia, there are 24 reptile spe-cies belonging to two orders (Testudines, Squa-mata).
The body temperature of these animals de-pends on the temperature of their surroundings(ectotherms); the diversity and abundance of thespecies is highest in tropical regions and de-creases towards high latitudes. In Europe, thediversity is highest in the Mediterranean (Gasc etal., 1999). It is a little lower in Slovenia but stillhigher than in the countries with a distinct conti-nental climate. The main reason for the rich spe-cies diversity of reptiles in Slovenia is its geo-graphical position. The areas of distribution ofspecies, which are characteristic for differentregions, converge in Slovenia.
For the Alpine region the European asp(Vipera aspis) is characteristic. An endemic spe-cies of the Alpine-Dinaric mountain range is theHorvath wall lizard (Lacerta horvathi). The Eu-
94 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
ropean adder (Vipera berus) mainly occurs in theAlpine region. In lowlands they are rarely found,mostly in humid areas.
The impact of the Pannonian region on theSlovenian reptile fauna is not as evident as in thecase of other animals. It is reflected in the abun-dance of sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) in the east-ern parts of the country, even though this is not acharacteristically Pannonian species. The sandlizard used to be the most frequent lizard speciesbut it has almost disappeared from the major partof Slovenia. The main causes for threatening tospecies in Europe are the degradation of habitatsand the application of pesticides (Gasc et al.,1997). No extensive studies of sand lizards havebeen conducted but it is evident that, despite theintensive agriculture, the species has foundenough suitable habitats for its survival in theeast. However, it is presumed that the retreat ofthe area of distribution towards the east is theconsequence of the climate change.
The species diversity of reptiles is highest inthe west of Slovenia (Primorje region and Istria)and lowest in the eastern, sub-Pannonian region(Tome, 1996). There are no endemic reptile spe-cies in Slovenia.
Degree of research. In the past, the researchon reptiles lagged considerably behind. Other,more economically interesting species, weregiven priority. Only recently has the systematiccollection of data begun (Tome, 1996), bringingnew discoveries. Unfortunately, no measurableand comparable data on the size and dynamicsof populations are available. Nevertheless rep-tiles are among the most threatened animals inSlovenia.
Threats. All reptile species are threatened dueto rapid and intensive urbanisation. The causesare numerous and their effects interact. An im-portant role is played by the degradation of rep-tile habitats. Since reptiles are at the top of thefood chain they are affected by the reduced abun-dance of insects, fish, amphibians and smallmammals which they feed on. One of the rea-sons for such a reduction in the number of thereptile prey is the excessive application of pesti-cides. However, this cause of the decline of thespecies has not yet been studied. The pollutionof watercourses and wetlands affects the specieswhich feed on fish and amphibians. Recently, anadditional cause of threats is the introduction ofa non-indigenous species (Red-Eared SliderTrachemys scripta) which are released into thewild by irresponsible pet lovers. The killing ofsnakes out of fear or prejudices could seriouslythreaten the already endangered populations andthe populations which are scarce because theyinhabit the border areas of their distribution ran-ge.
Birds (Aves)
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Birds are an important ecosystem compo-nent. They are mostly carnivorous (insectivorous)and are at the top of the food pyramid. They areimportant regulators of ecological balance. Birdsinhabit all surface habitats, such as marshes,meadows, forests and tops of the mountains.There are approximately 9,700 bird speciesfound in the world. Of these, 513 birds regularlyor periodically nest in Europe. In total, 365 spe-cies have been found in Slovenia. Over 200 arenesting birds, including those which nest peri-odically or irregularly.
Degree of research. The founder ofSlovenian ornithology was the famous naturescientist J. A. Scopoli (1723-1788). At the end ofthe 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centu-ries, Slovenian ornithology developed rapidlywith the establishment of the Ornithological Ob-servatory and the publication of several basicornithological works (Bevk, Ponebšek, Reiser, J.Hadži). The mentioned observatory is still inoperation as an Ornithology Department at the(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 104. Natrixnatrix, feeding on atoad. The picture wastaken on the banks ofthe Soča river.
Graph 22: Threatenedreptiles in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories.
95
Slovenian Museum of Natural History. Graduallythe number of ornithologists and bird lovers in-creased, and the DOPPS-BirdLife Slovenia wasestablished in 1979. Several, mostly popular, or-nithological publications were issued (I. Geister,J. Gregori, F. Šušteršič, Krečič, L. Božič) and theinterest in ornithology was aroused among theamateur bird watchers. In the last decade of the20th century three basic works of modernSlovenian ornithology were published: Ornitho-logical Atlas of Wintering Birds of Slovenia(Zimski ornitološki atlas Slovenije; 1994, A. Sovinc),Ornithological Atlas of Slovenia (Ornitološki at-las Slovenije; 1995, I. Geister) and InternationallyImportant Bird Areas in Slovenia (Mednarodnopomembna območja za ptice v Sloveniji; 2000, S.Polak). Many local ornithological atlases andorganised inventories made it possible to evalu-ate the abundance and population density ofbirds, in particular of the threatened and rare spe-cies. The data on population trends are obtainedthrough the monitoring of specific endangeredspecies (water-birds, Corn Crake, White Stork,Common Tern). Beside certain bat species, birdsare the only vertebrates for which the size ofpopulations and the relevant trends have beenevaluated. The latest data for all bird species willbe gathered in the new atlas of nesting birds ofSlovenia published by DOPPS - BirdLife Slovenia.
Threats. There are no endemic bird speciesin Slovenia. The most important causes of threatsare (Polak, 2000):
� intensification of agriculture;
� drainage of wetlands;
� construction of dikes and dams;
� expansion of tourism and outdoor recre-ation;
� construction of infrastructure facilities;
� abandonment of agricultural land;
� filling of marshes;
� direct disturbing of birds;
� natural encroachment of vegetation ongrasslands;
� construction and maintenance of canals;
SPECIES
Figure 105. Bubobubo, the biggestEuropean owl hasdeclined in numberssince the beginning ofthe last century.
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Hu
do
klin
)
Graph 23: Threatenedbirds according to theIUCN categories.
Table 38: List ofmammal speciesexterminated on theSlovenian territory(Kryštufek, 2001)
� expansion of industry and urbanisation;
� fish farms and mariculture;
� selective cutting of forest trees.
Mammals (Mammalia)
Species Year
Rhinolophus blasii ? first half of 20th century
Castor fiber approx. 1750
Dinaromys bogdanovi boreal
Lynx lynx second half of 19th century
Monachus monachus ? 19th century
Sus scrofa ? 18th century
Cervus elaphus ? 19 th century
Alces alces ? medieval times
Bos primigenius up to the arrival of the Slavs
Bison bonasus ? 6th century
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Slovenian mammal fauna is entirelypalearctic. Species which are characteristic fordeciduous forests dominate. Two species (Arctichare and northern bat) are boreal species andbelong to the isolated Alpine population. InSlovenia, there are no relict species, which devel-oped in the Balkan ice age refuge. In total 32.5 % ofthe European mammal species are found inSlovenia. On the global scale only 1.8 % of mam-mal species live in this area. However, taking intoaccount the size of the territory and its geographi-cal position, the mammal fauna in Slovenia isrelatively rich.
Degree of research. At the end of the 20thcentury, 83 species were identified in Slovenia.At least 8 species were non-indigenous (5 rodentand 3 ungulate species). In the last decade, 11more species occurred occasionally - carnivores(4 species) and whales (3 species). Most of the
96 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
occasionally occurring species have been intro-duced by humans. Historic data document theextinction of 10 mammal species. Two of thesespecies have been repopulated: European lynxand beaver (spontaneous introduction fromCroatia). In Slovenia, there is no tradition of moni-toring animal populations and it is therefore dif-ficult to evaluate the possible trends in the abun-dance of mammal populations. The only excep-tion is that of the hunting statistics, for some areas
reaching back to the 19th century. The knowledgeabout the mammal fauna in Slovenia is so lack-ing that even the actual area of distribution ofmany species is not known.
Bats are the species which is relatively wellstudied. Of 31 European species, 28 live inSlovenia (Presetnik et al., 2000). The basic workin that field was carried out by B. Kryštufek (1991,1999).
Threats. There are no endemic mammals inSlovenia. The main causes of threats are:
� extensive pollution of waters (otter);
� draining and land reclamation for agricul-ture (ferret);
� intensive agriculture (brown hare, bats);
� transport (brown bear, deer);
� genetic pollution (European wildcat, brownhare);
� introduction of non-indigenous species(hoofed animals);
� destruction of suitable bat habitats (fellingof old trees, restoration or demolition of oldbuildings);
� uncontrolled cave tourism and unsuitablecave closures (bats).
Subterranean animals
Basic characteristics and number of spe-cies. Subterranean habitats are mainly karst cavesand interstitial waters which are low in energyand more or less closed spaces. The availabledata show that the subterranean fauna ofSlovenia, in particular aquatic (stygobiontic), isamong the richest in the world. Of 20 world cavesystems with the most animal taxa, 5 are found inSlovenia. The cave system between Postojna andPlanina leads in number of stygobionts andtroglobionts, but the proportion of more tolerantimmigrant flora is also high. Other cave systemsrich in fauna are: Križna jama, Logarček, systemof the underground river Šica-Krka and the caveGrad near Osp.
In the south and west of Slovenia, 169stygobiontic species have been identified. Manyof them are endemic species and their areas ofdistribution are small. Some of these species haveonly been found in typical sites. It is estimatedthat in Slovenia’s underground around 200stygobiontic species will eventually be identified.
The taxonomic composition of the subterra-nean fauna (at the level of order) is similar to theDinaric. Special features include the only cavevertebrate in Europe (olm Proteus anguinus), theonly cave tube-worm (Marifugia cavatica), theonly cave mollusc (Kerkia kusceri), the only cavecnidarian (Velkovrhia enigmatica), the only cavewater fleas (Alona sketi and Alona stochi), many
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: A
nd
rej H
ud
okl
in)
Figure 106 (top).
Erinaceus europaeus,the hedgehog is afrequent victim on theSlovenian roads.
Figure 107 (above).
Felis silvestris, isbecoming rare inEurope yet still wellrepresented inSlovenia. Its existence,however, is threatenedmainly by interbreed-ing with the domesticcat.
Graf 24: Threatenedmammals in Sloveniaaccording to the IUCNcategories.
97SPECIES
stygobiontic snail species (Gastropoda) and nu-merous epizoic turbellarians (Temnocephalida).The European and Slovenian subterranean faunaare characterised by the absence of stygobionticfish.
In other respects the composition of thestygobiontic fauna is similar to that of the rest ofthe world. While there are no stygobiontic insectsin Slovenia (rare in other parts), the fauna of crus-taceans, in particular amphipods (Amphipoda),
SYSTEM GROUP Ex Ex? E V R O I K Total
(Ex, Ex?, E, V, R)
Protozoa 2 2
Porifera 1 -
Turbellaria 14 14
Hydrozoa 1 1
Nematoda 8 -
Bivalvia 1 1
Gastropoda 26 26
Serpulidae 1 1
Oligochaeta 12 12
Hirudinea 1? 1?
Crustacea 1 7 20 2 28
Trichoptera 1 1
Amphibia 1 1 2
TOTAL 1 8 80 - - 11 89
copepods (Copepoda) and isopods (Isopoda) isextremely rich.
Threats. Main causes threatening the subter-ranean fauna are:
� pollution of surface waters flowing into theunderground;
� individual discharges of toxic substances onthe karst surface or layers over the intersti-tial water;
� organic pollution of sinking rivers.
Table 40: Specific taxaof subterraneananimals and thenumber of threatenedspecies according to theIUCN categories
98 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
99SPECIES
The genetic diversity of organisms is a foun-dation of diversity within one species and amongvarious species. Further evolution of species andtheir capability to adapt to the ever changing con-ditions in the environment are based on this di-versity. It conserves the existing ecosystems andis a prerequisite for the existence of the species.For most species the genetic diversity has not yetbeen studied, and a lot of work remains to bedone in this field. The results of genetic diversityare the regional and local differences in the mor-phology and ecology of species. These differ-ences have not yet been examined in detail. Manyspecies living in Slovenia are endemic and theycontribute to the genetic diversity at the Euro-pean and global levels.
CROPS AND DOMESTICANIMAL BREEDS
Biodiversity is represented not only by wildplant and animal species and ecosystems butalso by nature which humankind in the courseof its existence has changed, created and, throughselection, adapted to its needs. In the last decades,global agriculture has been oriented towards in-tensive production which gives priority to a fewprofitable varieties and breeds whoseemphasised properties are important for higherproduction. Such production is not natural, andconsequently the varieties and breeds, whichhave not been adapted to the local conditions,have become weak. More pesticides, artificialfertilizes as well as chemical additives in fodder,have been applied and the impacts of agricul-tural production on nature and human healthhave become increasingly detrimental.
Over the centuries, many domesticated vari-eties and breeds adapted to the environment cre-ated by humans. Local varieties of cultivated hy-brids and ecotypes of domestic animals devel-oped. The biodiversity conservation thereforeincludes the inventory and conservation of oldvarieties and breeds which are resistant to dis-eases and do not disturb the natural environmentand its landscape.
GENETIC
DIVERSITYCrops
In the centuries of the development of agri-cultural production many plant species and theirvarieties have been selected and adapted to thegrowing conditions and local environment. Sys-tematic study of the diversity of plant speciesbegan after the First World War, when the Rus-sian scientist N. I. Vavilov identified eight cen-tres of origin of all cultivated plants. Slovenia islocated in the Mediterranean gene centre, whichfollows China as the richest in the world withregard to the number of plant species, and alsobelong to the Europe-Siberia centre. These re-gions are the centres of origin of cole crops, saladcrops, hops, root crops, grain legumes and for-ages. Indigenous cultivars and populationsnamed after Slovenian settlements and regionsare evidence that our ancestors had been breed-ing these plants for centuries. Varieties of someof the indigenous cultivars have been selectedand entered in the list of varieties, such as: salad
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 108. Geneticdiversity includesautochthonouscultivars. Old, tradition-ally managed orchardsare important habitattypes.
100 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Ljubljanska ledenka (included in the Europeanlist as Laibacher Eis), cabbage Ljubljansko zelje,rampion Ljubljanski motovilec, carrot Ljubljanskokorenje, onion Ptujska rdeča čebula, garlic Ptujskispomladanski česen, Ptujski jesenski česen, chicoryGoriški radič, beans Ribničan, Jeruzalemski fižol,hop Savinjski golding, stubble turnip Kranjskaokrogla repa, Kranjska podolgovata repa, olive treeIstrska belica, apple trees Dolenjska voščenka,Gorenjska voščenka, Goriška sevka, Štajerski mo-šancelj, apricot tree Pišeška marelica, cherry treeVipavska češnja, pear tree Tepka and vine Belaglera, Briška glera, Cundra, Danijela, Dišečka,Dolga petlja, Klarnica, Osipka, Pinela, Pergolin,Planinka, Poljšakica, Racug, Radgonska ranina,Ranfol or Štajerska belina, Rečigla, Rožica,Sladkočica ali Sladkočrn, Verbena, Volovnik, Vrto-vka, Zelen, Zelenika, Zunek - durelo, Žametovka.
In the 1980s, Ph. D. Jože Spanring conducted astudy on the functioning of the Yugoslav genebank. Within the project, the indigenous plantspecies were systematically collected in Sloveniafor the purposes of the gene bank. In 1995, theminister responsible for agriculture, forestry andfood designated the Commission for the prepa-ration and implementation of the Nationalprogramme on the Slovenian plant gene bank. Inthe programme, all Slovenian cultivars are in-cluded which used to be entered in the list ofvarieties, the Slovenian indigenous populationsand old cultivars, lines and clones, bred from theindigenous plants or those which are importantfor the varieties’ selection, ecotypes, meadowplants and wild relatives of crops found in natu-ral sites. These data can be used for the study ofspecies and gene diversity, the genetic erosion,and in the monitoring of the loss of old varietiesand species of crops.
Threats. The main causes of threat are:
� alterations in agricultural practices;
� insufficient awareness of the public aboutthe importance of domestic varieties ofcrops;
� introduction of new, highly productive vari-eties;
� reduced rotation of crops;
� globalisation of the agricultural market;
� deagrarisation of the countryside,
� increased burdening of the environment;
� lack of legislation concerning agriculture.
Domestic animal breeds
Domestic animals are a traditional culturalvalue of humanity. For centuries they have beenused for the production of food and raw materi-als, for work or as domesticated animals. It isconsidered that domestic animals are animals
bred by humans for their benefit, living undertheir protection and care. In the hundreds andthousands of years of development since domes-tication began, the geographically isolated spe-cies evolved into subspecies and types, adaptedto the conditions of a specific environment andclimate. Numerous indigenous breeds of domes-tic animals developed and thus biodiversity (ge-netic diversity) became richer. Domestic animalsrepresent 30-40 % of agricultural economic value.The sustenance of approximately 2 billion peopledepends, at least in part, on domestic animals.Due to the growth of population, the productionof meat, milk and eggs should double in the next20 years.
According to the December 2000 data of theFood and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), twobreeds of diverse domestic animals are lostevery week. In the last 100 years around 1,000breeds were lost, and currently one third ofthe breeds is facing extinction.
In the absence of effective measures it can beexpected that in the next twenty years more than2,000 breeds of domestic animals will be lost.Biodiversity of domestic animals is unique andcan not be replaced. Breeds are permanently lost.The utilisation of breeds is the cheapest methodof conservation of animal genes for the future.Sustainable development and conservation arethe most important bases of the FAO global man-agement strategy of biodiversity of domestic ani-mals.
In Slovenia the breeding of domestic animalswas already well developed in the Middle Ages.At the beginning of the 20th century the numberof domestic animals was higher than today; in-digenous breeds used to be a main source of in-come for many farms in Slovenia. Nowadays,many breeds are lost or hybridised and othersare only preserved in extremely low numbers.Slovenian indigenous breeds of domestic ani-mals are an important part of our heritage. Theyare a source of genes which will contribute toconserving the biodi-versity of domestic animals.
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Figure 109. A local cowbreed (Bohinjska cika)has been well adapted tothe alpine conditions.Yet introduction of newmore productive breedsis one of the threats tothe autochthonousdomestic animal breeds.
101
Through out the centuries these breeds wereadopted to the Slovenian environment and bredby the Slovene farmer.
The status of indigenous breeds of do-mestic animals in conservation progra-mmes. The data on number, spatial distribution,method and purpose of breeding, productionutilisation, etc. are continuously maintaned forSlovenian indigenous breeds.
Threats. The main causes of threats are eco-nomic:
� abandonment of agricultural productionand deagrarisation of areas;
� introduction of new, highly selected, speci-alised and productive breeds and the inten-sification of agriculture.
Artificial insemination in cattle breeding hasresulted in higher productivity of specific breeds,and three or four highly productive breeds arefound all over the world. Numerous local breedshave disappeared or are very rare and their exist-ence is threatened. The same applies to other live-stock breeding sectors, such as poultry and pigproduction. Indigenous breeds from a hundredof years ago have been replaced by modern andglobally spread breeds and lines.
As a rule, indigenous breeds are not highlyproductive and are therefore not economicallyinteresting. Usually they are not even included inthe regular selection procedures. However, someof their traits have been neglected, such as adap-tation to the environmental conditions, specific-ity of their products, resistance to diseases etc.In particular these breeds could facilitate the de-velopment of new breeds, adapted to the breed-ing conditions. Biodiversity of domestic animalsis particularly threatened by the export of purebred animals from developed countries, whichleads to cross-breeding and even replacement of
local breeds. Breeds from developed countriesare more productive but they are not adapted todemanding breeding conditions.
FOREST WOODY PLANTS
It is generally believed that the establishedconcept of sustainable management in Slovenianforestry ensures the genetic diversity of the com-plex of biological components in forest ecosys-tems. This belief arises from ignorance of theactual genetic diversity, affected by the introduc-
Table 41: Number anddegree of threat ofspecific Slovenianindigenous domesticanimals in 2000(Source: BF Oddelek zazootehniko).
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Figure 110. Trees canhost a variety of animalspecies, an example isthe larva of Cynipsquercusfolii.
Breed Year Estimated number Degree of threat
Lipicanec - horse 1999 600 Endangered populationCika - cattle 2000 400 Endangered populationJezersko-Solčavska ovca - sheep 2000 4,500 Vulnerable populationBovška ovca - sheep 2000 1,500 Vulnerable populationIstrska pramenka - sheep 2000 600 Endangered populationBelokranjska pramenka - sheep 2000 250 Endangered populationKrškopoljski prašič - pig 2000 300 Endangered populationŠtajerska grahasta kokoš - hen 2000 1,000 Vulnerable populationKraški ovčar - dog 2000 950 Endangered populationSlovenski planinski gonič - dog 2000 35 Critical situationPosavski gonič - dog 2000 470 Endangered populationResasti istrski gonič - dog 2000 460 Endangered populationKratkodlaki istrski gonič - dog 2000 1,020 Vulnerable populationKranjska čebela 1999 162,000 beehives Stable situationCarniolan honeybee (Apis mellifera Carnica)
GENETIC DIVERSITY
102 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
tion and promotion of spruce in the past, the se-lective forest cultivation measures, supportingonly individual tree species, the introduction anduncontrolled transfer of propagating material, theselective human impacts on forests - in particu-lar the pollution of environmental media and cli-mate change - the ignorance of the biocompo-nents of the forest soil, the biology of symbiontsand pathogens of the forest trees, etc.
Despite the traditionally sustainable forestmanagement and the long-lasting expert work onthe forest gene bank the origin of some of theprevailing tree species found in Slovenianforests is not known. Problematic species arein particular:
� spruce, which was uncontrollably trans-ferred across Central Europe; even the ori-gin of seed in the seed bank is doubtful;
� oak, in particular English oak and sessileoak, whose origin is not clear; oak speciesare also a taxonomic problem because thespecies are cross-breeding; the data provid-ed in the Forest inventory issued by the Slo-venian Forest Service do not reflect the ac-tual status;
� fir, whose natural rejuvenation is hinderedby the abundant game.
Rare and endangered species or species,whose distribution boundary is in Slovenia, areTaxus baccata, Sorbus domestica and Sorbustorminalis, Ulmus glabra, Ulmus minor, Ulmuslaevis, Castanea sativa, partly endangered spe-cies like Pyrus pyraster, Malus sylvestris andJuglans regia. In addition to the mentioned, other
rare, mostly sub-Mediterranean, species ofSlovenian forests are also endangered. Amongstthem are: Laurus nobilis, Mespilus germanica,Pyrus amygdaliformis, Cercis siliquastrum,Pistacia terebinthus, Acer obtusatum, Acertataricum, Ilex aquifolium, Quercus crenata,Quercus ilex, Celtis australis and Phillyrea latifolia.
Seed bank. Due to the easy storage and his-torical need for seed, most seed bank units in theSlovenian forest bank are spruce seed. Ger-minability of seed in the seed bank is tested an-nually, in comparison to the year of yield for in-dividual seed stands. In 1998 the germinabilityof seed from 1988 yield was satisfactory whileolder seed (from 1971, 1977, 1980 (partial yield)in 1982) and seed from 1992 was of lower quality.Spruce seed in seed bank should be graduallysupplemented by new supplies, provided that theyield is good. Simultaneously, a new data bankshould be established, based on the geneticanalyses for controlling the origin of spruce seedfrom individual seed stands.
Figure 111. Due touncontrolled distribu-tion of spruce inEurope the source ofseed in the seed bankcan be questionable. (P
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to: M
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A special problem is the recalcitrant seedof deciduous trees, such as oak, for which spe-cial storage procedures are needed due to thehigh moisture content of the seed. No such seedis currently stored in the Slovenian seed bank.The procedures for the storage of deciduous treesshould be further developed because these spe-cies are becoming more important with regardto promotion of the species diversity of Slovenianforests.
Not only the genetic variability of the foresttrees’ populations should be inventoried. Thephysiological properties of these populations,and of other biotic co-creators of forest ecosys-tems, should also be established. Particularlylong-lasting are the provenience studies of suc-cessful growth and the survival of forest trees indifferent ecological conditions. Very importantare also the studies concerning the resistance topathogens and efficient symbiosis with otherorganisms in the mycorrhizosphere.
Figure 112. Taxusbaccata, the yew treeprotected in Sloveniasince 1976 is mainlythreatened due to thegood quality of itswood.
103
CHARACTERISTICS AND STATUS
One of the principal characteristics ofSlovenia is the diverse and mosaic structure ofits landscapes1, denoted by a small scale andminute division of landscape components (eco-systems). Landscape upgrades biodiversity andis very important from the point of view of itsenjoyment2.
The high landscape diversity is the result ofthe diverse geology, relief and climate factors(Alpine, continental and Mediterranean) of thearea. On such a basis, diverse and heterogeneousecosystems have evolved. In addition, the land-scape is influenced by human activities, in par-ticular agriculture and forestry, which have de-veloped in accordance with the natural condi-tions. The traditional settlement patterns, andlately the intensive urbanisation and construc-tion of infrastructure, affect the land-scape. Thestructure of the predominant cultural landscapeis most favourable when its productive, settle-ment, ecological and cultural aspects are bal-anced. Such landscape is eco-nomically effective,is imbued with natural elements and shows aharmonised image.
Landscapes have been classified by manyauthors. However, the classifications depend onhow a specific science regards landscape issues.Forman (1990) classifies landscapes as natural,partly managed, managed and urbanised. Ac-cording to Anko (1998), landscapes may be natu-ral or cultural. Cultural landscape is further di-vided into forest, rural and urban-industrial land-scape.
The principal characteristic of landscape di-versity of Slovenia is the mosaic structure andthe diversity of its units which are a result of natu-ral attributes and the long-lasting presence ofhumans who continuously changed the mannerof land use. The geology of the area, its geomor-
LANDSCAPE
DIVERSITYphological diversity, soil, climate conditions andbiogeographical regions are reflected in the di-versity of landscapes. In Slovenia this diversityis high. In its territory the natural, partly managedand urbanised landscapes (Forman, 1990) arefound. From the ecological point of view, the land-scape components are patches, corridors and thesurrounding matrix which determine the small-and large-scale biological and landscape diver-sity.
The agricultural and forest ecosystems domi-nate in the managed, cultural landscape. How-ever, minor ecosystems, such as forest clearings,tree groups on farmland, and wetlands, are ofextreme importance for its diversity.
THREATS
It is difficult to say that a landscape is directlythreatened because its main characteristic ischange itself. These changes are caused by hu-mans and their activities, or lack of them, andnatural processes because nature is capable ofreclaiming the land ‘lost’ in the past.
Causes of changes and threats to inter-landscape and intra-landscape diversityare:
� Unplanned and increasing settlement of thecountryside, including the constructionworks on arable land and the decline of tra-ditional urbanisation patterns with pre-served natural features;
� Inappropriate urbanisation of the city sub-urbs and open landscape when the charac-teristic landscape patterns are altered;
� “Illegal building” - activities affecting theenvironment which have not been permit-ted and are not controlled; the most exposedand sensitive landscapes are affected, suchas floodplains, riverine areas, elevated andexposed slopes and ridges;
1 The term landscape is multilayered. The definitions of landscape may be very simple - such as found in dictionaries - that landscape is an expanseof scenery that can be seen in a single view, or the more complex landscape ecology definition by Forman (1990) that landscape is a system ofecosystems with specific structures, functions and changes. Landscape could be defined according to the English geographer Meinig (Ogrin, 1986)who described landscape as nature, dwelling, artificial formation, system, problem, property, ideology, history, place and aesthetics.2 Landscape is a complex system, experienced by humans. Therefore, it should express the considerate attitude of humans toward nature, be visuallyattractive and it should be possible to identify landscape at the local and national levels. The landscape is visually attractive if it is complex, if itscomponents are contrasting and if its spatial order is ensured.
104 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
� Construction of flats and residential hous-es, secondary homes and tourist facilitieswhich stand out in the landscape of a pro-tected area;
� Construction of large infrastructure facili-ties, for example the highway system, rail-way towards Hungary and the coast, caus-es the fragmentation of habitats and divideslandscape units;
� Construction of new hydro electric powerplants and power lines modifies the waterand riverine landscape;
� Numerous excavation sites, such as quar-ries, gravel pits, clay pits and sand pits, de-grade landscape because of the size of theactivity and its dominant appearance in thelandscape; the renaturation of these exca-vation sites is rarely carried out, but its pur-pose is to conserve the new habitats of rareand endangered species (European bee-eat-er Merops apiaster);
� Tailings disposal sites and waste disposalsites (many are illegal and uncontrolled) inenvironmentally valuable areas and land-scapes (by rivers, karst sinkholes, ravines);
� Activities affecting watercourses and waterareas are the result of other activities affect-ing the environment by which the buildingsites, infrastructure and agricultural land areprotected from floods. The canalisation ofstreams and rivers and the filling of wet-lands, if the activities are not adapted to theecology of the area, can cause intensive al-terations in the landscape.
� Construction of tourist facilities (beaches,marinas) and expansion of industry (port)on the Slovenian coast affects the coastalzone and alters the current coastline;
� Landscape is profoundly affected by agri-culture which is the main factor in the cre-
ation of cultural landscape. The agri-cultur-al production is intensifying but at the sametime, the relevant surface area is becomingsmaller. The modernisation of agricultureresults in homogenous land use categories.The natural components of landscape slow-ly disappear, such as individual trees andtree and shrub hedges. Micro-relief forma-tions are being levelled and the rivers andstreams canalised, which makes the land-scape uniforms and reduces its diversity.
� The opposite to the intensification of thecultivation of land is the abandonment ofagricultural land and its natural enchroach-ment by scrubs and trees. In Slovenia theprocess began at the end of the 19th centurybut it intensified after the Second World War.Forests have become the prevailing land-scape feature since they cover more than ahalf of the territory of the country. In addi-tion, the rate of forestation is still increas-ing. Extensive areas of newly forested landand their intended use remain an open is-sue of the spatial planning policy as well asagriculture and forestry.
DEGREE OF RESEARCH
Experts in different fields are occupied withthe issues concerning landscape: landscape ar-chitects, landscape ecologists, geographers, for-esters, ecologists, archaeologists and art histori-ans. Most research in this field has been con-ducted by the landscape architects at theDepartment of Landscape Architecture at theBiotechnical Faculty (Strategija varstva krajine -Landscape Conservation Strategy, Ogrin, 1996;Izjemne krajine v Sloveniji - Exceptional Land-scapes of Slovenia, Ogrin, 1999) and by land-scape ecologists at the Department of Forestryand Renewable Forest Resources at the same fac-ulty (Vrednotenje krajin z vidika biotskeraznovrstnosti ter izhodišča za njihovo varstvo -Assessment of Landscapes with regard toBiodiversity and the Grounds for their Conser-vation, Anko, 2000; Vidiki krajinske pestrosti naprimeru pestrosti ornitofavne Ljubljanskega barja- Aspects of Landscape Diversity in view of theDiversity of Ornithofauna of Ljubljansko barje,Groznik Zeiler, 2000).
The main deficiency is the insufficient re-search on the landscape diversity factors, thestructural diversity of landscapes, the processeswhich cause its transformation and the correla-tion between the structure of landscapes and thesocial aspects of its diversity. So far, no modelsconcerning the design of cultural landscapes inthe future have been developed.
Simultaneously, no close relation to the re-search on cultural landscape from the point ofview of cultural heritage has been established.
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Figure 113. Terracewalls built of limestoneare an importantelement of the culturallandscape on Banščiceplateau, and at the sametime contribute to itsrich habitat diversity.
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PRESENTATION OF LANDSCAPETYPES
The reference for the presentation of the di-versity of Slovenian landscapes is the study byMarušič Regional Distribution of LandscapeTypes in Slovenia (Regionalna razdelitev krajin-skih tipov, 1996) which was part of the materialcollected during the drawing up of the spatialplan of Slovenia. Its purpose was to inventorythe landscapes in Slovenia, to present them tothe public and to draw up guidelines for the ac-tivities affecting the landscapes and their con-servation.
The landscapes are presented hierarchically.There are 5 basic regions at level 1: Alpine, sub-Alpine, sub-Pannonian, Karst and coastal land-scapes. They comply with the geographicalregionalisation of Slovenia by Gams (1979) whichhas been determined on the basis of the climateand geology of the territory. These regions arefurther divided into 18 landscape units definedby the relief features, hydrology and vegetationcover. At level 3, there are 67 units, 233 subunitsat level 4, followed by 357 landscape patterns.The list of exceptional landscapes referred to inthe study by Ogrin, Exceptional landscapes ofSlovenia (1999)3, is added to the description ofeach region. The selection is not complete andthe list of landscape patterns will have to besupplemented by Ljubljansko barje, Strunjan cliffsand specific forest landscapes which are, despitetheir homogeneity, important from the point ofview of landscape diversity (Abieti-Fagetumdinaricum forests in Kočevje region).
Landscapes of the Alpine region
These landscapes occupy the north-west part ofSlovenia with the highest mountain ranges of theJulian Alps, Karavanke and Kamnik and SavinjaAlps in the East-West direction. The prevailinglimestone and dolomite, uplifted during the lastorogeny processes, define the varied relief withsubstantial elevation difference between the high-est mountain peaks and glacial Alpine valleys.The climate is harsh, Alpine, which is evidentfrom the vegetation cover adapted to such con-
ditions. At the bottom of the valleys, the remainsof uneven meadows can be found. As the eleva-tion increases the deciduous forest is slowly re-placed by spruce stands, followed by dwarf pinecommunities with an occasional larch. At the topof the mountains, grasses and diverse Alpine floragrow. The population density in the Alps is low.The villages are clustered and situated on high,sunny terraces. In the highlands, ‘solitary’ farmsmainly replace the already rare villages. The lackof arable land in the valleys forced the farmers tofell forests and turn them into pastures for graz-ing livestock. Mountain pastures with herdsmencottages are one of the characteristic elementsof the area.
Suggested outstanding landscapes of theAlpine region are: Bohinj, BohinjskaČešnjica, Drežnica, Jezersko, Koprivna,Logarska dolina z Matkovim in Robanovimkotom, Log pod Mangrtom, pastures Javornikna Pokljuki, Uskovnica, Voje and Zajamniki,Podolševa, including the farms Klemenšek andMacesnik, Studor, Topla, Trenta and Velikaplanina.
Landscapes of the sub-Alpineregion
This type cover Slovenia’s territory from theItalian border along the river Nadiža, across thewest sub-Alpine highlands, the central lowlandsof Ljubljana basin, East sub-Alpine highlands
3 The most important criteria for the selection of exceptional landscapesare:- complete and unique, visually interesting landscape pattern,- sensible adaptation of land use categories to the natural features ofthe area,- suitable relation between the economic, ecological and culturalaspects,- high expression value of the landscape due to its structural authenti-city with traditional field pattern,- presence of historic, monumental, archeological and other similarfeatures,
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Figure 114.
Zajamniki, a typicalalpine pasture in theTriglav National Park.
LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
- exceptionality of natural features and cultural heritage,- landscape pattern complies with the settlement pattern,- exceptionality of the settlement pattern and its spatial position,- complexity of the landscape structure,- complexity as a result of diversity within the same structural unit,- symbolic value,representativeness for a specific region.
106 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
along the river Sava to Pohorje and Kozjak by theAustrian border. The geology of the area ischaracterised by dolomite and limestone as wellas magmatic and metamorphic rocks in the eastand extensive alluvial deposits in the Ljubljanaand Celje basins. The diverse geology of the areadetermines the relief and the appearance of land-scapes. Rounded hills formed of softer bedrockinterchange with steep limestone and dolomitepeaks which do not exceed the altitude of 1000 m.The west part of the region (the hills of Cerklje,Idrija and Škofja loka) is extremely variegated.On the other hand, the east of the region is de-fined by lower altitudes with moderate passesand several high tops and ridges: Paški Kozjak,Kum, Lisca, Boč. Villages with fields are oftenlocated on the slopes and soft ridges. Livestockbreeding is well developed and the main landuse category is meadows. In the valleys, the re-claimed land is used for various agricultural pur-poses. The evidently degraded areas are the re-flection of mining activities. In the area, the clus-tered villages, hamlets and ‘solitary’ farms prevailbut large settlements in lowlands are growing fast.
Obsotelje as well as Krško-Brežiško polje and thevalley of the river Krka and its skirts. In the low-lands, the geology of the area is defined by thesand and gravel or clay deposits, the hills consistof tertiary sediments mixed with clastic rocks andcarbonates. The Pannonian region ischaracterised by vast lowlands and low gentlehills covered by vineyards. The region has a mod-erate continental climate which is extremely suit-able for viticulture. Two distinctive patterns domi-nate the agricultural landscape in the lowlands:large-scale homogenous landscape where theland has been reclaimed for agricultural pur-poses and the traditional narrow fields separatedby hedges. The relics of lowland forests and flood-plain woodlands can be found along the lowercourses of the rivers. The structure of the land-scape in the hills is mosaic. The forests cover theshady, steep slopes and ravines between vine-yards. The fields, meadows and orchards are lo-cated on the sunny and gentle slopes. The pro-portion between the arable land and forests hasbeen changing and currently most vineyards arefound in the vicinity of large settlements, and theless accessible parts of the region have becomeforests. In the lowlands, people live in clusteredvillages flanking the road, and in the hills in dis-persed villages and hamlets. Small vineyard cot-tages situated on the hills’ ridges are characteris-tic of the vinegrowing areas.
Suggested outstanding landscapes of thesub-Pannonian region: Bukovnica,Dolinsko pri Polani, Donačka gora, Gradišče vSlovenskih Goricah, Haloze, Jeruzalem vSlovenskih Goricah, Jovsi pri Brežicah,Kalvarija - Piramida v Mariboru, Kobilje, Murabetween Dolnja Bistrica and Hotiza, Lendavskegorice, Otočec, Radulja pri Klevevžu and theregion between Tinska and Babna gora.
Karst landscapes of inner Slovenia
Karst landscapes occupy the south centralpart of Slovenia with Gorjanci in the east and theplateau of Trnovski gozd and Banjščica in thewest. The bedrock of the area is limestone and
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Suggested outstanding landscapes of thesub-Alpine region: Adergas, Brunk - Osredek,Bitnje, Spodnje and Zgornje Danje, Dobrave priLescah, Bled, Črni vrh, Jamnik nad Kropo, Jekl,Koreno pri Horjulu, Labinje, Pik na Koroškem,Podsreda s Starimi gorami, Prtovč, Rovtarjevvrh - Vojsko, Pohorja, Radensko polje, Razborpod Lisco, Resnik - Skomarje, Rovte, Rut - Grant- Stržišče, Sorica, Strojna, Svibno, Širje nadZidanim mostom, Velika Slevica, Zali Log andŽirovnica nad Radečami.
Landscapes of thesub-Pannonian region
These landscapes occupy the entire easternpart of Slovenia and a ‘detached’ region in thesouth comprising the hills of Posavje and
Figure 115. PonorŠice on Radensko poljesouth of Ljubljananearby Grosuplje.Radensko polje is akarst polje threatenedby stream canalisationand land reclamation.
Figure 116. Banjščiceplateau is sufficientlyopen to the Mediterra-nean to reflect itsinfluence on thepicturesque culturallandscape. The dry karstbedrock does notsupport intensiveagricultural develop-ment.
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dolomite. They form a karst relief with all the di-versity of karst forms, from karst poljes and un-derground streams to sinkholes and caves. Theclimate in the area is continental. Altitudes, whichexceed 500 m, contribute to its sharpness. Theregion is characterised by vast and preserved fir-beech (Abieti-Fagetum dinaricum) forests andkarst poljes which extend in the direction of theDinaric mountains (NW-SE). Agricultural produc-tion, which is concentrated on karst poljes andlarge flatlands, is mainly extensive. The settle-ment pattern in the landscape is clustered villagessurrounded by arable land and mown grasslandswhich are gradually turning into forests.
Suggested outstanding Karst landscapes ofinner Slovenia: Bočje - Gadova peč, Cerkniškojezero, Zelše, upper valley of river Kolpe,Drašički ali Marindolski steljniki, Dvor priSoteski, Globodol, Hotedršica, source of theKrka near Trebnja Gorica, Loški potok, Otlica -Predmeja, Planinsko polje, Strmca pri Postojni,Suhor v Beli krajini and Šmihel ob Krki.
Landscapes of the Primorjeregion
The landscapes include the south west partof Slovenia, from the sea to Matarsko podolje,Vipavska dolina, Karst and the Soča valley. Theregion is characterised by the sub-Mediterraneanclimate. The bedrock of the area is hard limestonewith patches of flysch which is a suitable groundfor agricultural production. The uniformity of theregion is expressed through the characteristicsub-Mediterranean vegetation and ecosystems,such as natural uncultivated and overgrown karstareas and forests of European black pine (Pinusnigra). The traditional and picturesque barrenkarst has almost disappeared. The Primorje re-gion is characterised by intensive land use (hor-ticulture, vineyards, orchards, olive tree planta-
tions). In the past, the less productive land in theKarst was intensively exploited but nowadays thisland is being overgrown. Traditionally, the climateconditions were taken into account in the loca-tion of settlements which were thus situated inthe leeward areas and on sunny gentle ridges ofSlovenska Istra and Goriška Brda. The tradition-ally clustered settlement pattern is slowly turn-ing into a dispersed one. The vertical componentof the coastal landscape is formed by the cy-presses (Cupressus).
Suggested outstanding landscapes of thePrimorje region: Črni Kal, the region ofDutovlje - Tomaj, Izola, ridge settlements:Koštabona, Padna, Šmartno in Krkavče, Lipica,Podgorski kras z Marijo Snežno, Marija Snežnapri Gočah, Rožar pri Tinjanu, Sečoveljskesoline, Strunjanske soline, Sveto pri Komnu,Škocjanske jame, Šmartno v Goriških Brdih inVrtača pod Čebulovico.
(Ph
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) Figure 117. The largestcollapse doline in theSlovenian Istra is abovethe village Osp. Itsbiodiversity value is infloristic, vegetation andfaunistic particularities.
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108 PART 2: THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
109
110 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
111
Since 1991 Slovenia has been undergoing anumber of political, juridical and economicchanges. Together with the creation of a newdemocratic state and its decentralisation, the eco-nomic system is being transformed from a self-management into a market economy. WhenSlovenia gained its independence, it was facedwith many demanding tasks related to the con-struction of a new legal and economic system.The changes inevitably result in modified socialvalues, and the whole society suffers from shockscaused by new values and the inability of certainsocial groups to adapt to the current situation. Insuch a climate, it is important to focus on theguided raising of social awareness about theimportance of biodiversity conservation andabout the corresponding need to act. This aimcould only be achieved by the appropriate edu-cation and raising of public awareness as well asby the integration of the civil society institutionsinto the process of biodiversity conservation.However, the awareness about the complexityof the issues related to the conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity is currently still un-satisfactory.
The legal order of a certain State reflects thevalues which are guaranteed and protectedwithin it. Through legislation the basis for the at-tainment of these values is established, togetherwith the inclusion of the prescribed proceduresand the competent organisations. The legal orderpresents an integral legal system, materially andofficially harmonised, which ensures the rule oflaw. The ratification of the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity reflected the conviction of the coun-try that biodiversity conservation is necessaryand that the relevant components have to be usedin a sustainable manner. However, for theimplementation of this Convention a certain le-gal framework which determines the programmestructure and the economic measures for thebiodiversity conservation components has to beset up.
The sectors whose impact on the state ofbiodiversity and its trends is substantial are: agri-culture, forestry, fisheries, tourism, transport, theenergy sector, water management, spatial plan-ning, regional development, the banking sectorand others. Integration is therefore the main chal-lenge which Slovenia faces in the field ofbiodiversity conservation and sustainable use ofits components, in particular while taking intoaccount that in the past the isolated sectoral ap-proach towards the exploitation and manage-ment of natural resources prevailed.
Until now, the value of biodiversity has notbeen accounted for in the national economiccalculations. The main reasons are of a method-ological nature and are mainly based on under-estimation of the potential value the biodiversityhas for the national economy.
The state of the genetic resources, except inthe agricultural and food processing sectors, hasnot yet been adequately discussed. Only the Con-vention has brought them to the attention.
The denationalisation and privatisation al-tered the ownership structure, and thus the in
BACKGROUND
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Figure 118. Coronellaaustriaca, is oftenmistaken for thepoisonous Viperaberus.
112 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
situ conservation is faced with new challenges.Nowadays the fact that Slovenia has not devel-oped a system of financial support and compen-sations makes it difficult to carry out the in situconservation. Beside that, one of the major prob-lems is the lack of communication with othersectors. Many national programmes and strate-gies have been drawn up but the actual supportfor their implementation is still weak.
The responsibilities and competencies of thepublic institutions have not been clearly defined,since the division of powers and responsibilitieshas not yet been completed. In particular in thefield of nature conservation, including biodi-versity, the transparency of the organisationalscheme and human resource capability is ex-tremely weak, which lessens the efficiency of thesector. The institutions responsible for the imple-mentation of the already assumed internationaland national obligations often lack the qualifiedstaff and strength needed to enforce the relevantinstruments, or else their infrastructure is inad-equate. Among the most deficient task-areas arethe identification, preparation, financing andimplementation of the nature conservationprojects. The consultants are rarely hired to solve (P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
(fo
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
specific problems. On the market, there are notenough funds to implement these programmesbecause the banking sector is not yet prepared toinvest in the nature conservation and environ-mental projects.
The general level of knowledge and the tech-nical qualifications of decision-makers is quitesatisfactory, but those people are not qualifiedto analyse alternatives closely related to the key
Figure 119 (right).
Nigritella rubra, isamong the rarestorchids in Sloveniaand can be found onMt. Snežnik.
issues of sustainable development.
The management and communication skillsare unsatisfactory at all administrative levels. Theshortage of experts in certain fields, e.g. environ-mental economists, environmental lawyers andcommunication experts is critical.
In 2000, the needs and priorities for the imple-mentation of the biodiversity conservation ac-tivities were evaluated by the GEF and UNDP.
Figure 120. The edgesof karst plateaux in thewestern part ofSlovenia (Trnovskigozd is in the photo-graph) are constantlyexposed to the strongeasterly winds ‘burja’.The dry karst meadowstypical of these areashave a high botanicalvalue. The edges arealso of interest for theuse of wind energy.
113
Biodiversity conservation has been includedin the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia.Although its inclusion in this fundamental legalact is not explicit, it is nevertheless notable.
Biodiversity conservation and sustainableuse of its components are regulated by severalacts. Some merely regulate the protection andconservation of biodiversity, and others its sus-tainable use, all within the framework of the man-agement of particular components of biodiver-sity. A summary of acts regulating specific fieldsof protection and conservation of biodiversityand the use of its components is given below.
Beside the Environmental Protection Act, thefundamental regulation in the field of the envi-ronmental protection, the overview also includesthe Nature Conservation Act with a number ofimplementing mechanisms for the direct and in-direct conservation of biodiversity and the Ani-mal Protection Act. In the second part, all the actsregulating the use of individual components ofbiodiversity are included. The Slovenian legisla-tion considers these components as natural re-sources which include forests, agricultural land,waters, wild plants and animals. In this part theSpatial Planning Act is also discussed. This is ex-tremely important for the biodiversity conserva-tion, because in particular spacial use should takeinto account nature and biodiversity. In theprocedures concerning the spatial planning andthe activities affecting the environment theconflict between conservation and developmentis reflected. Space is a limited asset and it isimportant in what way and how carefully thedecisions concerning its use are taken when thedevelopment and conservation interests meet.The legislation concerning space is now obsoletebut a new one is being drawn up. Certain instru-mental measures have been enforced by theEnvironmental Protection Act and the NatureConservation Act (environmental vulnerabilitystudy, environmental impact assessment, etc.).
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THECONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL
AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Constitution
The grounds for regulation environmentalprotection and nature conservation lie in theConstitution of the Republic of Slovenia. In itsgeneral provisions it is laid down that the Stateprovides for the preservation of the naturalwealth and creates opportunities for the harmo-nious development of society and culture inSlovenia. The Constitution stipulates that the actsand other regulations have to comply with theprinciples of international law and the interna-tional treaties which oblige our country. This pro-vision is of great importance for the nature con-servation and the protection of the environmentbecause the relevant conventions form a constitu-ent part of Slovenia’s legislation. With regard tothe hierarchy of legal acts, the laws and execu-tive regulations which have not been harmonisedor are in contradiction with the mentioned con-ventions and international treaties may not beapplied pursuant to these provisions.
In the chapter on Economic and Social Rela-tions, it lays down that pursuant to the law theproperty is acquired and enjoyed so as to ensureits economic, social and environmental function.Pursuant to the Constitution, the ownership rightsto real estate may be revoked or limited in thepublic interest if the conditions stipulated by thelaw are met. The natural wealth may be exploitedif the conditions stipulated by the law are met,and the Constitution further defines the legal or-der regarding special conditions for landutilisation and special protection of agriculturalland. The State is obliged to provide a healthyliving environment and establish by law the con-ditions and manner in which economic and other
LEGAL FRAMEWORKFOR THE CONSERVA-TION AND SUSTAINABLEUSE OF BIODIVERSITY
114 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
activities are pursued. It stipulates that everyoneis obliged in accordance with the law to protectnatural sites of special interest and rarities andthat the State and local communities have to pro-mote the conservation of the natural and culturalheritage.
A special provision included in the Constitu-tion is that the cruelty to animals is regulated bythe law. That provision can not be found in theconstitutions of other countries.
International legislation onnature conservation
International conventions
By notifying the conventions ratified by theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Sloveniahas taken over the obligations of the Ramsar Con-vention, the Barcelona Convention and the Con-vention Concerning the Protection of the World’s
Table 42: Interna-tional biodiversityrelaterd conventionsratified by Slovenia
SHORT NAMESHORT NAMESHORT NAMESHORT NAMESHORT NAME TITLETITLETITLETITLETITLE PLAPLAPLAPLAPLACE AND YEARCE AND YEARCE AND YEARCE AND YEARCE AND YEAR YEAR OF EN-YEAR OF EN-YEAR OF EN-YEAR OF EN-YEAR OF EN- STATUS INSTATUS INSTATUS INSTATUS INSTATUS INOF ADOPTIONOF ADOPTIONOF ADOPTIONOF ADOPTIONOF ADOPTION FORCEMENT/FORCEMENT/FORCEMENT/FORCEMENT/FORCEMENT/ SL SL SL SL SLOOOOOVENIAVENIAVENIAVENIAVENIA
NUMBER OFNUMBER OFNUMBER OFNUMBER OFNUMBER OFPPPPPARTIESARTIESARTIESARTIESARTIES
GLOBAL CONVENTIONS
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Ramsar, 1975 notification in 1992Conven. of International Importance 1971 (Ur. l. RS, 15/92)
especially as Waterfowl Habitat 123 (2001)
World Heritage The Convention Concerning Paris, 1976 notification in 1992Convention the Protection of the World 1972 (Ur. l. RS, 15/92)
Cultural and Natural Heritage 161 (2001)
Washington The Convention onConvention or International Trade in Washington, 1975 ratified in 1999CITES Endangered Species of 1973 (Ur. l. RS, MP* 31/99)
Wild Fauna and Flora 150 (2000)
Bonn Convention The Convention on the Bonn, 1983 ratified in 1998Conservation of Migratory 1979 (Ur. l. RS, 72/98, MP 18)Species of Wild Animals 70 (2000)
The Conven. The Convention on Rio de Janeiro, 1993 ratified in 1996on Biological Biological Diversity 1992 178 (2000) (Ur. l. RS, 30/96, MP 7)Diversity
REGIONAL CONVENTIONS
Bern Convention The Convention on the Bern, 1982 ratified in 1999Conservation of European 1979 (Ur. l. RS, 55/99, MP 17)Wildlife and Natural Habitats 40 (2000)
The European The European Florence, - signature andLandscape Landscape Convention 2000 ratification
Convention under way
Aarhus Convention Convention on Access to Aarhus, - signed in 1998;Information, Public Participation 1998 ratification in Decision-making and Access under wayto Justice in EnvironmentalMatters
Alpine Convention Convention on the Protection Salzburg, 1995 ratified in 1995of the Alps 1991 9 (1999) (Ur. l. RS, 19/95, MP 5)
Barcelona Convention for the Protection Barcelona, ? notification in 1992Convention of the Marine Environment 1976 (Ur. l. RS, 15/92)
and the Coastal Region 21 (2000)of the Mediterranean
* international treaties
115
Cultural and Natural Heritage. As an independentstate, Slovenia has signed and ratified the follow-ing conventions: the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, the Alpine Convention, the Washing-ton biodiversity related Convention, the BonnConvention, the Bern Convention and theDanube Convention. It has signed, but not yetratified, the Aarhus Convention.
Nature conservationregulations issued by the
European CommunityThe objectives of the Fifth Environmental Ac-
tion Programme in the field of nature conser-vation are:
� conservation or restoration of natural habi-tats and wild plant and animal species witha favourable conservation status;
� establishment of an integral European Eco-logical Network of Special Areas of Conser-vation - Natura 2000,
� stringent control of the trade in endangeredwild plant and animal species and the pre-vention of their misuse.
In order to implement the international obli-gations in the field of biodiversity conservationand the objectives of the environmentalprogramme the following regulations are listedin the European Union Table 43.
The Birds Directive and the Habitats Direc-tive are the key instruments for the conservationof plant and animal species and habitats of Com-munity importance at a favourable status, theobjective of which is to ensure the protection ofspecies and the designation of special protectedareas included in the ecological network NATURA2000.
Other environmental legislation important forthe conservation of biodiversity are: the environ-mental impact assessment directive, the regula-tion concerning enhancement of the efficiencyof agriculture and, in particular, the agri-environ-mental regulation which stipulates the agricul-tural production methods compatible with therequirements of the protection of the environ-ment and the maintenance of the countryside,and also enables the environmental standards tobe integrated in the Common Agriculture Policyof the European Union.
Table 43: EuropeanUnion legislationrelated to the natureconservation.
Title
Protection of species and habitats
The Wild Birds Directive:
Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds (OJ L 103, 25. 4. 1979)
The Habitats Directive:
Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wildfauna and flora (OJ L 206, 22. 7. 1992)
International trade
The Endangered Species Regulation:
Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild faunaand flora by regulating trade therein (OJ L 61, 3. 3. 1997)
The Skins of Seal Pups Directive:
Council Directive 83/129/EEC of 28 March 1983 concerning the importation into Member States ofskins of certain seal pups and products derived therefrom (OJ L 91, 9. 4. 1983)
The Regulation on Imports of Cetacean Products:
Council Regulation (EEC) No 348/81 of 20 January 1981 on common rules for imports of whales orother cetacean products (OJ L 39, 12. 2. 1981)
Commission Regulation (EC) No 1968/1999 of 10 September 1999 suspending the introduction intothe Community of specimens of certain species of wild fauna and flora (OJ L 244, 16. 9. 1999)
Other legal acts
The Regulation on Leghold Traps:
Council Regulation (EEC) No 3254/91 of 4 November 1991 prohibiting the use of leghold traps in theCommunity and the introduction into the Community of pelts and manufactured goods of certainwild animal species originating in countries which catch them by means of leghold traps or trapping methods which do not meet international humane trapping standards (OJ L 308, 9. 11. 1991)
Council Directive 1999/22/EC of 29 March 1999 relating to the keeping of wild animals in zoos (OJL 94, 9. 4. 1999)
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
116 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Protection and conservation ofBiological and landscape diversity
Environmental Protection Act
The Environmental Protection Act (hereinaf-ter referred to as the ZVO) is a fundamental actregulating the objectives and principles of envi-ronmental protection. With this Act the founda-tions of the new legislation on environmentalprotection were established. The purpose of thelegislation is to protect the closely connected liv-ing and natural environment and to direct thedevelopmental processes and activities affectingthe environment based on the balanced devel-opmental and environmental needs arising fromthe obligation that - together with meeting therequirements of the current generations - theequal opportunities of the future generationsshould also be taken into account. Therefore, thenatural resources should be used in a controlledway. The provisions concerning the natureconservation, including the protection ofvaluable natural features and biodiversity con-servation, are the general provisions forming alegal framework for the adoption of other natureconservation regulations. The ZVO provides theprinciples, the basic instruments and the insti-tutes for the regulation of the legal protection ofthe environment which form a framework for thepreparation of all other acts regulating the spe-
cific environmental protection fields. They are amandatory component of other provisionswhich regulate the areas having an indirect im-pact on nature.
One of the provisions necessary for the legalregulation of biodiversity conservation laysdown that the purpose of environmental protec-tion is the preservation, improvement and devel-opment of the integrity, diversity and quality ofthe natural features, natural communities, natu-ral assets, and the natural wealth containedtherein. Beside regulating in principle the actionsof the public entities and public law, the ZVO pre-scribes that the needs of all living organismsshould be considered. The basic objectives of theZVO include: the conservation of the vitality ofnature, biodiversity and indigenous species, theirhabitats and ecological balance, the conser-vation of diversity and quality of the naturalassets and the natural gene pool, as well asreduced consumption of the natural resources.
With regard to the natural assets (natural pub-lic good, natural resources, valuable natural fea-tures, natural wealth) the ZVO sets only the gen-eral directions that have to be taken into accountand discussed in sectoral acts (Agricultural LandAct, Waters Act, Forests Act, Nature ConservationAct, the regulations concerning mineral raw ma-terials, game, fish, air, etc.). The public good - aconstituent part of the ecosystems of agriculturalland, forests, underground world, karst, waters,sea and infertile land - may only be exploited insuch a way that its substance is not threatenedand its natural role is not neglected. All these prin-ciples have to be taken into consideration whenthe regulations concerning forestry, fisheries,agriculture, hunting and spatial planning areadopted. Pursuant to these regulations the eco-logical functions of the environment have to beconserved and ensured. The same applies to thenatural resources and valuable natural features.
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
Pursuant to the Environmental Protection Act,the Government had drawn up the National En-vironmental Action Programme which has beenadopted by the National Assembly. In theprogramme the objectives, directions and strate-gies for the protection of the environment andthe use of natural assets have been defined forthe next ten years. Within the National Environ-mental Action Programme a frameworkprogramme for the biodiveristy conservationuntil 2008 and the programme of measures until2003 are included. Its basic objectives in the fieldof the biodiversity conservation are:
� BIO 1: to prevent the reduction of biologi-cal diversity at the ecosystem, species andgenome levels;(P
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arko
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ić)
Figure 121. Spring ofthe Soča River, it is akarst cave formed at atectonic fault and filledwith water from thealpine karst underMojstrovka. Since nohuman influenceintervenes, the wateris of very good quality.
117
� BIO 2: to prevent further threats to naturalequilibrium of ecosystems caused byinappropriate exploitation of animal andplant species.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION MEA-SURES
The ZVO provides measures and proceduresimportant also for biodiversity conservation:
� Protection and temporary protectionof natural wealth, e.g. rare, precious orvaluable natural assets.
� Designation of the status of endan-gered environment in order to rehabili-tate, establish the new, and restore the pre-vious status of a certain area, a specific nat-ural community or any other part of a naturalasset.
� Pre-emptive right and expropriationfor a real estate located in the area of a pro-tected natural wealth in order to prevent theexploitation of the especially rare naturalresources and those which are difficult torenew, or to ensure the ecological, protec-tive and other public functions of naturalresources stipulated by the law.
� Concession for the exploitation of naturalassets. Currently, the regulations on the cri-teria for determining payment rates are notavailable, but the executive acts are in forceon the emission limit values and the inputof energy into the soil, water and air, on thecorresponding concentrations and on oth-er mandatory measures.
� Environment vulnerability study has tobe considered in the planning, progra-mming and designing of activities affectingthe environment and in planning spatialdevelopment. The regulation on determin-ing the principles of the ecosystem classifi-cation and methodology for implementa-tion of the environmental vulnerability stud-ies has not yet been drawn up.
� Comprehensive environmental impactassessment evaluates the impacts of theplanned activities on the environment andthe inter-related impacts of individual hu-man activities. The regulation laying downin detail the scope of the comprehensiveassessment and the relevant methodologyhas not yet been adopted.
� Environmental impact assessment de-termines the acceptability of the intendedactivity affecting the environment with re-spect to its long- and short-term, and directand indirect impacts on the environment inthe light of the minimum possible changein the natural environmental conditions and
the maximum required environmental pro-tection levels. With regard to the implemen-tation of the provisions concerning the en-vironmental impact assessment the relevantregulations have been issued. After imple-mentation of the environmental impact as-sessment, the procedure concerning the is-suance of the environmental protectionconsent follows.
Nature Conservation Act
The Nature Conservation Act (the ZON) is thefundamental regulation in the field of the con-servation of biodiversity of wild plant and ani-mal species. The conservation of biodiversity innature is closely linked to the maintenance ofthe natural equilibrium. In order to protect the envi-ronment, the measures for the biodiversity con-servation have been determined and the systemfor the protection of valuable natural featuresestablished. The biodiversity conservation mea-sures regulate the protection of wild plant andanimal species, including their genetic material,habitats and ecosystems. The system for the pro-tection of the valuable natural features lays downthe procedures and methods for the designationof the status of a valuable natural feature and fortheir protection. Both systems are combined andcomplemented to ensure the effective natureconservation.
The ZON establishes a general conservationregime for all wild plant and animal species. Theregime is based on the fundamental limitationsand prohibitions and on the detailed rules of con-duct stipulated by the Government. The generalconservation of plant and animal species stipu-lates the minimum rules of conduct which haveto be respected by all the entities involved andwhich apply to all human activities. In compli-ance with the environment conservation devel-opment, only those human activities are permit-ted which meet human needs in a reasonablemanner. Pursuant to the ZON, the nature conser-vation measures and the system for the protec-tion of valuable natural features are taken intoaccount in the spatial planning and in the useand exploitation of natural assets in a way stipu-lated by the law.
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
Pursuant to the Nature Conservation Act theNational Assembly must adopt the Nature Con-servation Programme which covers biodiversityconservation and the protection of valuable natu-ral features. The programme has to define thepublic interest in biodiversity conservation andthe protection of valuable natural features for atleast the following 10 years. It is implemented by
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
118 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
the adoption of operational plans approved bythe Government for maximum 4 years. In addi-tion, the programmes for the protection of valu-able natural features of local importance have tobe adopted by the local communities.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MEA-SURES
In the ZON, the biodiversity conservationmeasures are divided into different groups, i.e.the conservation of diversity at the genetic, spe-cies and ecosystem levels.
PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIESMeasures for the conservation of plant and
animal species are the following:� The general conservation regime is stip-
ulated by the law. In compliance with thisregime it is prohibited to exterminate a plantor animal species, reduce the number ofplants and animals, reduce their habitats orworsen their living conditions to such anextent that the species becomes endan-gered. It is also prohibited intentionally todestroy or damage habitats of plant or ani-mal species populations, without a justifi-able reason. Pursuant to the Nature Con-
servation Act the reason is justifiable whenthe action has a beneficial result and issocially acceptable.
� Mandatory application of techniques,methods and technical devices whichcontribute to the conservation of the favour-able status of a species during the carryingout of the activities affecting nature or hab-itats. The regulation concerning the leastdisturbing manner of and conditions for thecarrying out of the activities affecting na-ture has not yet been issued.
� Conditions for use of plants or animals- the ecosystem and biogeographical char-acteristics of species or populations whichare important for the maintenance of spe-cies at a favourable status are included intoplans within the framework of the sustain-able management. So far, no regulations onthe conditions for the use of plant and ani-mal species have been issued.
� Prohibition of introduction of non-in-digenous plant or animal species, un-less it had been determined during the as-sessment of risk to nature that the introduc-tion will not threaten the natural balance orthe biodiversity components. Biotechno-logically modified plants and animals areconsidered to be plants or animals of non-indigenous species.
� Control of reintroduction of non-indig-enous species - a consent is mandatory(except for plants used in agriculture andforestry).
� Prohibition on keeping indigenousand non-indigenous species in captivityin unsuitable living conditions and withoutproper care, and the obligation of naturaland legal persons to inform the Ministryabout the species which had been obtainedfor keeping in captivity. The regulation con-cerning the living conditions of and care forthe species for which the notification isobligatory has not been adopted.
� Permit for the breeding of animals ofindigenous or non-indigenous speciesand the obligation to isolate the areaintended for animal breeding from the adja-cent ecosystem. The relevant regulationshave not yet been issued.
� Records on trade in live animals of indig-enous and non-indigenous species. The reg-ulation concerning the species for whichthe records on trade are not necessary andon the detailed contents of these recordshave not yet been issued.
� Rules of conduct for the taking of animalsfrom the wild, their breeding and transpor-ting; introducing and keeping of animals incaptivity, the trade, import, export or transit
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j H
ud
okl
in)
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
Figure 122 (below).
Lynx lynx, once extinctin Slovenia, wassuccessfully reintro-duced in 1973.
Figure 123
(bottom). Cub of abrown bear at one ofthe farms on Mt.Nanos. The cage wasfar too small for theanimal.
119
and other handling. The regulations on thedetailed techniques for the protection ofplant or animal species and the protectionof other types of living organisms have notyet been adopted.
� Protection of internationally protect-ed species (pursuant to the ratified inter-national treaties) is guaranteed through theprotection of their habitats and through theprotection regimes for protected species.The regulation on the guidelines for main-taining a favourable status of the species’habitats, which have to be taken into ac-count in spatial planning and the use of nat-ural assets, has not yet been issued.
� Assessment of risk to nature concerningthe biotechnologically modified plants oranimals, the repopulation or the introduc-tion of non-indigenous species and thebreeding of animals is carried out beforethe permit for an activity affecting nature isissued providing that it has been determinedduring the procedure that the activity cannotthreaten the natural balance or biodiversitycomponents. The regulation concerning theconditions for and methods of the imple-mentation of assessment has not yet beenissued.
GENETIC DIVERSITY
The measures concerning biodiversity con-servation at the genome level are as follows:
� Establishment of a gene bank (ex situ pro-tection measure) - gene banks are controlledor cultured populations or parts of animalsand plants, in particular seeds, spores, re-productive cells and other biological mate-rial which are managed for the purposes ofthe conservation of species or their genepools. The regulation on the technical qual-ifications and on the rules of conduct forthe taking of biological material from na-ture for the needs of gene banks and on theproper procedures for their managementhas not yet been adopted.
� Rules on the use of genetic material -genetic material is part of a plant, animal ormicro-organism which contains units ofheredity to be used in compliance with theregulations concerning the use of naturalassets unless specified otherwise by the law.The regulation on the rules of conduct inthe taking of genetic material from naturehas not yet been adopted.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITYThe ZON stipulates the obligation to con-
serve habitats, establish ecologically importantareas and special protected areas, and to protect
landscape and nature in urban areas. The relevantmeasures are:
� Guidelines for the conservation of hab-itats as spatially explicit ecosystem unitsdistinguished by biotope or biotic charac-teristics. The regulation on habitats and theguidelines for the maintenance of habitatsat a favourable status has not yet been adopt-ed.
� Designation of ecologically importantareas (EPO) as areas of a specific habitat,its part, or a large ecosystem unit which sig-nificantly contributes to biodiversity con-servation and the establishment of anecological network as a system of inter-connected ecologically important areas orareas close to one another which, throughan even biogeographical distribution, sig-nificantly contribute to the maintenance ofnatural balance and consequently to biodi-versity conservation. The regulation on thedesignation of ecologically important areasand on their protection has not yet beenadopted. The rules of conduct, the protec-tion regimes or the development directionswill form mandatory grounds for spatialplanning and the exploitation of natural as-sets. When Slovenia becomes a full memberof the EU, the provisions of the ZON willstart to apply on special protected areas(SPA) as ecologically important areas which,within the European Union, are importantfor the maintenance or attainment of afavourable status of species and their habi-tats. The regulation on the Special ProtectedAreas and on their protection has not yetbeen adopted. The protection of all protect-ed areas will be ensured through themeasures for the protection of valuable nat-ural features, including the establishmentof protected areas run by their own manager.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 124. Natureconservation also needsto be considered inurban areas.
120 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� Designation of landscape features andlandscape diversity important for biodi-versity conservation and the guidelinesfor the conservation of biodiversity ina landscape. The relevant regulation hasnot yet been adopted.
� Methods of and conditions for the con-servation of biodiversity in urbanareas. The regulation on the protection ofplant or animal species, or habitats of theirpopulations in urban areas, and on the wayof and conditions for an activity affectingnature has not yet been adopted.
SYSTEM AND MEASURES FOR THE PRO-TECTION OF VALUABLE NATURAL FEA-TURES
The system for the protection of valuable natu-ral features ensures the fulfilment of the condi-tions for the preservation of the characteris-tics of valuable natural features and natu-ral processes which generate and preservethese characteristics and of the conditions forthe restoration of valuable natural features. Inthe ZON a natural valuable feature is defined asa rare, valuable or well-known natural phenom-enon and any other valuable phenomenon, acomponent or part of the living or non-living na-ture, a nature area or part thereof, an ecosystem,landscape or designed landscape. According tothe form in which a natural valuable feature ap-
pears in nature, the Act lists in particular: the geo-logical phenomena, the minerals and fossils andmineral and fossil sites, the surface and subsur-face karst features, the caves, gorges and othergeomorphological phenomena, the glaciers andglacial forms, springs, waterfalls, rapids, lakes,bogs and fens, brooks and rivers with their banks,sea-shore, plant and animal species and excep-tional specimens and habitats thereof, ecosys-tems, landscape, and designed landscape. Valu-able natural features may be the property of natu-ral or legal persons and of the State or localcommunity, but no one is allowed to treat themin such a way that their existence would be threat-ened. The regulation concerning the detailedconditions for and methods of the managementof valuable natural features for viewing or visit-ing has not yet been adopted. A concession maybe granted for the use of a valuable natural fea-ture which is the property of the state or localcommunity. The valuable natural features are ofnational or local importance, and the regulationconcerning their classification will have beenadopted in 2002.
MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OFVALUABLE NATURAL FEATURES
� Contractual protection. The contract onprotection is concluded with the owner ofthe real-estate located in the protected areaor with the owner of a valuable natural fea-ture if it has been established that the pro-tection of a valuable natural feature can beensured in this manner.
� Stewardship of a valuable natural fea-ture. The contract on the stewardship isconcluded with a person who is not theowner of a valuable natural feature or real-estate located in the protected area.
� Protection of valuable natural featuresis carried out through the instrument of pro-tection which determines the valuable nat-ural feature, its range and components, thepurpose of protection, the rules of conductor the protection regime and the develop-ment directions. By the instrument of pro-tection the small protected areas - strict na-ture reserves, nature reserves and naturalmonuments, and large protected areas - na-tional, regional and landscape parks maybe established. The purpose of large pro-tected areas is particularly to protect thelandscape. In compliance with the ZON, amanager has to be appointed to the protect-ed area.
� Temporary protection. The parts of na-ture which are justifiably presumed to havecharacteristics owing to which they will bedesignated as valuable natural features aretemporarily protected. Two regulations on(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 125. Thewaterfall Boka is thesecond highest inSlovenia, but with thelargest amount ofwater. In spring, themelting snow on theMt. Kanin in thehinterland cancontribute to thewaterfall’s discharge of100 tonnes of waterper second.
121
the temporary protection (fossil vertebratesnear Kozina and a wetland Mlake) have beenadopted.
� Restoration of the damaged or destroyedvaluable natural features. They are restoredaccording to the reasonable application ofthe provision of the EPO on the restoration.
� Right of pre-emption. The state and localcommunities have a right of pre-emption inthe purchase of real-estate located in pro-tected areas.
� Restrictions on legal transactions. Legaltransactions in the real-estate located in theprotected areas and in the valuable naturalfeatures in the interest of nature conserva-tion is permitted only in the cases referredto in the ZON.
� Expropriation and property right re-strictions in the interest of nature conser-vation. Property right or any other real rightconcerning the real-estate may be seized orrestricted for public benefit when that isnecessary for the protection of valuablenatural features or for the purpose of esta-blishing the protected area.
� Compensation due to the restrictions andprohibitions, referred to in this Act or in theinstruments of protection issued pursuantto this Act, which substantially reduce theopportunities for earning income and whichcannot replace its loss by the activity per-mitted within the framework of the protec-tion regimes. In addition, compensations arepaid for damage caused by the protectedanimal species.
OBLIGATION TO INTEGRATE CONSERVA-TION MEASURES INTO THE SPATIAL PLANNSFOR THE EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL AS-SETS
The nature conservation guidelines includeall the existing directions, guidelines and protec-tion regimes for the preservation of areas impor-tant for biodiversity, valuable natural features andprotected areas, and are included in the planningprocedures and procedures for the drawing upof documents for spatial planning and utilisationof valuable natural features. The nature conser-vation guidelines drawn up for the territory ofthe country form the foundations for the ecosys-temic analysis of the territory pursuant to whichthe environmental vulnerability study shall beproduced.
The assessment is foreseen of the plans anddocuments on the activities affecting the spaceand the utilisation of natural assets which mighthave an impact on the protected area establishedby the State or on the special protected area. The
impacts of the planned activities on the area areassessed, and also the countervailing measures -i.e. activities by which the degradation of natureis mitigated or remedied - are defined. When theactivity affecting the space results in the degra-dation of nature, the person responsible for thatactivity has to eliminate the adverse effects ofthat activity and cover all the costs of the elimi-nation.
Activities affecting nature which may threatenbiodiversity, a valuable natural feature or pro-tected area for which a permit is not requiredunder the regulations on spatial planning andother regulations are carried out on the basis of anature conservation consent (permit issued pur-suant to the Nature Conservation Act). The Gov-ernment has to stipulate what activities affectingthe area are subject to the nature conservationconsent; the relevant regulation has not yet beenissued.
Caves Protection Act
The proposed act for the protection of cavesact is in its second reading at the nationalAssembly of the Republic of Slovenia. The Actwill regulate the protection and use of caves asparticularly threatened habitats, and therestoration of the polluted and damaged caves.The proposal stipulates that the caves, anunconstructed part of the underground world, areconsidered as public assets and valuable naturalfeatures owned by the State. The Decree on theprotection of endangered animal speciesstipulates that all animal species permanentlyliving in caves or underground waters areprotected. With the adoption of the protection ofcaves act, their biotopes will be protected as well.The proposal of the Act is based on the funda-mental environmental protection principles
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 126. Caves arespecific systems,difficult to conserve dueto numerous humanactivities on the surfacethat affect the subterra-nean environment.
122 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
established by the ZVO and the principles of con-servation of caves in their natural state; the prior-ity protection of caves against use; the exploita-tion of caves in a sustainable manner; and theprinciple that speleological associations operatein the public interest. Its general provisions stipu-late that the activities affecting caves, their useand protection should be carried out in such away that the cave living organisms are not af-fected. With regard to biodiversity conservation,this act is important because it protects the ex-tremely sensitive cave ecosystems.
Animal Protection Act
The Animal Protection Act regulates the pub-lic responsibility to protect animals, i.e. to pro-tect their life, health and welfare. At the sametime, it stipulates the principles of good practicein the handling of animals. Furthermore, it laysdown what activities are prohibited and consid-ered to be cruelty to animals.
In view of the biodiversity conservation thisact is of extreme importance for the protectionof species. Its provisions also apply to wild ani-mals. Among other provisions, is stipulates thatit is prohibited to cause suffering, illness or deathof an animal without a justified cause. It is per-mitted to kill an animal when that is required forthe maintenance of the natural balance and incases when an animal poses a threat or causesconsiderable damage which can not be pre-
vented otherwise. With regard to game, the Actstipulates that the hunting of game is permittedin compliance with the hunting regulations.
The Animal Protection Act stipulates that thecruelty to animals is any handling or absence ofhandling which causes serious harm to an ani-mal, its prolonged or repetitive suffering or whichaffects its health, and also the inappropriate orunnecessary killing of an animal.
PROTECTION MEASURESAmong the provision of the Act which might
be considered as biodiversity conservation mea-sures are particularly the measures prohibitingcertain types of handling of animals. These in-clude: the shooting of animals; setting traps; pelt-ing animals with objects or pyrotechnic sub-stances; chasing of animals living in the naturalor urban environment; driving animals awayfrom their shelters and nests; hunting wild ani-mals for breeding, contrary to the hunting andfishing regulations; keeping of wild animals inunregistered zoos; releasing bred animals into thewild if they are not capable of survival. The ex-emptions are possible under other acts.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THESUSTAINABLE USE OF THE
COMPONENTS OF BIOLOGICALAND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
The natural wealth has been exploited on theterritory of Slovenia for centuries. Sectors whichdirectly exploit the components of biodiversityare: forestry, agriculture, hunting and fisheriesand the water management sector. All these ac-tivities are regulated by sectoral acts. Unfortu-nately, most of these acts do not incorporate theprinciples of biodiversity conservation and thesustainable use of its components. The excep-tions are the forestry sector and, lately, agricul-ture. The strategies and development pro-grammes of these two sectors comprise certainstrategic objectives and directions for theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
In addition, biodiversity is affected by othersectors, like tourism, industry, transport and theexploitation of mineral raw materials. These sec-tors indirectly exploit the components ofbiodiversity. Often the result is the fragmentationof the habitats of various plant and animal spe-cies. The strategies and development pro-grammes of these sectors comprise only a fewstrategic objectives and directions for thebiodiver-sity conservation. The only exceptionsare the strategy of economic development andthe regional development strategy, where the firststeps in this direction had been taken. In order tomeet the objectives of sustainable development,(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 127. Asandpit near Bizeljsko(SE Slovenia) forextraction of quartzsand. The pit wallsprovide habitat to abee-eater (Meropsapiaster), nesting inthem. It is an excellentexample of coopera-tion between themining and natureconservation sectors.
123
a harmonised action is needed in the strategicdocuments preparation. Spatial planning is oneof the main instruments for the establishment ofspecific activities in a certain area. The NatureConservation Act stipulates that the nature con-servation guidelines which function as the man-datory grounds for spatial planning have to beset up. In addition, the guidelines for the exploi-tation of natural assets have to be prepared. Theirpurpose is to promote the activities which con-serve biodiversity and protect valuable naturalfeatures. In this way, the requirements of the in-ternational regulations (directives, conventionsand other agreements) are harmonised with thenational objectives.
Forests Act
The Forests Act regulates the conservation,protection, cultivation, exploitation and use offorests as natural wealth in such a manner as toensure their sustainable and multipurpose man-agement in compliance with the principles ofprotection of the environment and valuable natu-ral features, and the optimum functioning of for-ests as ecosystems. The Act stipulates the condi-tions for the management of forested areas, indi-vidual trees and clusters of forest trees whichgrow outside urban areas, in order to maintainand strengthen their role in the environment.Important provisions are those on the implemen-tation of the property right on forests, in order toensure their ecological, social and productionfunctions. Forest owners manage forests in com-pliance with the regulations, forest managementplans4 and administrative acts issued pursuantto the Act.
From the point of view of biodiversity con-servation, certain provisions of the Forests Actare important at the levels of ecosystems andspecies as well as at the genome level (provisionson seeds, seedlings and forest seed banks).Amendments to the Forests Act are needed inorder to harmonise it with the regulations on na-ture conservation, particularly concerningbiodiversity conservation.
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMINGThe Forest Development Programme
stipulates the national policy of sustainable for-est management, the orientations for the conser-vation and development of forests and conditionsfor their exploitation and multipurpose use. For-ests cover approximately 60 % of Slovenia’s terri-
tory. Therefore, the planning of forest manage-ment is of extreme importance for in situ protec-tion and sustainable use. The forest developmentprogramme has been drawn up by taking intoaccount the principles of the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity. It establishes the in situ conser-vation of biodiversity and the sustainable use ofits components. Beside the economic functionsof forests, it also defines the orientations for sus-tainable use of the forest species. The implemen-tation of the ‘conservation part’ of the strategycontributes substantially to biodiversity conser-vation in Slovenia.
MEASURESForest management (silviculture, exploitation,
forest protection, construction and maintenanceof forest infrastructure).
1. Silviculture and exploitation of forests areregulated and carried out on the basis of forestmanagement plans.
� Forest owners exploit and cultivate theirforests pursuant to the authorisation pro-cedure based on the silviculture plans.Subject to authorisation are the required sil-viculture activities, guidelines and dead-lines for the implementation of the silvicul-ture and protection activities, the quantityand structure of trees for maximum remov-al, as well as guidelines and conditions forfelling.
� Prohibition of all activities which reducethe vigour of the stand or the fertility of thesite and the stability or continuity of the for-est and which threaten its functions5, exist-ence or purpose, and activities concerning
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
Figure 128. Hudičevboršt, an example of anisolated beech forestwithin steep grasslandslopes on Zaplata abovePreddvor (NorthSlovenia).
4 Plans for the management of forests are: the regional forest management plans, plans for forest management units, silviculture plans andregional hunting plans.5 Under the Forests Act, the forests functions are ecological (protection of forest land and stands, hydrological, biotopical and climate functions),social (protection function - protection of infrastructure, recreational, tourist, educational, research, health functions, protection of natural andcultural heritage and other valuable natural features, defence and aesthetic function) and production (wood production, acquisition of otherforest products and hunting function).
124 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
the afforestation of non-forest areas withinthe forests unless provided for in a forestmanagement plan.
� Permit and consent for activities affect-ing a certain area (pursuant to the spatialplanning regulations) is required for theconstruction of facilities outside the forestif they have a negative effect on the forestecosystem and its functions.
� Prohibition of clear-cutting as a mannerof forest management, unless it is necessaryfor sanitary reasons or the carrying out ofpreventive protection activities or is provid-ed for in the plans.
� Restoration of forests if they had beendamaged or clear-cut contrary to the regula-tions, on the sites of fire and in forests dam-aged by various deleterious biotic and abi-otic agents.
� Permit for fencing parts of the forest toprotect seedlings or to temporarily protectforests against deer (if it is provided for inthe plan), to protect valuable natural fea-tures, if appropriate and to protect specialpurpose forests (if stipulated in the act ofdesignation).
� Limitation or prohibition of picking(species, quantities, methods, sites and timeof picking animals, fruits, mushrooms orplants) if any plant or animal species or for-est function is threatened.
2. Protection of forests (monitoring andstrengthening the biological balance and theimplementation of preventive and suppressivemeasures). Owners and other users of the for-ests must implement all the prescribed measuresto prevent and suppress plant diseases and theoutbreaks of insect populations which coulddestroy the biological balance in a forest and toprevent other forest damage.
� Order on sanitary felling and preventiveprotection activities and the stipulation offurther measures for the protection of for-ests.
� Prohibition on application of chemicalsubstances in the forest; exemptions arepossible (attested chemical substanceswhich do not threaten biological balance)to protect seedlings or to reduce insect pop-ulations and fight forest fires.
� Prohibition on forest grazing (exemp-tions on the basis of prior criteria) and mak-ing fire in a forest.
� Measures to eliminate reasons for thedeterioration of and damage to forests onthe basis of monitoring the extent and levelof deterioration and damage.
� Conservation and restoration of habi-tats of indigenous plant and animal speciesin forests (in compliance with forest man-agement plans) and gradual re-establish-ment of the natural components of the for-est biotic communities.
3. Construction and maintenance of the for-est infrastructure is based on the technical, eco-nomic and environmental conditions. The con-struction, maintenance and use of forest roads6
must not affect an area important for the conser-vation of wild animals or valuable natural fea-tures. The forest roads are public and may be used(on one’s own responsibility). A special trafficregime is enforced in protective forests, specialpurpose forests, forests threatened by fire, andforests defined in forest management plans asareas important for the conservation of wild ani-mals.
4. Protective forests and ‘special purpose’ for-est.
� Designation of protective forests (for-ests which under strained environmentalconditions protect themselves, their sites(P
ho
to: B
ran
ka H
lad
)Figure 129. Burntout area inLjubljansko Barje.Fires are often due tothe carelessness ofpeople lighting fires inopen nature.
6 Pursuant to Article 37, the Rules on the construction, maintenance and use of forest roads were issued which entered into force on 29 January2000 (the Rules on the construction and maintenance of forest roads are no longer in force - Ur. l. RS, 44/87).
125
and lower grounds and forests where anyother environmental function is especiallypronounced). By law such forests are desig-nated as protected natural wealth.
� Designation of ‘special purpose’forests (the emphasised functions areresearch and health function, the protectionof valuable natural features and culturalheritage). By law, such forests are designatedas protected natural wealth.
� Tax reliefs, compensations and pur-chases if enjoyment or enforcement of theproperty right is limited.
� Until the adoption of the spatial compo-nents of the forest management plans incompliance with this Act, the special pur-pose forests are defined by the regulationsissued by a local community, if the accentu-ated function of the forest is in its own inter-est, or by Governmental regulation, if theaccentuated function of the forest is in thepublic interest.
� Pre-emptive right for protective forestsand special purpose forests.
� Designation as forest reserves (empha-sised research and biotope functions).
� Rules on the protection of forests stipu-late the conditions for the sustainable man-agement and use of forests (the exploitationof their functions), the measures for themaintenance of the balance of a forest eco-system (leaving dead biomass, conserva-tion of wetland areas in forests, etc.), plan-ning of measures for the prevention of harm-ful effects on forests, the monitoring offorest damage and the protection of forestsagainst fire. In a special chapter on bioticbalance measures for the conservation ofbiotic balance are defined in detail as wellas the natural shelters, the monitoring of thebiotic balance, the monitoring of the statusof animal populations and their biotopesand certain additional measures for biodi-versity conservation.
� In general, the Act also regulates manage-ment of forest genetic resources. The healthprotection of forest plants is defined in thePlant Protection Act (2000) and the Ruleson the protection of forests (2000). The legis-lation concerning the forest reproductivematerial is currently being amended andharmonised with the EC Directive 1999/105and the OECD scheme. The Ordinance onthe financing and co-financing of invest-ments into forests (1994) and the Pro-gramme for the development of forests in
Slovenia (1996) lay down specific guidelinesfor the conservation and use of biodiversi-ty in forests and forestry in general (Kraigh-er, 1997).
Agriculture
Agriculture Act
The Agriculture Act defines the objectives ofthe agricultural policy; the planning of the agri-cultural and rural development; the measures ofagricultural policy; the quality and labelling ofagricultural products or foodstuffs; the trade inagricultural products or foodstuffs; the publicservices; the data bases and information in thefield of agriculture; the procedures and bodiesrequired for the implementation of the Act; theresearch work and education; as well as the de-velopment and professional tasks and the inspec-tion control. The objectives of the agriculturalpolicy in Slovenia are the preservation of thepopulation density in the countryside, the pro-tection of farm land against pollution and pur-poseless use, and the enforcement of the prin-ciples of environmental protection and natureconservation.
PLANNING
The introductory part of the Rural develop-ment plan adopted in December 1999 declaresthat the development of the countryside signifi-cantly affects biodiversity and nature conserva-tion in the major part of Slovenia. Namely, thecountryside represents 89.1 % of its territory. Theplan also establishes the important foundationsfor the implementation of the financial mecha-nisms employed by the State for the promotionof the development of the countryside and agri-culture in particular. Special objectives includethe promotion of the agri-environmental prac-tices for biodiversity conservation and the finan-cial support to the sustainable agricultural ex-
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
Figure 130. Lubnik. Inthe areas lessfavourable for agricul-tural productionfarmers still plough thefields in the traditionalway, with horse andplough.
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
126 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ploitation of the natural resources. The interna-tional and national legislation concerningbiodiversity conservation through the in situ con-servation of endangered species’ habitats andendangered habitats are still not taken into ac-count. In the substantive part of the Rural Devel-opment Plan - the strategy and priority tasks foracquiring assistance from the European Agricul-tural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) -the assistance for the measures concerningbiodiversity conservation - has not been providedfor. This deficiency has been partly covered byadoption of the Agri-Environmental Programmeof Slovenia, but the trend towards deplation ofbiodiversity has still not been halted.
MEASURES
The agricultural policy measures are orientedtowards the promotion of sustainable agricultureby which the diversity of the plant and animalspecies is maintained and the soil and its fertilitypreserved, while the natural conditions for lifein soil, water and air are protected.
The measures of the agricultural structuralpolicy are oriented towards the increase in com-petitiveness in the production and processing ofagricultural products and foodstuffs, environ-mental friendly agricultural production and thepreservation of the population density in thecountryside, while taking into account the envi-
ronmental and conservation acceptability. Ifthese measures are appropriately implementedthey can conserve biodiversity. They are asfollows:
� Support to agriculture in areas withless favourable conditions, such as sup-port to mountain and hill farms, as well assupport to other areas with limited condi-tions for agricultural production, is impor-tant for the biodiversity conservation sinceagriculture in these areas defines the land-scape. On the other hand, from the point ofview of the biodiversity conservation,providing support to the areas with specialnatural limitations - flood plains, marshes,strong winds, bogs, etc. - is harmful. Incen-tives are paid in areas where the agriculturehas to be conserved in order to enforce en-vironment friendly rural development andconserve the landscape. The support is pro-vided in the form of compensatorypayments.
� Support to environment friendly agri-culture (in the form of direct payments perhectare or per animal) which contributes tothe conservation and improvement of thenatural resources, drinking water sources,biological and landscape diversity whilealso ensuring biodiversity in agriculture, thepreservation and promotion of environ-ment friendly technologies in agriculture,the conservation of environmentally sensi-tive areas, the prevention of natural en-croachment of vegetation on agriculturalland and the protection of the cultural heri-tage and valuable natural features relatedto agriculture.
� Support to people working in the agricul-tural sector and forestry, intended for theirtraining (reorientation of production, intro-duction and application of modern technol-ogies and enforcement of the stipulatedhygienic, environmental and ethologicalstandards).
� Support to the processing of agricultur-al products and foodstuffs (introductionof technological innovations, improvementof the staff and organisational structure,improvement of the quality of agriculturalproducts and foodstuffs, improvement ofhygienic conditions and environmental pro-tection).
� Support to the rural development forthe promotion of diversity in agricultureand all the related activities in the country-side; development and improvement of theagricultural infrastructure and services nec-essary for the development (managementof water sources for irrigation purposes)and renovation of villages and other ruralsettlements.(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 131. Planina vLazu. In the past,alpine pastures wereformed to provideenough grazing forcattle. Since then theeconomic conditionshave changed, and thealpine pastures can bemaintained onlythrough particulardevelopmentprogrammes.
127
� Certification of organic or integratedagricultural products or foodstuffs onthe basis of the prescribed conditions (pro-duction and processing according to theorganic methods and procedures with theapplication of natural methods for the pre-vention and suppression of diseases andpests; without the application of plant regu-lators or hormones; easily soluble mineralfertilizes; genetically modified organismsand their products; ionising radiation; withthe breeding of animals which meets thebiological and ethological requirements; theuse of adapted species, varieties and breedsresistant to local conditions, and the appli-cation of permitted additives and proce-dures). The detailed conditions of organicand integrated production and processingare stipulated by two ministerial regulations.
� Rules on organic production and pro-cessing of agricultural products and/or food. The products and/or food fromhunting and fishing may not be labelled as“organic”. The organic production and pro-cessing is controlled by an organisationwhich meets the prescribed technical, ad-ministrative and organisational require-ments. The basic principle is that the mark“organic” is awarded to food and productswhich have been produced without the ap-plication of ionising radiation, geneticallymodified organisms, easily soluble mineralfertilizes, plant regulators or hormones. Theorganic product or food is produced by nat-ural methods and procedures.
The strategic directions of the Agri-Environ-mental Programme of Slovenia (SKOP) are laiddown in the programme for the reform of theagricultural policy of 1998 within the second pil-lar of the reform concerning the restructuring ofagriculture. The entire programme reflects sub-stantial progress for the established managementand a transition towards environment friendlyagriculture. Its purpose is to promote agriculturalproduction which will suit the needs of consum-ers and protect human health, guarantee sustain-able use of the natural resources and enable thebiodiversity and characteristics of the landscapein Slovenia to be preserved. With regard to theenvironmental component, the programme isdivided into three sections which determine thenature and content of the measures concerningdirect payments:
� Section I: reduction of negative effects ofagriculture on the environment;
� Section II: conservation of natural attributes,biodiversity, soil fertility and traditionalcultural landscape;
� Section III: protection of protected areas;
� Section IV: deals with the training and pro-motional activities which are not consid-ered measures. The participation in the ed-ucation process will be mandatory for farm-ers involved in the agri-environmentalprogramme. Within the framework of thepromotional activities the SKOP will be pre-sented to the general public, including in-formation for the consumers about new, sus-tainably produced agricultural products andfoodstuffs and their quality.
Agricultural Land Act
The Agricultural Land Act regulates the use ofthe agricultural land and its protection, the tradein it and the lease conditions, the agrarian opera-tions and the management of common pastures.The provisions of this Act apply by analogy toforests, unless otherwise stipulated by the law.Agricultural lands are those which are suitablefor agricultural production. These include theovergrown land not intended for forest cultiva-tion under the Forests Act. Agricultural land iscategorised - according to the natural character-istics, location and the shape and size of the par-cel - into the best agricultural land (land mostsuitable for cultivation) and other agriculturalland. Land has to be used in accordance with thepurpose of its use. Pollution and other forms ofthe degradation or impediment of plant growthhave to be prevented. Agricultural land is consid-ered to be polluted when the concentrations ofharmful substances in the soil are such that itsself-cleaning capacity is reduced, its physical,chemical or botanical characteristics deteriorate,the growth and development of plants is im-peded or prevented, the groundwater and plantsare polluted, and the permanent fertility of soil isin any other way diminished.
MEASURES
The plans concerning the use of agriculturalland regulate the land use, the land use catego-ries, the protection against unauthorised changesof these categories, and also the compensationsdue to the changes in land use categories of agri-cultural land and forests.
� Prescribed manner of cultivation of agri-cultural land for owners, leasers or otherusers of agricultural land.
� Obligation to adapt the agricultural pro-duction to the environmental and soil con-ditions, to use methods for the preventionof soil-compaction, erosion and pollutionand to ensure the permanent fertility of land.
� Rules concerning agricultural opera-tions (agricultural improvements such as
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
128 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
drainage, land-filling and irrigation). The Actdoes lay down the relevant procedure andthe conditions which have to be met, butnone of them concern biodiversity. The min-ister responsible for agriculture and forest-ry prescribes - with the consent of the min-ister responsible for the environment andspatial planning - the detailed regulationson the introduction, implementation, man-agement, functioning and maintenance ofthe agricultural improvement systems. Un-til new regulations are adopted, the Instruc-tions of 1981 on the agricultural improve-ments of the land continue to apply. Noneof the measures, requirements, conditionsand procedures concern the nature conser-vation.
National Farmland and ForestFund Act
The National Farmland and Forest Fund Actstipulates the setting-up of the Fund of the Re-public of Slovenia for Agricultural Land and For-ests and its tasks, competencies, rights and obli-gations. The Fund is a public institution which,in compliance with the development policy, regu-lations and acts, manages farmland, farms andforests, which are the property of the Republicof Slovenia. Some of its tasks are to guarantee therational use and protect the environmental valueof agricultural land, farms and forests and tocarry out other tasks concerning agriculturalland, farms and forests as defined in the Funds’regulations and instruments. The Fund answersto the Government and reports to it at least oncea year. Its operations are supervised by the Min-istry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food and theMinistry of Finance. The operational work is car-
ried out by their regional branch offices or otherinstitutions and by regional communities.
The Act regulates the transferral of the publicagricultural land, farms and forests which are notthe property of the Republic of Slovenia to theState or municipalities under the OwnershipTransformation of Companies Act and under theCooperatives Act and the transferral of agricul-tural land and forests, managed by or made avail-able to the basic organisations of cooperators freeof charge. Upon the enforcement of this Act, allthis property is transferred to the fund or munici-palities.
Seeds and PropagatingMaterials Act
The Seeds and Propagating Materials Actregulates the production, processing and plac-ing on the market of seeds and propagating ma-terials intended for agricultural and forestry pro-duction, the attestation and introduction of newdomestic and foreign varieties of agricultural andforest plants and forest trees of foreign origin,the supervision and control of the quality of andtrade in seeds and propagating material.
For the production in agriculture and forestry,only those seeds and propagating materials maybe produced, processed and placed on the mar-ket which comply with the quality requirementsand other conditions provided for in this Act andwith the regulations issued pursuant to it. Theseed is that part of the agricultural or forest plantwhich is used for sowing and propagating and islabelled as seed. The propagating materials areplants and parts of plants produced by the gen-erative or vegetative method which are intendedfor fruit tree groves and vineyards and for hops,garden, field and forest cultivation. The provisionsof this Act concern the propagating material ofthe agricultural and forest plants, the cereals’seeds, the seeds of industrial and forage plants,herbs and aromatic plants, fruit, flowers and for-est trees. The forest seed objects are seed stands,elite trees, plus trees and seed orchards. The seedobjects, clones and selected clones are selectedand approved by an authorised organisation. Theseed objects are managed in compliance with theplans. The forest seed and propagating materialmay be used only in the altitudes and seed areaswhere the seed has been collected.
MEASURES
The provisions of this Act concerning the spe-cies and genetic diversity conservation could beimportant for biodiversity conservation, but un-fortunately no relevant measures have beenadopted.(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 132. In 2001,the List of Cultivars wasamended by listing fourof pumpkin sorts.
129
Plant Protection Act
The Plant Protection Act regulates the bioticprotection of plants and the public services forthe protection of plants. It designates the bodiesresponsible for the enforcement of this Act andthe inspectors control. The purpose of plant pro-tection is the protection of the environment bythe permanent control of pests, the introductionof biotic protection of plants and the monitoringand forecasting.
In view of biodiversity conservation, the pro-visions of this Act are important because they:
1. promote the preventive protection of plantsand the measures which prevent the occur-rence and expansion of pests instead of theapplication of the phytosanitary substanc-es;
2. introduce the biotic protection of plants re-sulting in the higher diversity of species inand near agricultural land.
MEASURES
The biotic protection of plants is a methodfor the containment of pests in agriculture andforestry which uses live natural enemies of pestspecies, antagonists or competitors, or their prod-ucts and other organisms capable of self-repro-duction. An indigenous species is a species whichnaturally occurs in a certain ecosystem. A non-indigenous species is a species which has beenintroduced by humans and has not been presentin a certain ecosystem prior to the introduction.
� Permitted introduction, breeding oruse of indigenous species for the bioticprotection of plants in the supervised facil-ities and outside, if all the conditions havebeen met concerning professional skills andtechnical qualifications prescribed by theminister responsible for agriculture and for-estry, with the consent of the minister re-sponsible for nature conservation.
� Permitted use of non- indigenous spe-cies for the biotic protection of plants inthe supervised facilities and outside; the useis permitted of only those non-indigenousspecies which have been indicated in thelist issued by the minister responsible foragriculture and forestry with the consent ofthe minister responsible for nature conser-vation.
� Permit for the import and use of non-indigenous species based on the findingthat the activity affecting the nature doesnot threaten the natural balance or biodi-versity; it is issued in compliance with thenature conservation regulations.
� Prohibition on breeding specific spe-cies, varieties or clones of plants in acertain area.
� Limitation or prohibition of trade inspecific plant species and the mandatorymutual cooperation of owners of suchplants in the containment of pests and theuse of the relevant equipment.
Act on Protection of NewVarieties of Plants
The Act on Protection of New Varieties of Plantsstipulates the procedure concerning the insur-ance, acquisition and protection of the plant va-riety right. The varieties of all plant genera andspecies, including hybrids between genera andspecies, may be insured. In view of biodiversityconservation, the provisions of this Act are notsignificant since they do not regulate the suitabil-ity and environmental acceptability of a newvariety. They merely stipulate the plant varietyrights and the procedure for the registration ofnew plant varieties.
Fisheries
Freshwater Fisheries Act
The Freshwater Fisheries Act regulates the pro-tection and breeding of fish and the designationof fisheries, fishing areas and districts. It specifiesthe fishbreeding plans, regulates the fishing ac-tivities in open waters, establishes and regulates
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(fo
to: J
anez
Bo
žič)
Figure 133. Ascarecrow in the fieldsof Brčena vas can beconsidered an exampleof the relationshipbetween humans andnature. Crops are moredamaged by game thanby birds.
130 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
the functioning of the fishing organisations andlays down the competencies and responsibilitiesof the fishing inspection.
The freshwater fishery comprises the breed-ing, protection and catching of fish, fish roe, shell-fish, frogs and other aquatic animals unless theyare considered game under the hunting regula-tions. All freshwaters in Slovenia (rivers, streams,backwaters, lakes, fish ponds, reservoirs) are fish-ing waters divided into the open and closed wa-ters. The closed fishing waters are fish ponds andother artificial fish pools where water can beraised and lowered by technical means and wherethe free movement of fish is prevented or hin-dered. They are intended for intensive fish breed-ing. All other waters are considered open waterswhere fish form a part of the animal life in thehuman environment. All waters are the propertyof the state (Article 111 of the ZVO) and a publicgood.
The fishing areas and fishing districts are es-tablished for the appropriate exploitation of thefishing waters. The fishing area comprises eithera large river basin or several small river basins.Such areas are established so that fish living in alarge territory are bred and protected in aharmonised manner. The fishing district com-prises an individual water body, its part or sev-eral water bodies in one fishing area. One or morefishing districts are managed by one fishingorganisation which guarantees the conditions forthe protection and breeding of fish and for thepromotion of angling (facilities, technical staff,etc.). Angling is permitted on the basis of an an-
gling permit issued by a fishing organisation forangling in the waters within the fishing districtmanaged by that organisation.
The fish-breeding plan is a long-term plan forbreeding and protecting fish and for providingthe technical solutions for reasonable manage-ment of a fishing district. This plan defines thespecies, number, productivity and age structureof fish populations which have to be in balancewith other organisms in fish waters; the objectivesof the fishing district management; and the typeand extent of the activities needed to attain theseobjectives. The breeding and protection of fishinclude, in particular, the conservation and main-tenance of the productivity and age structure offish populations in fish waters; the breeding andstocking of fish; the construction and mainte-nance of fish farm facilities; the protection of fishand care for their health; scientific work; and theresearch on fish waters and fish.
Common interests concerning the protectionand breeding of fish and the joint freshwater fish-eries policy of Slovenia are enforced by the mem-bers of the Anglers Association, the employeesof the Fisheries Institute and the employees ofother organisations active in the area of freshwa-ter fisheries.
MEASURES
For biodiversity conservation, the followingmeasures are important:
� Definition of a closed fishing seasonwhen the angling of certain fish species isprohibited for their protection.
� Definition of the minimum size of a spec-imen. It is prohibited to catch undersizedfish.
� Continuous or temporary prohibitionon angling for certain species in specificfishing waters in order to conserve rare fishor for other justified reasons.
� Prohibition on introduction of newspecies into fishing waters without a per-mit.
� Designation of protective waters of spe-cific fishing waters or their parts suitablefor fish propagation, conservation of cer-tain species or scientific purposes.
� Prohibition on destruction of or caus-ing damage to the spawning grounds; onreleasing ducks or geese into the spawninggrounds; on preventing fish from returningfrom the flooded area back to the riverbed;and on washing agricultural and other ma-chinery in fishing waters.
� Permitted (fish hooks) and prohibitedfishing (use of explosive, spears, underwa-ter guns, seines, nets, poison).(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 134.
Cerkniško jezero.Cerknica lake is anintermittent lake in theDinaric karst. Forcenturies the localpeople have had theright to fish when thewater is becoming lowand disappearingunderground.
131
� In the design and construction of the hydro-electric facilities and in the canalisation ofriverbeds, the interests of the anglers aretaken into account. Waste water treatmentplants should be incorporated into such fa-cilities so that the existence and health offish are protected and that their spawninggrounds and passages are preserved. Tur-bines should be designed and maintainedin such a way that fish could not enter them.A body responsible for issuing the permitfor the construction of the hydro-electricplants may order that such facilities include‘underwater fish routes’ if that is necessaryfor the natural migration of fish.
Marine Fisheries Act
The Marine Fisheries Act regulates the fishing,breeding and protection of marine fish and othermarine animals in the fishing sea and the collec-tion of marine plants in the sea. Marine animalsand plants in the fishing areas are the property ofthe State (Article 111 of the ZVO). The right to usemarine animals and plants, or the correspondingproperty rights, may be acquired on the basis ofthis Act and the regulations issued pursuant to it.The Act protects the fish and other marine ani-mals and plants in the fishing sea against exces-sive exploitation and destruction. Sea fishing in-cludes the catching of fish and shellfish. Fishingmay be commercial or recreational. Commercialfishing is economically important and recre-ational fishing is a form of entertainment andrelaxation. The conditions for and manner ofcommercial fishing are prescribed by the minis-ter responsible for agriculture, forestry and food.Recreational fishing is permitted for Slovene na-tionals or foreigners who have obtained the rel-evant permit. The conditions for and manner ofrecreational fishing are prescribed by the com-petent minister.
MEASURES
The breeding of fish as well as the breedingand catching of other marine organisms, includingsponges and corals, may be carried out by theorganisations which have entered such activitiesin the register of companies and by individualswho fulfil the conditions referred to in this Act.In view of the biodiversity conservation, the fol-lowing measures are relevant:
� Prohibition on catching fish fry, imma-ture fish and other marine animals.
� Close season for specific fish species andother marine animals in order to protect fishfry, immature and economically importantfish and other marine animals.
� Definition of the size of the meshes ofnets used in commercial fishing.
� Prohibition on fishing and placing onthe market of undersized specimens of theeconomically important fish and other ma-rine animals.
� Limitation or prohibition on the use ofcertain types of nets and other devices forcommercial or recreational fishing withinone mile off the coast in order to protect thedemersal fish species and other marine an-imals, particularly against over exploitationand destruction.
� Prohibited methods of fishing, pickingand placing on the market (explosives,chemical substances and other means thatkill, poison or stun animals, any divingequipment, etc.).
� Prohibition on discharging or dispos-ing of liquid or solid waste (originating inthe production or processing), or any othermaterial or substance, into the sea, riversflowing into the sea and the connected lakesand lagoons, which destroy marine animals,have harmful effects on the biologicalconditions for their survival and develop-ment or reduce their market value.
� Prohibition on fishing in fishing reservesintended for the protection, breeding andpropagation of fish and other marine ani-mals. The fishing reserves are parts of thecoastal sea within one mile off the coast withfavourable natural conditions for the breed-ing and propagation of fish or other marineanimals. The fishing reserves are: thelandward section of the Bay of Portorož withits lagoons, the coastal sea by the StrunjanPeninsula and the landward section of theBay of Strunjan and its lagoons.
Hunting Law
The Hunting Law regulates the protection,breeding, hunting and use of game (hunting) and
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(Ph
oto
: Mila
n O
rože
n A
dam
ič)
Figure 135. Serranellushepatus, a common sea-bottom species in theAdriatic Sea.
132 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
the management and maintenance of huntinggrounds for the conservation of the balance be-tween game and plants in the environment. Hunt-ing is an activity carried out by the individualsorganised in hunting associations, the employ-ees of the hunting companies, and otherorganisations which meet the conditions stipu-lated by this Act (hunting organisations). Gamehunting includes the searching for, tracking,killing and capturing of game and the collectingof dead animals and their parts (antlers, skin,other). Game are wild animals which have been,are, or will be hunted. As part of the animal life,game is a public property7 and a public good.The provisions concerning the protection andbreeding of wild animals do not apply to thebreeding of wild animals in enclosures. Huntinggrounds are established for the protection, breed-ing and hunting of wild animals. They are man-aged by the hunting organisations on the basis ofthe stipulated conditions. Hunting and breed-ing areas8 with several hunting grounds are es-tablished in order to provide for the harmonisedprotection, breeding and hunting of wild animalsin a larger area and to ensure a special publicinterest. In order to appropriately balance thestructure and number of game with other livingorganisms in an area and to harmonise the inter-ests of agriculture, forestry and other sectors, itis necessary to take into account the size of thehabitat of a main game species which is neces-sary for the undisturbed development of its popu-lation.
The hunting organisation manages the hunt-ing grounds on the basis of the hunting man-agement plan. The management includes theprotection, breeding and hunting of the game andits use, as well as the management and mainte-nance of the hunting grounds. The protection andbreeding of game comprises the preservation,maintenance and improvement of suitable liv-ing conditions for game (management of graz-ing areas, feeding and watering facilities, etc.),the conservation of the appropriate structure andnumber of animals and their protection; the mea-sures for the prevention and restitution of dam-age caused by the game in the hunting area; theintroduction of game into the hunting area; theconstruction of the hunting facilities (feedingfacilities, lookouts, hunting paths); and other ac-tivities related to the protection, breeding andhunting of game; as well as scientific researchand education.
The public service9 performs the tasks relatedto the conservation, maintenance and improve-
ment of the living conditions for the game, se-lects the game species and introduces new spe-cies into the hunting grounds.
MEASURES
The following measures of the Hunting Actare directly or indirectly relevant to biodiversity:
� Prohibition on reducing the numberof game in the wild to such an extent thatits existence is threatened.
� Prohibition on hunting birds during theyear, except for mallard, Eurasian jay, hood-ed crow and magpie.
� Prohibition on hunting rare speciespursuant to the nature conservation legisla-tion.
� Partial closed season in periods when thehunting of certain wild species is permit-ted.
� Continuous or temporary prohibitionof hunting because of the rareness of thegame, economic benefits or other justifiedreasons.
� Permit for the introduction of gameinto the wild is issued by the minister re-sponsible for agriculture, forestry and foodif it had been established during the pre-scribed procedure that the release of gameinto the wild does not threaten the health ofwild game, the natural balance or the safetyof people.
� Rules on the application of chemicalsubstances for the protection of agricultur-al or forest plants which are harmful to thegame.
� Permit for the setting up of pens larg-er than 50 ha is issued on the basis of anopinion given by the relevant expert organ-isation.
� Permitted and prohibited huntingmethods (snares, traps, nets, limes, stun-ning devices and poisons, hunting with arti-ficial light sources or from motor vehicles,during floods or high snow, etc.).
� Prohibited means of mass destruction ofthe game (i.e. hydrogen cyanide). Under theregulations on poisons and with the permis-sion of the competent administrative bodyit is permitted to lay poison baits for foxes,hooded crows and magpies.
7 The Environmental Protection Act in its Article 111 stipulates that “Water, ..., wild animals, ... shall become the property of the State on the date ofentry into force of this Act.”
8 See the Forests Act.
9 The Act Regulating the Protection, Breeding and Hunting of Game and the Management of Hunting Grounds regulates the matters of a specialpublic interest. In the present text they are replaced by “public service”.
133
� Order on the type and power of hunt-ing arms and the power of cartridgesto be used for the hunting of differentgame species stipulates what type of armsmay be used in the hunting of game.
� Prohibition on destroying or demolish-ing litters and nests and collecting eggsof wild fowl and to touch or taking the youngof the game.
Water Act
The Water Act of 1981 provides little conser-vation to biodiversity conservation to a greatextent. The relevant measures relate in particularto the protection of the human environment anddrinking water supply. Nevertheless, thesemeasures are important for the biodiversity con-servation. They are:
� the management of the water regime in away to maintain the integrity of river catch-ment areas; the use and exploitation of wa-ter and other human impacts affecting wa-ters have to be carried out in such a way thatthe water regimes are maintained and man-aged so that the human environment is pro-tected and economic progress is possible,
� the maintenance of water quantity (plannedincrease of forest surface areas, appropri-ate land cultivation, purposeful spatial plan-ning and measures for the improvement ofthe spatial and time distribution of water),and quality (construction of retention sys-tems, increase of the flow of watercourses,changes in the applied technological pro-cedures, construction of waste water treat-ment plants and other measures preventingwater pollution).
MEASURES
The Waters Act lays down the following mea-sures which are important for biodiversity con-servation:
� Payment of compensation for the acci-dental pollution of water in the amount ofcosts paid for the necessary containmentmeasures in such an event.
� Obligation to obtain water manage-ment consents and permits; this definesthe cases when consent and permits are notmandatory, and specifies the bodies com-petent for issuing such permits and con-sents. The criteria for the granting or with-drawal of a consent or permit concern thelimitation of the damage caused and theoverall need for water. In view of biodiver-sity conservation, these permits and con-sents are not a conservation/protectionmeasure.
� Activities affecting the water regime mustnot change the level of the water table andthe direction of underground waters10. Dur-ing every activity affecting the water regimethe minimum flow of a watercourseshould be guaranteed. The municipal bodydesignates by an order a water protectionzone and water protection measures (theprotection of drinking water resources).
� General prohibition on dischargingdangerous substances, which mightthreaten the life and health of fish and otheranimals and damage plants, into runningand coastal waters.
� General limitation concerning theamount and the method of applicationof chemical substances in agriculture andforestry in order to prevent their harmfuleffects on the water regime.
� Prohibition of activities (the dischargeof high temperature water which might havea harmful effect on aquatic plants and ani-mals) which could result in the pollution ofwater with substances affecting chemical,physical, biological or bacteriological com-position of water.
� Designation of water protected areasby the water management plans for theprotection of watercourses and ground-water.
� The owners of land or those who hold a rightto land are not allowed to change thecourse of the stream and the amountof water in their land if such action wouldbe detrimental to the neighbouring land; thisprohibition has an indirect impact on theconservation of habitats.
A new Water Act is currently being drawn up.It is more environmentally oriented and it regu-
Figure 136. Construc-tion of small hydroelec-tric power plantsrequires maintainingthe ‘ecological mini-mum’, meaning thatthe minimum waterflow to support theecological function ofthe ecosystem remainsin the stream. Thisrequirement is oftenneglected due to lack ofcontrol of its implemen-tation.
10 These prohibitions are enforced so that the supply of drinking water and industrial water and other uses of water as well as agricultural produc-tion are not threatened.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
134 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
lates the use and exploitation of water so that theprotection of water and aquatic ecosystems isguaranteed. The proposal stipulates the manage-ment of the sea, inland waters and undergroundwaters as well as the aquatic and riparian zones.Objectives of the proposal include the promo-tion of the sustainable use of water which guar-antees the long-term protection of water re-sources and their quality.
Mining Act
The Mining Act was adopted in 1999. It regu-lates the prospecting, exploitation and manage-ment of mineral resources as a natural resource.It defines in detail the mineral resources and themining work and it lays down:
� The measures and conditions for the imple-mentation of the mining work, the environ-mental protection during the prospectingand exploitation of mineral resources andduring other mining work and the restora-tion of the environment after the comple-tion of works.
� The granting of the mining right, the compe-tencies for and manner of granting specificpermits and the organisation and mannerof the implementation of the mining inspec-tion.
� The measures and conditions for carryingout the remediation projects after and/orduring the exploitation of mineral resources.
� The Environmental Protection Act, the Na-ture Conservation Act and the Mining Actlay down that the environmental protectionand nature conservation conditions have tobe included in the procedure for granting aconcession.
Spatial planning and permitsfor activities affecting the
physical environment
Spatial Planning Act
The Spatial Planning Act defines spatial plan-ning as the protection of a public good. It regu-lates the purposeful land use, the directions forthe development of activities and their spatialorganisation. In addition it defines the land usein accordance with the spatial possibilities andthe needs of the society.
� The agricultural land and forests, water res-ervoirs, water and wetland areas, areas ofvaluable natural features and cultural heri-tage, all of major importance for long termdevelopment, are defined in the nationaland local spatial planning documents.
� Forests where various activities wouldthreaten their protective role and endangertheir existence are classified as the continu-ously protected forests. The special purposeforests are forests which are a valuable nat-ural feature or a historic monument or areimportant for recreational, tourist, research,scientific or other reasons. Activities affect-ing such forests are only possible under theconditions and in the manner stipulated bythe law.
� On the sea coast, lake shores and watercours-es, mountain peaks and ranges, in areas oftypical karst phenomena and areas impor-tant for outside recreation, any activitieswhich are contrary to the areas’ characteris-tics and which limit free access to them arenot permitted. Restricted access and activi-ties in these areas are possible only underthe conditions and in the manner stipulatedby the law.
� Activities which affect human health orecological balance in nature are located andorganised so that their harmful impacts areminimised with regard to the levelspermitted by regulations.
� The landfill areas are located so that theirharmful impact on the human environment,the ecological balance and the cultural land-scape is minimised with regard to the levelspermitted by the regulations. In a longtermmunicipal plan, the land use category of thewaste collection areas is changed accord-ing to their new function.
� In the planning documents, the spatialplanning decisions are based on theresearch, studies and projects on the naturalcharacteristics of the area and on thepossibilities of development in that area.The social development analysis and otherdocuments concerning the possibilities ofdevelopment in an area should reflect themutual impacts of activities in a region andtheir impact on the natural and artificial valu-able features of the human environ-ment.In these documents, the possible alterna-tives are presented, including the evaluationof the economic, environmental and otherconsequences.
Spatial planning at the national level
The National Assembly defines the long-termobjectives of the spatial development and laysdown the basic conditions for their fulfilment.While taking into account the protection and useof a public good, the long-term plan in its spatialcomponents defines the basic directions and ageneral development concept of activities in an
135
area. The concept of the development primarilydeals with the important agricultural areas andforests; the areas of main water resources; theareas of valuable natural features and culturalmonuments; the areas at risk (landslides, erosionareas, flood plain areas); and the protection anddevelopment of the valuable landscape features.
In compliance with the long-term nationalplan, the mid-term social plan defines in its spa-tial components the measures for the protectionand use of a public good, the measures forharmonised development of activities in an areaand for harmonised regional development.
Spatial planning at the local level
While taking into account the guidelines forthe long-term national plan, the municipal coun-cils lay down the long-term objectives for thedevelopment of the municipality and define themain conditions for their fulfilment. The long-term municipal plan in its spatial componentsformulates the directions for the developmentof activities in an area, while taking into accountthe protection and use of a public good. It alsolays down the concept of the intentional use ofthe agricultural land and forests; the areas of mainwater resources; the areas of valuable naturalfeatures and outstanding cultural features; therecreational areas; and the natural and endangeredareas. The long-term municipal plan in its spatialcomponents defines in detail for the areas outsidehuman agglomerations, where a special publicinterest is defined, the planning directions for theprotection and development of the naturalvaluable features and artifacts of the humanenvironment; the detailed concept of the inten-tional use of an area, including the conditionsfor the conservation and development of thenatural valuable features and artifacts of thehuman environment; the agricultural areas andforests with their functions; and the guidelinesfor the protection of landscape and its design.
The guidelines for the mid-term municipalplan lay down the grounds and objectives con-cerning the protection and development of thenatural valuable features and artifacts of thehuman environment. During the formulation andharmonisation of interests concerning the spa-tial planning, the following components are ofprimary importance: the purpose, location, size,quality and infrastructure of a certain area; theimpact of the planned activities on the environ-ment; and other issues important for the spatialorganisation of activities and the intentional landuse. Arrangements concerning the bases of themid-term social plan define the obligations con-cerning the protection and development of thenatural valuable features and artifacts of thehuman environment.
During the process of harmonisation of thedraft long-term and mid-term social plan of amunicipality, maps of the spatial components ofthese plans have to be made available to thepublic for consultations. The alternatives andsolutions concerning the spatial planning arethen discussed by the public. The people havean opportunity to present their observations andcomments in writing. Municipalities harmonisethe preparation of the long-term and mid-termsocial plans while planning the development inlarge and functionally unified areas and whileplanning the activities affecting the intentionalland use or the ecological conditions in othermunicipalities.
Act regulating Urban Planningand Other Forms of Land Use
The Act regulating Urban Planning and OtherForms of Land Use (540 decisions of the SupremeCourt and the Constitutional Court have been is-sued with regard to the provisions of this Act)stipulates that settlements and other activitiesaffecting the areas be planned in such a way thattheir urban and architectonic images are harmo-nised with the local characteristics, valuablenatural features, cultural heritage, typology of thelocal architecture and other natural valuablefeatures and artifacts of the human environment.In the urban planning of settlements and acti-vities, the impact of urbanised areas and therelevant activities on the environment have to bestudied and taken into account. Any activitywhose effects can not be avoided is planned insuch a way that the effects are minimised withregard to the levels permitted by regulations. Thegreen areas located in settlements and otherurbanised areas have to be provided for in theurban plans.
Spatial implementation documents
Under this Act the spatial realisation docu-ments consist of the spatial planning conditions
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
Figure 137. The valleyof Radovna. The typicalcountryside andcultural heritage arealso being lost due tothe inappropriatearchitecture of the newbuildings.
136 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
and the spatial implementation plans. They areprepared on the basis of the data on the naturalcharacteristics of an area and the current andfuture land use. They take into account theexpertise for the long-term and mid-term socialplan and the basic special technical documen-tation defined in the programme for drawing upspatial implementation documents. The naturalcharacteristics and the created conditions in thearea of the spatial implementation documents,and the impacts of the planned spatial arrange-ments, are defined in detail in the expert grounds.The urbanistic, design, construction, technical,technological and other conditions providingsuitable living conditions are defined in detail inthe spatial implementation plan. The measuresfor the conservation and development of thenatural valuable features and artifacts of the hu-man environment are included. The spatialimplementation plan forms a basis for issuinga location permit and for the parcelling of land.It summarises the directions of the long-termcommunity plan and decisions of the mid-termsocial plan concerning the discussed area. Thecurrent construction of the infrastructure and theexpert grounds are considered. On the basis ofthe mentioned directions, the spatial condi-tions for the realisation of the planned decisionsare laid down in the spatial implemantation plan.Spatial conditions reflect the influence, relationand dependency of an area on other areas, theyprovide solutions and measures for the protectionand management of the landscape characteris-tics, the public good, and the arable land and theyare a basis for the management of town parksand other green areas.
The programme concerning the preparationof the spatial implementation documents lists thebodies, organisations and communities whichhave to give their consent to the draft spatialimplemantation documents.
For the construction of buildings, plants andfacilities, an investor has to obtain a ‘locationpermit’. In addition, a location permit is neededfor any other activity, such as agricultural im-provement, affecting the land and thus perma-nently altering its intentional use, the living and
working conditions, the environmental balancein nature or the landscape characteristics. Thelocation permits for buildings, facilities andplants and other activities affecting areas, whichhave a substantial impact on the ecological bal-ance in nature, are issued by the minister respon-sible for spatial planning.
The location documents are drawn up on thebasis of the data on the expected effects of a build-ing, facility or plant, or any activity, on the environ-ment. They include the agreed solutions withregard to the effects on the environment of thediscussed activity and the consents issued by thecompetent bodies, organisations and communi-ties in compliance with the law.
Biotechnology
In Slovenia, the proposal of the act regulat-ing the application of genetically modifiedorganisms, or better, the act regulating themanagement of genetically modifiedorganisms is being drawn up in the field ofbiological safety. This act will regulate themanagement of genetically modified organisms(hereinafter referred to as GMOs) and stipulatethe measures for the prevention of their possibledetrimental effects on the environment, inparticular on the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity, and human health, as a resultof the contained use of GMOs, their deliberaterelease into the environment and their placingon the market.
CONCLUSIONS CONCERNINGLEGISLATION
1. In principle the legal regulation of the biodi-versity conservation is adequate with regardto the segments laid down in the Conven-tion. However, the delay of the sectors inthe preparation of the relevant executiveregulations is the cause for the low efficien-cy of the entire legal system. The result isthat the appropriateness of the adopted le-gal measures cannot be assessed with re-gard to the set objectives and purposes.
2. In principle the legal regulation of the sus-tainable use of the components of biodiver-sity is adequate in the fields where new actshave been adopted, that is for forests and inpart for agricultural land. Other fields cannot be appropriately assessed.
3. The ownership of particular biodiversitycomponents (populations, species, ecosys-tems) is regulated in such a way that waters,wild animals and aquatic plants are consid-ered natural resources and thus the proper-(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 138.
Leontopodiumalpinum, a symbol ofthe Alps, was picked somuch that it wasbecoming threatenedand was thereforeprotected in Sloveniaas long ago as in 1897.
137
ty of the State. The land which provides ahabitat for plants and animals may be ownedby legal or natural persons. The preserva-tion of property is at public interest and istherefore regulated in such a way that it ispossible to legally intervene in the propertyright in order to define the manner of itsenjoyment and acquisition for determiningits social, economic and ecological functionby which the legal mechanisms for the im-plementation of the biodiversity conserva-tion are established. The establishment of aprotected area as a protection measure haslegal consequences for determining the pro-perty right in order to ensure its economic,social and ecological functions with regardto the manner of its enjoyment (restricteduse and activities) and the actual acquisi-tion of the property right (right of pre-emp-
tion by the State, consent for transactions inreal-estate, restrictions on legal transactionswith State property). It is possible to expro-priate a real-estate for public benefit, andhence the persons who live in protected ar-eas and who are deprived due to the restrict-ed use and activities have a right to com-pensations for the caused damage under theconditions stipulated by the law or the rightto submit a request for the purchase of areal estate whose use is minimum due tothe stipulated restrictions.
4. The preparation and implementation of theincentive mechanisms is regulated by sec-tors. The legal basis for achieving the syner-getic effects of funds allocated from vari-ous sources has been foreseen with the in-troduction of executive regulations andsectoral and intersectoral programmes.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
138 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
139
IN SITU PROTECTION MEASURES
Protected Areas
Relevance and purpose of protected ar-eas for biodiversity conservation
Protected areas of nature, in particular largeprotected areas (parks), are ecosystem units ofextreme importance for the conservation of highbiological and landscape diversity. Primerally,they are a nature protection category. However,the sustainable management of natural assets isbased on their complexity. In these areas, the lo-cal population can enforce their fundamental de-velopmental interests. Protected areas - in thepublic opinion a recognised and respected value- help raise awareness about the importance ofthe conservation of biological and landscapediversity.
Protected areas as a biodiversity conser-vation measure
Protected areas form a basis for integratednature conservation. In many cases these are ar-eas of the highest biological and landscape di-versity and at the same time they cover the coreareas of the Slovenian ecological network. TheConvention on Biological Diversity defines theseareas as units where system-based protection
IMPLEMENTATIONOF BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION
Figure 139. Bohinj,mass tourism canaffect the naturalbalance and diminishthe value of protectedareas.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Table 44: In the NatureConservation Act, thenatural protected areasare divided into smalland large protectedareas and these arefurther divided into sixcategories.
category IUCN established by
SMALL PROTECTED AREASStrict Nature Reserve I GovernmentNature Reserve I or IV Government
MunicipalityNatural Monument III Government
MunicipalityLARGE PROTECTED AREAS
National Park II and II/V ParliamentRegional Park V/III GovernmentLandscape Park V Government
Municipality
measures are enforced.
Strict protection regimes according to whichhuman activities are excluded by rule, are en-forced only in the Strict Nature Reserves and inthe core area of a National Park (IUCN categoryII). Protected areas are established at the nationallevel by Governmental decree or at the local levelby an order, except for the National Park which isestablished by a State act.
140 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Overview of protected areas
Most protected areas are designated as parks.In Slovenia, there are two protected areas withinternational status:
� the Škocjanske jame Regional Park (regis-tered in 1986 the UNESCO World HeritageList and in 1999 the Ramsar List of Wetlandsof International Importance).
Map 11. Map of thestatus of protectedareas. Approximately 8% of the territory ofSlovenia is included invarious categories ofprotection.
Table 45: Surface ofthe protected areas inSlovenia (MOP-ARSO,2001)
Protected area category IUCN Number Surface (ha)
Protection at state levelNational Park (NP) I I / V 1 83,807.00Regional Park (RP) V / III 2 20,862.00Nature Reserve (NR) I / IV 10 120.00*Landscape Park (KP) V / III 1 650.00
Protection at local levelLandscape Park (KP) V 40 47,374.00Nature Reserve (NR) I / IV 49 **Natural Monument (NS) I I I 623 **Monument of ‘Designed’ Nature (SON)+ 77 **Areas of Natural and Cultural Heritage++ 10 **
Protection at international levelThe Convention Concerning Protection 1 (1986) 413.00of the World Cultural and Natural Heritagethe Ramsar Convention 2 (1993, 1990*) 1,063.00
* Data only for Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve
** No data
+ Monument of ‘Designed Nature’ is a category according to the Cultural and Natural Heritage Act
++ term deriving from several local community acts
Graph 25: The NationalPark covers 4.1 % of theterritory of Slovenia, 40Landscape Parks cover2.3 % and two RegionalParks cover 1 % of theterritory. The informa-tion on NaturalMonuments, NatureReserves and otherprotected areas has notbeen compiled. (Source:MOP-ARSO, 2001)
National ParkRegional ParkLandscape ParkNatural MonumentNature Reserve
141
� the Sečoveljske soline Landscape Park (reg-istered in the 1993 Ramsar List of Wetlandsof International Importance).
Among the remaining categories, the NaturalMonuments are the most numerous. Most desig-nated Natural Monuments are exceptional trees
which are not excessively threatened and whoseprotection is relatively easy. However, other valu-able natural features, which have not been giventhe status of a protected area, are also important.
Most protected areas were established pursu-ant to the Natural and Cultural Heritage Act. Theacts and the executive regulations, including con-servation instruments which had been adoptedbefore the Nature Conservation Act entered intoforce, remain valid until the enforcement of thenew instruments for protection of valuable natu-ral features, in compliance with the existing leg-islation.
Management of protected areas
Protected areas face many problems, but oneof the major issues is lack of management. TheNature Conservation Act stipulates that the es-tablisher of the protected area has to provide forits appropriate management by the establish-ment of a public institute or by granting a con-cession. Only three of the parks established bythe State have as their managers independentpublic institute-Authorities (the Triglav NationalPark, the Škocjanske jame Regional Park and thePark Kozjansko). The concession for the manage-
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 140 (left).
Škocjanske jame, theŠkocjan caves, wellknown for theirexceptionally largesubterranean gorge, areinscribed in theUNESCO WorldHeritage List and theRamsar List of Wetlandsof internationalimportance.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
ment of the Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve hasbeen granted to the DOPPS - Birdlife Slovenia.The managers of all other protected areas havenot yet been appointed. As a consequence, theobjectives of protection as a nature conservationinstrument cannot be achieved.
A management plan is of key importancewhen the management of a protected area is con-cerned. The implementation of the protectionand development measures is based on such aplan. However, the relevant management planshave not yet been drawn up, except for the afore-mentioned parks and the Škocjanski zatok NatureReserve. Consequently, the impact on the effi-
Figure 142. Kozjanskipark. A good manage-ment plan and coopera-tion with the local peopleare essential for efficientmanagement of aprotected area.
Figure 141 (left).
Trees are the mostnumerous protectednature sites; from thebeginning of natureconservation, they havebeen considered naturaltreasures and a symbolof “Natural Monu-ments”.
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
142 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ciency and integrity of the management is nega-tive.
The main issues to be solved concerning themanagement in protected areas are as follows:
� discrepancy between the document estab-lishing the protected area and the NatureConservation Act;
� lack of funds and qualified staff for for man-aging public institutes;
� lack of funds and human resources for pro-motion of protected areas, and for trainingprogrammes, field equipment, infrastruc-ture, compensations, incentives and pur-chases;
� non-compliance of the spatial planning doc-uments and other strategic developmentplans with the objectives of the protectedareas;
� lack of the management plans, or else theyare only still being drawn up;
� non-harmonised system of nature protectioncontrol;
� ineffective inspectors control;
� lack of communication, or inadequate com-munication, between local communities,people living in protected areas and the ParkAuthorities.
Overview of the plannedprotected areas
Slovenia is a country of great natural wealthand diversity. Unfortunately, not all outstandingareas have been given the protection status. Many
valuable natural features and landscape featuresare not protected, because the interests of vari-ous sectors concerning the land use have notbeen harmonised. For that reason protected ar-eas scheme was launched in 1998. Its amendmentwas adopted in 1999 within the framework of thespatial components of the National plan. The cri-teria for setting up this scheme include:
� the level of conserved nature, rarity, excep-tionality, representativeness, complexity,diversity of the natural phenomena;
� the landscape types (representative, rare,preserved);
� the threatened and vulnerable ecosystemsor landscape types;
� the balance (representativeness) of ecosys-tem and landscape patterns in all regions ofSlovenia;
� local initiatives.
The scheme for protected areas focusesmainly on ecosystem conservation. New Land-scape Parks (the river Drava, the river Dragonja,Ljubljansko barje, Goričko), which function as
Map 12: Plannedprotected areas bycategories. (MOP-ARSO, 2001).
Graph 26 (right):
Percentage of thesurface area of theplanned protectedareas according to theIUCN categories(MOP-ARSO, 2001).
Regional ParkLandscape ParkNatural Monument
Planned Protected Areas
143
habitats of the endangered plant and animal spe-cies, have been formed. To protect the aquatic orriparian ecosystems. The emphasis has also beenplaced on the category of Regional Park which isconsidered to be the most suitable for protectionof large, inter-linked, naturally preserved areasof high biological and landscape diversity wheresome economic activities are also performed(Snežnik, Kočevsko-Kolpa, Pohorje, Kras,Trnovski gozd, the Kamnik and Savinja Alps, andKaravanke, the river Mura).
NATURE RESERVES AND NATURALMONUMENTS
The common objective of Slovenia is to pro-tect approximately 30 % of its territory. Besidethe category of Nature Parks, smaller sections ofnature will be protected as Nature Reserves andNatural Monuments. Outstanding valuable natu-ral features will be protected according to theirrarity, outstanding size or shape, representative-ness, complexity and ecosystem or landscape im-portance. Certain areas, which are proposed tobe designated as Nature Reserves and NaturalMonuments, lie within areas where the parks areto be established.
Many areas proposed to be protected meetthe international criteria, and represent groundsfor the establishment of the transboundary pro-tected areas.
Constrains related to theestablishment of protected areas
The main constraints include:
� deficiency of fundamental research, habi-tat mapping, economic, regional and otherapplicative analyses,
� insufficient State support to the establish-ment of Nature Parks,
� lack of communication between institutionsand sectors;
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Hu
do
klin
)
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 143. Planinskopolje, together withPostojna cave andCerknica polje forms thecore area of the karstreaches of the LjubljanicaRiver. The idea ofprotecting this area led tothe initiative to create theSnežnik Regional Park.
Figure 144 (left). Thewolf, Canis lupus, livingin the area of threeproposed Regional Parks(Snežnik, Kočevje andTrnovski gozd). Thesethree areas are essentialfor the preservation ofclosed forest complexes aswell as their inhabitants,particularly big mam-mals.
Map 13: Proposeddesignation of valuablenatural features (MOP-ARSO, 2001).
144 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� passive participation of local communitiesin the preparation of proposals concerningprotected areas, which often results in per-ceiving protected areas more as a limitingfactor rather than a stimulating one.
Contractual protection andstewardship
The land owners sign agreements with theState concerning the protection of valuable natu-ral features. The objective of such contractualprotection is to ensure that the protection regimesand the regulated use of valuable natural featuresare respected. One of its measures is a financialmechanism for the valuable natural feature to beused in an agreed manner.
Stewardship is a similar measure. Such a con-tractual relationship is concluded with a naturalor legal person who does not own the area of thevaluable natural feature. The Sečoveljske solineLandscape Park is the first protected area man-aged by such temporary stewardship, a measureconducted by the State.
Purchases of real-estate locatedin protected areas
Pursuant to the Nature Conservation Act, theState and local communities have the right of pre-emption in the purchase of real-estate located inprotected areas. By this instrument, the State (mu-nicipality) becomes the owner of the biodiversityimportant areas. In these areas, when contrac-tual protection is no longer rational - because ofa special interest enforced or regime establishedby the State - through the purchase the primaryinterest, i.e. the protection (conservation) of avaluable natural feature, may be ensured.
The State purchases real-estate in direct agree-ment with the land owners. According to the dataof the National Farmland and Forest Fund, theState - in compliance with the planned prioritypurchases and for conservation purposes, pur-chased 31.5 ha of land in the period from 1995 to2000. This land is mostly wetlands (marshes, reedbeds, meadows, pastures) and some abandonedarable land and forest. The Ledine marsh and sev-eral lands in the Zelenci Nature Reserve, the cen-tral area of the Triglav National Park, the Škocjan-
Table 46:
Internationallyimportant localities.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 145.
Sečoveljske soline, aLandscape Park and aRamsar Site, remains aState property.
Wetland Sites proposed Important Bird Areas Biosphere Reserves Potential Crossborderfor the inclusion on the (IBA) (MAB) Protected AreasRamsar List
� floodplain of the Mura river � Triglav National Park � Triglav National Park � Kras Regional Park� the Drava river with Ormoško � catchment area of � the Kočevsko-Kolpa, � Triglav National Park
jezero and Šturmovci the Nanoščica river Snežnik, Trnovski gozdareas
� lowland forest Krakovski gozd � ‘Kras’ - Karst � the Mura and Drava � Karavanke-Kamniškorivers - Savinjske Alpe Reg. Park
� riparian wetlands of the � Sečoveljske soline � Mura Regional Parklower Sava river and Jovsi (Sečovlje salinas)
� Ljubljansko barje � the Reka river valley � Goričko Landscape Park� karst catchment of the � Ljubljansko barje � Kočevsko Regional Park
Ljubljanica river withfens on Bloke
� Čezsoški prodi and Vrbulje � Planinsko polje � Snežnik Regional Park- the Soča river � Cerkniško jezero � Kolpa Landscape Park
� Krakovski gozd � Gorjanci Landscape Park� the Ribnica valley� Kočevsko-Kolpa� the Drava river� the Mura river� Goričko
145
ske jame Regional Park, and the protected areaMali Plac were purchased.
With regard to the purchase, mostly real-es-tate is considered, as in the case of the centralpart of the Triglav National Park, in particularwhen it has been decided that the purchase isessential for the protection of valuable naturalfeatures, habitats and ecologically important ar-eas and adjacent land.
In recent years, the offers of the land ownersfor the purchase of land in the protected areashave exceeded the available budgetary funds andthe organisational abilities of the administrativeservices for more effective conduct of proce-dures.
The funds available for implementation ofsuch measures are scarce - the amount cannot becompared to the amounts allocated for such pur-poses by many EU countries.
Compensations and incentives
Land in protected areas is often unsuitable foragricultural production. Therefore, the farmerswho live in such areas are entitled to differentsupport for the preservation of the traditionalfarming techniques which are essential for theconservation of biological and landscape diver-
sity. Support is given for the maintenance of thecurrent status in compliance with the protectionregime established in the protected area or valu-able natural feature:
� if the applicant’s income has significantlylowered (or will lower) - owing to the prohi-bition concerning the application of agro-chemical substances - the reduced numberof hay harvesting (first mowing after theblooming of grass and after the nesting pe-riod, prohibition of levelling, etc.);
� for the maintenance of the traditional land-scape, e.g. the restoration of orchards onmown land, hedges, areas covered in treesand shrubs, traditional land use in protect-ed areas (mowing of steep and unevenmeadows, maintenance of litter-disposalfacilities in forests, management of openland, maintenance of mountain trails, etc.);
� to support farmers in transition to organicfarming.
� In Slovenia compensations have been paidsince 1995. The purpose of this instrumentis to offer farmers additional stimulation tocultivate land in protected areas in an envi-ronmentally friendly manner. Consequent-ly, the conservation of numerous plant andanimal species and the identity of the land-scape are ensured:
� in 1996 and 1997, the farmers living in theTriglav National Park received support forthe handmowing on uneven meadows; thefarmers of Biš (near Ptuj) received compen-sation for the loss of income in the area ofthe grey heron colony; and in Lahinja Land-scape Park for handmowing in floodplainmeadows;
� since 1997 funds have been allocated for themaintenance of dry, extensively managedkarst grasslands in the Škocjanske jame Re-gional Park;
Figure 146. NaturalReserve Zelenci (springof the Sava DolinkaRiver), one of the fewexamples of the Statepurchasing some of theland for conservationpurposes.(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
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e)
Figure 147. PlaninaVogar. The typicalmeadows of the Alpineenvironment dependon regular hand-mowing of the grass.By now, many of themhave been levelled off orovergrown by forest.
146 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� since 1998, financial support has been giv-en for the transition to organic farming andfor grazing on mountain pastures of theTriglav National Park.
Ecologically Important Areasand Ecological Networks
If conservation measures were focused onlyon protected areas, these could lead to the for-mation of isolated islands, with more or less pre-served nature, lying in the urbanised and indu-strialised territory. In order to preserve links be-tween ecologically important areas, the idea ofan ecological network appeared. Its purpose andmethodological bases are defined within theEuropean Ecological Network (EECONET). Statesand the international community meet the ob-jectives of network cooperation through variousinstruments (EU - Natura 2000; Council of Europe- Paneuropean Ecological Network and the Em-erald Network, CORINE, Biotopes). Core areaswith their buffer zones are defined according tocertain criteria. Such zones are linked by continu-ous or non-continuous corridors. In Slovenia, thelegal basis for the national ecological network isprovided for in the Nature Conservation Act. It isbased on the network of Ecologically ImportantAreas.
Environmental ImpactAssessment
The Decree on categories of activities forwhich an environmental impact assessment ismandatory (1996; amended in 2000) focuses inparticular on the activities carried out in protectedareas. For some of these activities the Decreestipulates the application of more stringent mea-sures if they are to be carried out in these areas.
EX SITU PROTECTION MEASURES
Protected species
At the national level, 28 plant species, 70 spe-cies or genera of fungi and over 200 animal spe-cies or higher taxonomic groups have been pro-tected. At the local level 17 plant species (NovaGorica municipality - 4; Sežana municipality - 13)have been protected. They are locally threatheneddue to mass picking. In particular those speciesare protected which are directly threatened be-cause of the destruction of their specimens. Inthe expert proposals for the Red Data Lists of en-dangered plant and animal species many moreare included (nearly 600 species of mosses,pterodophytes and spermatophytes; approxi-mately 2000 animal taxa). Damaged or destroyed
habitats are the most common causes of threatto these species. Therefore, the protection mea-sures for habitats are essential for their conser-
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 148. Daphneblagayana, one of thetwo first protectedplant species inCarniola. It was firstdescribed in the areaof Polhov Gradecalthough the species israre in Slovenia,growing at the mostnorth-western edge ofits distribution area.
Figure 149.
Rhinolophusferrumequinum, in akarst cave nearSežana. Humanactivities are the maincauses of the decliningnumbers of bats.Rhinolophae areamong the mostthreatened mammalspecies in Slovenia.
147
vation. The regulation on the protection of en-dangered species stipulates that the minister maytemporarily, and the Government permanently,prohibit or limit any activities which would di-rectly endanger the habitat of protected species.The most important measures for the protectionof species’ habitats are included in the regula-tions on the identification of Ecologically Impor-tant Areas and habitats, and on the establishmentof protection guidelines for the conservation ofhabitats at a favourable status and of protectedareas.
Deficiencies of acts on theprotection of species
Regulations on the protection of plant andanimal species are partly harmonised with theNature Conservation Act, the EU directives onthe protection of species and habitats and cer-tain international agreements (Bern Convention).Under the Nature Conservation Act, the adoptionof the ministerial regulation on the designationof endangered species and inclusion in the RedData Lists is fundamental for their protection.Thus, the adoption of the regulation is the firststep in the process of harmonising of the conser-vation system, and the next one is to amend theexecutive regulations on the protection of spe-cies in compliance with the EU directives. At thesame time, executive regulations stipulating theparticulars of the protection of plant and animalspecies, e.g. trade, breeding, keeping in captivity,etc., have to be adopted.
Botanical gardens, zoos,herbarium collections,
animal shelters
The Ljubljana Botanical Garden is the mostimportant botanical garden in Slovenia for theex-situ conservation of indigenous plants. TheUniversity Botanical Garden, established in 1810,comprises a rich seed bank and a collection oflive plants and some endemic and endangeredspecies. Its tasks are the conservation of indig-enous plants, with special emphasis placed onthe endemic and endangered species. Since 1889the garden has been issuing a yearly seed index(Index seminum) with the seeds of plants col-lected in the Julijana Alpinum - Alpine BotanicalGarden. In 1997, the seed collection comprised795 plant species. The modernised botanical gar-den has not yet been revived.
The purpose of the Maribor University Bo-tanical Garden is to conserve the locally en-dangered species. It comprises a collection ofconifers and aquatic plants. Both of these botani-
cal gardens are members of the international as-sociation of botanical gardens - Botanic GardensConservation International (BGCI).
The Julijana Alpinum in Trenta valley wasestablished in 1920 and is now managed by theSlovenian Museum of Natural History. The Ar-boretum Volčji potok is a public institution.They are both research and educational institu-tions.
In addition, a few more botanical and den-drological collections exist in Slovenia (Sežana,Pristava-Rafut, etc.). They store a valuable genepool, but none of the botanical collections hasbeen given the status of a gene bank.
Herbarium collections are important for re-search into and knowledge about biodiversity.At the Department of Biology of the LjubljanaBiotechnical Faculty (LJU) and at the SlovenianMuseum of Natural History (LJM) two herbariumcollections are located. They are a basic sourceof knowledge about plant biodiversity and its con-servation and at the same time they documentbiodiversity. The herbarium collection inLjubljana is the richer and more important of thetwo. It comprises a set of exsiccates, some per-sonal herbariums (for example of R. Justin and F.Dolšak) and a research collection of plants fromSlovenia and abroad. A significant segment ofthe collection resulted from the exchange withother herbariums. In 2000 the herbarium collec-tion comprised over 200,000 files. The historiccollections in the Slovenian Museum of NaturalHistory (Hacquet, K. Zois, Hladnik, Freyer, Floraexsiccata Germanica from the first half of the 19century, etc.) are extremely important for thespecialised research into and knowledge aboutthe dynamics of flora.
Zoos are a ‘time bridge’ to the third century.Specialised and extremely endangered animalspecies survive there while their natural environ-ment is being destroyed. They play an importantrole in the nature conservation and the protec-tion of endangered animal species. The Endan-
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
(Ph
oto
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e)
Figure 150. Arbore-tum Volčji Potok.Botanical gardens andarboretums areimportant for ex-situbiodiversity conserva-tion. They play a keyrole in nature educa-tion and publicawareness.
148 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
gered Species Programmes inside zoos protectsanimal species from extinction and at the sametime facilitates their conservation in the naturalenvironment. Through the implementation ofthese programmes specimens are introduced totheir natural populations and these are thusstrengthened.
In the Ljubljana ZOO, the Endangered SpeciesProgrammes of the following animal species iscarried out: Salmon-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatuamoluccensis), Wreathed Hornbill (Aceros undu-latus), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Persian Leop-ard (Panthera pardus saxicolor), Asian Elephant(Elephas maximus), and Red-Cheeked Gibbon(Hylobates gabriellae). One of the main objectivesof the ZOO is to breed and exhibit all indigenousamphibians and reptiles. It also focuses on thebreeding of black and White Ruffled Lemur (Vareciavariegata variegata), Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffacamelopardalis reticulata), Siberian Tiger (Pantheratigris altaica), European Brown Bear (Ursus arctosarctos) and Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens).
Organised education courses are one of themost important tasks of the ZOO. They have beenregularly carried out since 1990. In 2000, 18,300visitors took a guided tour around the park. Thevisitors are informed about the biological char-acteristics of an animal as well as about the na-ture conservation issues in general. The ZOO isfurnished with the information and identificationsigns for the individual species presented. Com-munication with the media is well establishedand helps to raise public awareness about na-ture.
Wildlife senctuary. Within the ZOO there isalso a wildlife senctuary, which was providedfor in the Decree on the protection of endangeredanimal species of 1993. The injured or ill animalsof the protected vertebrate species; the young
which are not capable of surviving in the wild;animals kept in captivity in unsuitable living con-ditions; and animals which have been seizedfrom the owner because of the illegal trade, areall received in the wildlife senctuary. Its purposeis to help animals, to handle them in a etnic man-ner and to return them to the wild. It plays a sig-nificant role in the raising of the public aware-ness and its education.
Gene banks
Cultivated plants
In 1995 the minister responsible for agricul-ture, forestry and food appointed a commissionto draw up and implement a national project thePlant Gene Bank in Slovenia. The commission iscomposed of experts from the Agriculture Insti-tute of Slovenia, the Biotechnical Faculty - De-partment of Agronomy, the Žalec Institute of HopResearch and Brewing, the Slovenian ForestryInstitute and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestryand Food.
The commission’s tasks are:
� to coordinate the study and assessment ofthe collected genetic resources;
� to review and approve the annual pro-grammes and allocate funds to agriculturalgenetic resources;
� to harmonise the long-term programmeswith the Convention on Biological Diversi-ty and to incorporate the programme intothe national strategy for implementing theConvention on Biological Diversity;
� to establish and operate the central seedcollection kept in cold storage at -20 °C atthe Agriculture Institute of Slovenia, wherelong term storage facilities were establishedin 1994.
� to establish and operate a comprehensivedocumentation and information systemabout agricultural and forest plants; the sys-tem will use internet to facilitate communi-cation between all institutions involved inthe national programme and the internation-al databases; in this way Slovenia’s geneticresources will be presented and coopera-tion with the related institutions around theworld guaranteed;
� to participate at the international level in theEuropean Cooperative Programme for CropGenetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) (ce-reals, forages, fruit, grain legumes, fruit spe-cies, vines, industrial crops and potato, mi-nor crops, documentation and information,in situ and on-farm conservation).
Figure 151. Buck-wheat is againbecoming a frequentcrop in the fields.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
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e)
149
of researchers at the Biotechnical Faculty -Zootechnical Department has been interested inthe conservation of domestic breeds. TheProgramme on the conservation of indigenousbreeds of domestic animals covers all the neces-sary steps for the protection of the endangeredbreeds: the inventory, the establishment of thestatus and endangerment and the potential con-servation measures. At first, the programme in-volved sheep, hens and pigs, and later on otherspecies of domestic animals were included. Thecommon objective is to find the remains of thesebreeds and to provide the original breeding ma-terial. Field studies are mandatory on sites wherethe remains of specific domestic breeds can befound. Genetic tests will be performed and bloodsamples will be collected and analysed for someanimals. All the tasks related to the breeding - suchas animal branding, the keeping of genealogyrecords, preventing genetic erosion caused byinbreeding, recovery planning, measuring theproductivity of an animal and assessing its purebred value - should be carried out on a perma-nent basis.
In the last decade, measures for lowering thenumber of breeds of domestic animals inSlovenia were taken with regard to the degree ofthreat to certain breeds. In order to maintain thelevel of conservation of biodiversity in livestockbreeding, the conservation activities will have tobe constantly carried out and updated. The intro-duction of new approaches and technologies ofin situ conservation (sperm and embryo freez-ing, which is unfortunately not (yet) possible forall species) is mandatory.
The livestock gene bank should in particular:
� collect and record indigenous genetic ma-terial, including old indigenous breeds ofdomestic animals;
� evaluate and assess the collected geneticmaterial according to international descrip-tors;
� store and renew samples of the collectedgenetic material;
� propagate and exchange genetic material.
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Table 47: Overview ofthe current collectionsto be included in thecentral gene bank ofSlovenia kept at theAgriculture Institute ofSlovenia
COLLECTION INSTITUTION
Buckwheat and Wheat Biotechnical Faculty-
Seed Gene Banks Department of
Corn Seed Gene Bank Agriculture
Fruit Seed Gene Bank
Gene Bank of Grass
and Clover Seed
Hop Seed Gene Bank Institute for Hops
Medicinal plants and Brewing, Žalec
Gene Bank
Horsebean Seed Gene Bank Agriculture Institute
Onion Seed Gene Bank of Slovenia
Cabbage Seed Gene Bank
Lettuce Seed Gene Bank
Gene Bank of Potato
Clove Seed Gene Bank
Grass Seed Gene Bank
Wheat Seed Gene Bank
Gene Bank of Vine
Gene Bank of small fruits
Better knowledge about the characteristics ofgenetic resources improves the possibilities forthe re-introduction of old cultivars, populationsand ecotypes in the sustainable cultivation andfor the use of traditional crops. The collection ofgenetic resources has to be furthered in areaswhere the environment is heavily burdened or isthreatened by a major ecological change(motorways, artificial lakes) in order to conservethe disappearing species. It is of utmost impor-tance to check to what degree the genetic re-sources are conserved at farms. That is neces-sary for the study of the genetic erosion (aban-donment of important crops) and the promotionof the planned activities. The mapping of ecotypesites in natural habitats and the monitoring ofchanges are also necessary. The following needsto be done:
� detailed evaluation of the material (molec-ular, genetic and phylogenetic studies, stud-ies of economic characteristics);
� establishment of new methods and technol-ogies for the conservation and regenerationof genetic resources;
� preparation of regulation.
Gene bank in livestock breeding
The biodiversity of domestic animals gainedimportance in Slovenia with the establishmentof the European animal genetic data bank.Slovenia was among the first countries to partici-pate and provide information on indigenousbreeds of domestic animals. Since 1991, a group
Figure 152. Sloveniahas a number ofautochthonousdomestic animalbreeds adapted to localnatural conditions.The Lippizaner is oneof the most admired.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
150 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
The annual activities include the followingtechnical, research and development activities:
� checking of rearing establishments andbranding of animals;
� measuring of animals and their productivi-ty, ethological measurements of variousbreeds, genetic tests;
� selection by exterior traits, pure-bred valueassessment,
� keeping of breeder’s records and genealo-gy documents,
� targeted breeding;
� selection of new lines of animal species andrecovery planning;
� prevention of inbreeding;
� research on the development of new breeds;studies concerning the growth rate andbody composition,
� analyses and studies of eggs,
� study of new indigenous breeds.
In addition to carrying out the basic researchand technical work, it is also necessary to pro-vide financial compensations to breeders whomaintain these breeds in situ. The conservationof domestic animals in the autochthonous envi-ronment is the best solution for their conserva-tion and for the conservation of landscape diver-sity. Such conservation defines a certain area andthe people who live and work there. Direct sup-port to the conservation of indigenous speciesof domestic animals is also enforced in the EU(see Regulations 1257/99 and 1750/99). Such sup-port provides compensations to breeders whobreed less productive indigenous breeds
Gene banks in forestry
Slovenian forestry is based on the principlesof sustainability, sustainable forest managementand the multifunctionality of forests. The forestmanagement and silviculture measures are de-fined by the longevity of the forest trees. InSlovenia, the ecological, physiological and ge-netic characteristics of forest trees populationsare adapted, as well as possible, to the forest sitesin a specific forest ecosystem.
The longevity of trees and the earlier men-tioned forest management principles are the rea-sons why the silviculture measures and the rel-evant requirements differ so much from the mea-sures concerning the management of crops.Therefore, the criteria for the establishment, main-tenance and use of gene banks differ with regardto agricultural and forest plants.
The Slovenian forest gene bank (SGGB) isconsidered to be an all-encompassing institution.In addition to the collection of seed (with pollenand tissue cultures), the main tasks of theSlovenian forest gene bank/forest seed objectsconcern the selection of seed stands which rep-resent a form of in situ protection of forest ge-netic resources. Only such protection guaranteesthe emphasised protection of the genetic diver-sity because the ex situ protection of seed ob-jects (seed banks, seed orchards, living archivesand research specimens) is not as intensive asthe in situ protection.
The Slovenian forest seed bank includes thein situ (in natural environment) and the ex situ(outside the natural environment) seed objects.
HORSE CATTLE PIG SHEEP GOAT HEN BEE DOG
Slovenian Cika Krškopoljski Bovška ovca Bovška Štajerska Kranjska Kraški ovčar
cold-blooded prašič (Drežniška) grahasta čebela
horse koza kokoš (Apis mellifera
Carnica)
Posavje Slovenian Jezersko- Kratkodlaki
horse brown cattle Solčavska ovca istrski gonič
Lipizzaner Istrska Resasti istrskipramenka gonič
Belokranjska Posavski
pramenka gonič
Slovenski
planinski gonič
Table 48: The genebank managed by theZootechnical Depart-ment at theBiotechnical Facultystores 18 indigenousbreeds of 8 autochtho-nous animal races(Source: BF, Zootechni-cal Department, 2001).
151
� seed stands (404 seed stands at 2304 ha areentered in the registry);
� seed bank (105 accessions);
� seed orchards (4);
� living archives of forest tree species (3);
� offspring tests and provenance trials (5).
The Slovenian forest gene bank database com-prises the Central database on the Slovenian for-est gene bank and the relevant registers:
� Register of selected seed stands (since 1955),
� Register of seed trees groups and regularstands (since 1998),
� Register of seed stock (the oldest accessionsare from 1964; currently since 1971),
� Database on research stands, living archivesand seed orchards.
The forest genetic resources include all for-est reserves which have been systematically se-lected in Slovenia at different sites and coverapproximately 10,000 ha (4,000 ha more areplanned). It is stipulated in the forest manage-ment plans that forest reserves be protected incompliance with the protection regime of the strictNature Reserves under the Nature ConservationAct. This means that the reproduction materialfrom these stands is not available for use. In anindirect manner, forests in other protected areasperform the function of forest gene banks.
The Slovenian forest gene bank, together withthe planned network of forest gene stands, is in-volved in the formulation of the internationalstrategy for the conservation of forest geneticresources. The institution has actively and offi-cially participated in the European Forest GeneticResources Programme (EUFORGEN) since 1997.The forest gene banks experts are involved in thesystem for the exchange of information on plantgene banks in Slovenia (within the informationsystem of the Commission on plant gene banks).The forestry part of the entire system is harmo-nised with the European information system onforest genetic resources (within EUFORGEN)managed by the International Plant Genetic Re-source Institute (IPGRI) and FAO in Rome.
Microbiological collections
Micro-organisms kept in collections representthe known cultivable natural diversity of mi-crobes. The world’s main microbiological collec-tions conserve approximately a million cultures,and many more may be found in industrial andprivate collections and in the collections of vari-ous institutes. Slovenia has not yet completed anoverview of the number and diversity of microbecultures available, nor has the number of isolatesgrown in Slovenia been compared to the num-
ber obtained from other collections. The man-agement of these cultures helps us understandthe world of micro-organisms; at the same time,these cultures form an important potential ge-netic resource of Slovenia (taxonomic rarity orexceptionality due to biotechnological potential),raise the understanding of the ecological partplayed by micro-organisms, and facilitate scien-tific development.
The stored micro-organism cultures are usedonly for comparison with and identification ofother cultures (type strains, reference cultures),but also for the purposes of research, biotech-nology procedures, education and patent protec-tion. Microbiological collections are used to iso-late micro-organisms in nature and to taxonomi-cally identify and characterise the isolated strains.Other tasks performed by these collections in-clude: the keeping records on cultures, simulta-neous conservation of isolated cultures, gather-ing information on cultures, providing informa-tion through catalogues or in electronic form tothe public, following of the legislation concern-ing the distribution of cultures and the regula-tions concerning the quarantine measures, thepathogenicity of strains and the international co-operation, etc.
In Slovenia, there are a few microbiologicalcollections kept at faculties, institutes and in in-dustry. However there has been no connectionestablished between them and they have not beencatalogued, so it is not known what they com-prise. The last inventory of the microbiologicalcollections was carried out in 1995 at the initia-tive of the Ministry of Science and Technology.The inventory was co-ordinated by the Chemi-cals Institute at the Department of Food Scienceand Technology of the Biotechnical Faculty inLjubljana. The situation has probably changed inthe last five years and the data on the functioningof these standard collections will have to besupplemented by data on biodiversity and bytaxonomic research.
Conservation methods. Micro-organismsare conserved by various methods in order toachieve different degrees of genetic stability ofstrains. The usual conservation methods are: re-inoculation to oligonutrient culture medium, lowtemperature storage, dehydration, storage in min-eral oil, lyophilization, storage in liquid nitrogen,etc. However, not all micro-organisms can bestored with the application of these methods.
Collection services. The stored micro-organ-ism cultures are used for comparison with andidentification of other cultures (type strains, ref-erence cultures) and also for the purposes of re-search, biotechnology procedures, educationand patent protection. Access to certain culturesmay be free, others are stored as patented cul-
IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
152 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
tures, safe deposits or permanent deposits. Mi-crobiological collections are also used to isolatemicro-organisms in nature, to taxonomicallyidentify and characterise the isolated strains.Other services include: the keeping of recordson isolated cultures and cultures obtained fromother collections or institutions, simultaneousconservation of isolated cultures, providing in-formation on cultures (one’s own and culturesstored in other microbiological collections), pro-viding information through catalogues or in elec-tronic form to the public, following of the legis-lation concerning the distribution of cultures andthe regulations concerning the quarantine regu-lations, the pathogenicity of strains, etc.
Patented strains. The Protection of Intellec-tual Property Right Act stipulates that prior to thefiling of the application, the micro-organism hasto be deposited in a collection with an Interna-tional Depository Authority status. According tothe provisions such a strain is made available tothe public. The international relations concern-ing the depositories, deposits and patent offices
TITLE OF COLLECTION INSTITUTION
Microbiological collection of the Chemicals Institute (MZKI): Chemicals Institute incollection of industrial filamentous fungi and yeasts* Ljubljana
Collection of industrial micro-organisms (ZIM):collection of yeasts Department of Food Science andcollection of symbiotic bacteria Technology of theBiotechnical Facultycollection of symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi Department of Food Science andcollection of lactic acid bacteria Technology of theBiotechnical Faculty
Department of Biology of the Biotechnical FacultyZootechnical Department
of the Biotechnical Faculty
Collection of anaerobic bacteria: Zootechnical DepartmentCollection of wood fungi of the Biotechnical FacultyCollection of extremophyle fungi (Ex-F), collection of bacteria (Ex-B) Department of Forestry of theLive collection of mycorrhizal fungi, microfungi and macrofungi Biotechnical Faculty
Department of Biology of the Biotechnical Faculty
Slovenian Forestry Institute
Macrofungi in various herbariums Slovenian Museum of Natural History;Ljubljana University Herbarium
Collection of phytopathologic fungi Department of Agronomy of the Biotechnical Faculty
Mycological collection and herbarium of the Slovenian Forestry Institute SlovenianLive collection of pathogenic fungi Forestry InstituteLive collection of pathogenic fungi
* MZKI is the only Slovenian collection included in various international collections and other networks; it meets the criteria for the IDA (International DepositoryAuthority) status under the Budapest Treaty.
Table 49: Overview ofmicro-organismcollections in Slovenia
are regulated by the Budapest Convention of1981. In order to meet the requirements of thisConvention and to be acknowledged as an Inter-national Depository Authority the collection hasto meet certain requirements:
� it has to be located in and acknowledged byone of the parties;
� have a continuous existence;
� have the necessary staff and facilities,
� be impartial and objective,
� be available to any depositor under the sameconditions,
� accept for deposit any or certain kinds ofmicro-organisms, examine their viabilityand store them in a genetically stable man-ner for 30 years,
� issue receipts and required viability state-ments,
� comply with the requirement of secrecy,
� furnish samples in conformity with the reg-ulations.
153IMPLEMENTATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
BACKGROUND
The development directions of the State andthe criteria for the analysis and evaluation of thedevelopment are discussed in the Strategy of Eco-nomic Development of Slovenia. In July 2001, anew Strategy for the period until 2006 was drawnup (SEDS06), replacing the preceding Strategy of1995 (SEDS95).
The main objective of the SEDS06 is the sus-tainable increase of the welfare of the popula-tion which is defined as a balanced entity func-tioning within the framework of its economic,social and environmental components. Welfareis based on the material as well as immaterialcomponents, such as personal development, self-realisation, participation in society, safety, coop-eration and the development of an individual andcultural identity.
Based on the new economic developmentalparadigm, the strategy defines the priority devel-opmental factors, main developmental directionsand the relevant role of the State in development:
� transition to a knowledge based society;
� strengthening of the competitiveness of theeconomy;
� improving the efficiency of the State;
� upgrading the capacity to perform policieswithin the common EU market rules;
� harmonised regional development.
The purpose of the SEDS06 is the plannedimplemantation of sustainable developmentbased on the developmental potential, achieve-ments and conceptual strategic changes in theglobal environment.
In accordance with these developmental di-rections, the economic development of the coun-try will have to support the conservation of bio-logical and landscape diversity. The detailedanalyses of the relation between economic de-velopment and biodiversity are not yet available.
ECONOMIC DEVELOP-
MENT OF SLOVENIA
AND BIODIVERSITY
However, the representative indicators of theeconomic and environmental integration are pre-sented below. Through these indicators, the seri-ousness of developmental problems concerningconservation of biological and landscape diver-sity in Slovenia are reflected.
ANALYSIS OF ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT BASED ON
REPRESENTATIVE INDICATORS
In view of the social and environmental sta-tus of Slovenia it has been estimated that it is moredeveloped than could be expected when takinginto account the achieved economic develop-ment measured by gross domestic product percapita. The level of Slovenia’s sustainable devel-opment is relatively high in comparison to itseconomic development. It matches Italy, Britainand Belgium, which certainly can not be consid-ered as completely environmentally orientedcountries, but their GDP per capita is much higher.In this regard Slovenia could be compared toGreece, Portugal and Spain, where the sustain-able development indicator is about 30 % lower.Including the environmental and social consid-erations into the analysis can therefore only im-prove the image of economic development inSlovenia. By doing that, many countries wouldonly achieve the opposite.
This developmental feature defines Slovenia’sidentity, and the SEDS06 is based on it. Such di-rections have brought the realisation that devel-opment should take into account that:
� the economy should depend more on thedomestic measures and resources (endoge-nous development);
� the potential of economic growth, based onthe exploitation of domestic renewable re-sources, should be developed; and
� the development should be spatially bal-anced - regional harmony, spatial order.
154 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Economic aspects of economicdevelopment
In the early nineties, in the period of transi-tion of its economy, Slovenia was faced with re-cession. Approximately one fifth of its commer-cial market on the territory of the former Yugo-slavia was cut off. The production and grossdomestic product fell by around 15 % in the pe-riod from the mid-eighties to 1992. Unemploy-ment increased from a negligible level to a rela-tively high percentage. In 1992 the rate of infla-tion was nearly 100 %. Slovenia reached thebottom of the transitional recession, and the re-cuperation started in 1993 with the macro-eco-nomic stabilisation based on monetary indepen-dence; the control over the prices of about onefifth of goods and services used for the calcula-tion of the inflation index; the success of the pub-lic finances; and the successful transfer of ex-port to the western markets.
The rate of inflation dropped to 10 % in 1995,but the rate of unemployment started to fall onlyin 1998. Slovenia’s economic growth is sustain-able, as is evident from the nearly exemplarymacro-economic balance (see tables A to E), thegeneral government revenues and expendituresas well as imports and exports. At the end of thelast decade, a new development cycle began andthis balance was upset. Macro-economic param-eters may be balanced and stable only when “thetransitional borrowing” is being carried out.When these debts are being paid off (recession),they can not be justified because in this way thesolving of developmental problems is just beingpostponed. At the end of the last decade,Slovenia’s GDP per capita surpassed that of theEU countries with the lowest GDP. It has comeclose to three quarters of the EU-15 average.
The economic policy tried to adapt as muchas possible to the uncertain transitional processesand various international factors. It was relativelysuccessful, since the process of restructuring wasindeed controlled but continuous. On average,the investments are the most dynamic part of thedomestic demand, and the productivity of workand profitability increase in parallel with them.
The economic transition has been completedwith regard to the openness of the domestic mar-ket (lower customs tariffs); better economic rela-tions with foreign countries; withdrawal of theState from direct interventions in the economy;and the capability of public finance to cope withthe social consequences of the transition. Theequity in the distribution of profit has decreasedbut the consequences are manageable and reme-diable.
A positive feature during the transitional pe-riod is that the structure of the economy has im-proved. The contribution of the industrial sectorto the GDP has fallen while the share of services
has increased. A large part of income is gener-ated abroad and a large part of income gener-ated in Slovenia outflows to other countries. Inthe process of economic restructuring many eco-nomically and environmentally unsuccessfulcompanies have failed, and as the result the mar-ket transition has been completed in the spirit ofsustainable development. The privatisation ofindustrial undertakings which has been carriedout simultaneously with the transitional restruc-turing has offered an opportunity to companiesto establish environmental reservation funds forreducing the environmental burden generated bythese companies during the time of the state-runmanagement. In this way the price of the com-pany was lowered by the amount of the reserva-tion funds. As a result, the total of these fundsamounted to approximately DEM 520 million(DISAE SLO-104 programme for the implementa-tion of the EU environmental acquis).
One of the initial measures of the indepen-dent Slovenian Government was to freeze pricesof public utility services. As a consequence theinvestments in the current rehabilitation of spe-cific environmental media have been blocked(urban waste management, water management).The renewed economic growth in 1993 thus re-sulted in the increased pressure on waters andwaste management sector. With the internationa-lisation of the Slovenian economy the danger ofinvestments from abroad in the intensive anddirty industry has increased. In the upcomingperiod of the economic boom, the balance be-tween the environmental and economic objec-tives is a more problematic issue than it was inthe period of the transitional depression.
Economic aspects of socialdevelopment
The opportunity offered only to a few to pos-sess the specific components of the environmentmerely shows the other side of social injustice.Those who are not allowed to enjoy public goods,for example biodiversity or basic environmentalservices, become more and more marginalizedand excluded from social life. Globalisation andthe increased pressure on the competitivenessof the economy, the efficiency of the state andthe public sector can result in social problems.The competitiveness in the labour market in-creases unemployment but the opening of thismarket results in the irreversible outflow of hu-man resource and the increased pressure fromabroad.
The environmental protection measures(taxes on energy sources, public utility services,low environmental quality products) can influ-ence the existing social balance because theyprimarily affect those population groups whichspend most of their income on essentials. How-
155
ever, for the appropriate standard of living, theprivate as well as public goods are essential.
In the SEDS06 definition of welfare the cen-tral position is taken by the individual, his/herneeds and interests, the quality of his/her life andoverall development. The basis of this develop-ment is a possibility and an opportunity tochoose. The following basic conditions have tobe fulfilled for an individual to meet these objec-tives: long and healthy life, the opportunity toobtain education and information, and have ac-cess to funds needed for an appropriate livingstandard.
Economic aspectsof environmental development
The indicators of economic developmentshow that the environment is heavily burdened.The energy intensity is twice the average of theEU, the share of export based on natural re-sources is too large since important deposits ofmineral and energy raw materials cannot befound in Slovenia. In the second half of the nine-ties, the production and export of the “dirty” in-dustry increased faster than in all processingindustry on average. On the basis of the environ-mental objectives of the Strategy of economicdevelopment until 1995 its environmental successcan be evaluated. In this period the environmen-tal expenditures increased, so did the share ofpublic funds intended for environmental protec-tion. The relative prices of energy sources andelectric power increased, the CO
2 tax and water
pollution tax were introduced (unlike waste tax),the content of pollutants in the primary energysources was reduced as well as the use of do-mestic coal (which was used without the emis-sion treatment facilities being provided for).However, the goods transport was transferred torailway. The environmentally friendly productionof food is on the increase. With the adoption ofthe programme for the development of the agri-culture, the food processing industry, the forestryand fisheries, the market-price policy was trans-formed to a structural policy. As developmentaladvantages the organic and integrated agriculturalproduction are becoming increasingly valued.Unfortunately, the following directions have notbeen altogether successfully implemented:
� environmental protection expenditureswere lower than planned;
� emissions caused by the transport sector arestill increasing, the consumption of energyin the sector is too high; the railway cannotentirely replace the transport of goods byroads;
� planned changes in environmental consid-erations of agricultural policy are sloweddown by the restrictions concerning gener-al government expenditures.
A stable environmental protection policy hasto be enforced in all the fields where it can con-tribute to a successful restoration of the degradedenvironment, also in the framework of the globaland local issues, not just the national ones whichhitherto took primacy. The level of sustainabilityof the economy whose growth is based on thedegradation of the environment is defined by itscapability to rehabilitate the degraded environ-mental capital. The potential economic growthis directly raised by successful environmentalprotection and lesser burdening of the environ-ment. The conflict between the environmentaland economic development should thus besolved.
One of the central environmental protectionissues is the environmental policy. Since the ob-jective of economic development is becomingincreasingly less quantitative (as growth), changewill also have to be made in the environmentalprotection policy, which has hitherto been fo-cused on the regulation of conditions for the useof the environment and its admissible degrada-tion. From the point of view of sustainable devel-opment, that does not suffice. The use of all re-newable resources which contribute to the gen-eral welfare has to be maximised. It seems that inSlovenia sustainable development is more of achallenge for environmental policy than for theeconomy. In order to confirm that, the contribu-tions of the environmental, social and economiccapital to the sustainable development of the state(the Slovenian developmental pattern) have tobe compared.
In Slovenia the development policy is facedwith the problem of bridging the economic gapwith other countries while maintaining the qual-ity of the social and environmental capital at thesame level.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Table 50: Selectedindicators of economicdynamic (Source ofdata and calculations:SURS, APP, MF, BS,estimates and projec-tions UMAR).
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimate
GDP, % real growth 4.1 3.5 4.6 3.8 5.2 4.6
Growth of foreign demands 1.1 3.6 11.6 6.7 1.7 12.7
(export of goods & services)
Domestic demand, real 2.7 4.8 6.0 9.1 6.6 3.2
GDP per capita, purchasing 12,500 13,200 14,100 14,800 15,481(1) 16,162(1)
power parties, in USD
Note: (1) Linear extrapolation 1995-2000.
156 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimate
Foreign debt, in million USD 2,970 3,981 4,123 4,915 5,400 6,217
External balance (balance -0.5 0.2 0.1 -0.8 -3.9 -3.3
of exports and imports of goods
and services, in GDP in %)
Internal balance (difference 0.0 0.3 -1.2 -0.8 -0.6 -1.4
between public financial revenues
and expenditure, in GDP in %)
Inflation, average per year 12.6 9.7 9.1 7.9 6.1 8.9
Registered unemployment rate in % 13.9 13.9 14.4 14.5 13.6 12.2
Table 51: Selectedindicators of economicstability. (Source ofdata and calculations:SURS, APP, MF, BS,estimates and projec-tions UMAR).
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimate
Custom Duties, in % of GDP 3.5 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.3 0.9
Subsidies, proportion in GDP 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 1.9
Transfers to provide social security 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.4
for unemployed persons, in % of GDP
Gross fixed capital formation, real growth 16.8 8.9 11.6 11.3 19.1 0.2
Net investments, in % of GDP 5.7 5.4 6.1 7.7 11.1 10.3
Investment in economic infrastructure, 19.4 23.1 22.1 21.8 21.0 20.7
proportion in gross fixed capital formation
Physical to Value added growth ration -0.3 0.7 6.4 0.7 3.1 1.5
in manufacturing (Quality improvement
ratio), change in % according to previous year(1)
Labour productivity, growth 3.1 4.5 5.1 3.8 4.0 3.5
Cost Competitiveness of exports of goods, 10.9 -5.1 0.3 2.1 -1.4 -1.4
change according to previous year(2)
Openness of the economy - Foreign 113 112 116 115 109 122
trade coefficient (3)
NOTE:(1) The quotient between the growth of the value added index and the physical growth of the production.(2) The positive value shows higher profits made by companies in the export of goods while other factors remain unchanged because of the lower domestic costs -
enterprise costs (wages, work productivity) and national costs (exchange rate, customs tariffs, taxes). The negative value shows the pressure of the domestic economicpolicy to increase the efficiency of the goods exporters.
(3) Import and export of goods and services in % of the GDP.
Table 52: Selectedindicators of economictransformation andefficiency. (Source ofdata and calculations:SURS, APP, MF, BS,estimates and projec-tions UMAR).
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimate
Earnings per persons in paid employment(1), 5.1 2.4 1.6 3.3 1.6
Transfers for social welfare(2), real growth 2.0 7.4 2.5 6.0 6.7
Government revenues except contributions 8.2 5.6 7.1 8.1 1.5
for social welfare, real growth
Profits to enterprises(3), % of GDP 2.8 5.0 6.0 6.6 6.6
Profit repatriation (4), % of GDP -0.7 -0.2 -0.2 0.2 0.4
NOTE:(1) Gross wage per employee.(2) Paid to household transfer for ensuring social welfare.(3) Net operating surplus.(4) As an outflow of profits of foreign enterprises operating in Slovenia; estimated from balance of payments’ net primary income from abroad.
Table 53: Distributionof fruits of economicgrowth: selectedindicators. (Source ofdata and calculations:SURS, APP, MF, BS,estimates and projec-tions UMAR). (theSpring Report, 2001;the Report on Macro-economic Trends,2001)
157
Table 54: Productionstructure GDP (Sourceof data and calcula-tions: SURS, APP, MF,BS, and projectionsUMAR).
Table 55: GDP growth,real, calculated forprevious year. (Sourceof data and calcula-tions: SURS, APP, MF,BS, estimates andprojections UMAR).
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimation
Total GDP 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Priority sectors of economy- 38.9 38.4 38.8 38.9 37.5 37.6environment integrationAgriculture, forestry, hunting 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.1 2.9Fishery 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Mining 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9Manufacturing 24.6 24.1 24.3 24.1 23.6 24.0Electricity, gas & water supply 2.6 2.5 2.5 3.0 2.7 2.8Transport, storage, communications 6.7 6.6 7.0 7.2 7.1 7.0Other sectors 47.9 48.8 49.3 48.9 49.6 50.7Construction 4.3 4.8 4.9 4.9 5.4 5.3Wholesale, retail; certain repair 10.5 10.1 10.1 10.0 10.0 10.0Hotels & restaurants 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.8Financial intermediation 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.9Real estate, renting and business services 10.1 10.3 10.0 10.3 10.4 10.5Public administration & defence 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.0Education 4.9 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.9 5.1Health & social work 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.8Other community, social and 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3personal services
Rest(1) 13.2 12.8 11.9 12.2 12.8 11.7Note:
(1) Taxes on products, services; subsidies; FISIM
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 estimation
GDP growth 4.1 3.5 4.6 3.8 5.2 4.6
Priority sectors of economy- 2.9 1.7 4.9 4.2 2.3 6.5
environment integration
Agriculture, forestry, hunting 1.6 1.0 -2.9 3.1 -2.1 -1.0
Fishery -6.1 9.6 1.7 -4.4 3.1 -3.5
Mining 0.9 1.9 3.1 0.1 1.0 -1.4
Manufacturing 2.5 1.6 6.6 4.6 3.1 8.6
Electricity, gas & water supply 0.2 1.2 4.2 0.9 -0.8 2.9
Transport, storage, communications 5.9 2.6 4.2 5.2 3.2 4.7
Other sectors 4.5 5.3 4.1 3.2 6.2 4.0
Construction 9.2 13.2 7.7 4.6 15.8 2.8
Wholesale, retail; certain repair 6.7 3.0 2.8 2.8 6.3 2.5
Hotels & restaurants 3.5 4.4 3.6 0.9 3.1 9.8
Financial intermediation 3.5 11.0 0.1 4.5 3.3 5.9
Real estate, renting and business services 3.1 4.1 2.5 2.4 4.7 3.0
Public administration & defence 3.1 5.3 10.3 5.0 5.4 5.7
Education 2.8 1.1 4.9 3.1 3.4 3.7
Health & social work 2.1 6.4 3.1 1.7 6.4 4.2
Other community, social and 2.1 4.9 4.1 5.8 5.6 4.5
personal services
Rest(1) 6.9 2.6 5.2 4.6 10.1 1.9NoteNoteNoteNoteNote:
(1) Taxes on products, services; subsidies; FISIM
158 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENTPATTERN
In the last decade the already established con-cepts of measuring the development, and theirmutual comparison, which are mainly based onthe economic criteria, have been criticised sincethey do not take into consideration the relevantsocial and environmental consequences. Withthe adoption of the SEDS06 Slovenia’s directionof sustainable development is now clearly de-fined. Therefore, all three developmental com-ponents should be considered.
A successful and original experiment in thisfield was the Index of balanced development bySeljak (IBD), in which the level and dynamics ofsustainable development in Slovenia and othercountries in 1990 and 1995 were evaluated.
Developmental patterns of countries differsubstantially. This also applies to Europe eventhough it is the most harmoniously developedregion of that size and economic power in theworld, with the exception of its eastern and south-eastern parts. Considerable differences in thedevelopment patterns, and the similar develop-ment directions of the current and the future EUmember states, reflect the differences in theirpaths to development they have taken. In this way,the creation of the development identity of thecurrent and future EU member states is hinted atwith regard to the establishment of a specific
development pattern. Further on, the differencesin the development patterns of the EU memberstates, the East- and Central-European countriesand Slovenia are identified (see Graph 27 and28).
The EU development pattern expressed by amulti-level analysis of the standardised scale12 -154 indicators presenting the economic, socialand environmental development of memberstates (Seljak, 2000) - shows high social and eco-nomic development (0.588 and 0.578) and ratherlow environmental development (0.539). Withregard to the considered period, the economicgrowth was higher in the countries of Central andEastern Europe - the Vishegrad group - than in theEU. With regard to sustainability, the Central andEastern European countries stagnated in the firsthalf of the nineties (1.1 % development growth inthe said period or 0.2 % per year) but the gap be-tween the economic and environmental devel-opment (0.373 : 0.511) was reduced because theeconomic growth (10.3 %) was faster than theincrease in the degradation of the environment(2.0 %). In the EU, the difference between theeconomic and environmental development in-creased.
From the point of view of sustainability, theperiod has been beneficial to Slovenia. The eco-nomic, and hence environmental, componentsof welfare have improved. The speculation thatthe restructuring of the economy in the startingperiod of transition helped improve the environ-ment was confirmed, but unfortunately the so-cial issues have become more pronounced. Theanalyses of the first transitional period in Slovenia(1990 -1995) show a strong and positive trend ofeconomic progress, slight positive changes withregard to the environment, and a negative trendin the social field.
Of all the countries involved, Slovenia is prob-ably in the best position to enforce sustainabledevelopment, because it is lagging behind the EUcountries in the field which is easiest for it tocontrol - the economy.
After 1995, the positive trend of economicprogress continued and the conditions started toimprove in the social sector. However, the stateof the environment began to worsen as a resultof the growth of the economy and the rather de-fensive environmental protection policy of thattime.
The fundamental requirement of the transi-tion to sustainability is to try to avoid future mis-takes, that is decisions which base their economicpotential on the underestimated environmentaland/or social capital. With regard to sustainable
Graph 27: The Seljakindex of balanceddevelopment (Source:Seljak, 2000).
Note: The closer to 1,the higher is the level ofsustainable develop-ment; deviations aredue to the roundingup of the values11.Arithmetic mean of theincluded countries. Bythe GDP pc, closest toSlovenia are thefollowing EU-3member states: 1Spain,Greece, Portugal.2 Italy, Austria,Hungary, Croatia.3 Poland, CzechRepublic, SlovakRepublic, Hungary.
Graph 28: The Seljakindex of sustainabledevelopment inSlovenia (Source:Seljak, 2000).
11 The author called the indicator as the ‘Index of balanced development’ and a study has been prepared under that title. For the purposes of termino-logical uniformity the term sustainable development is used.
12 The highest and the lowest values of any country in the period 1990-1995 are taken into account (except the inflation, for which the highest valuein 1995 was used).
159
development, Slovenia is faced with a rathersimple task in comparison to the EU countriesand the Central and East European countries. Itis essential that at the beginning of a new devel-opment cycle Slovenia harmonises its allocationsignals (prices of power, road transport costs,spatial development, etc.). That is necessary notonly to increase the dynamics of the develop-ment but also to preserve the developmentalidentity of Slovenia.
The main feature of sustainability, by whichthe traditional developmental economy is up-graded, is the exchange of potential welfare forthe current development and the developmentof the generations to come. The Genuine SavingsIndex (GSI) method is based on the time trans-
ferral of savings; negative as a result of destruc-tion of resources or positive as a result of theirincrease.
The GSI is defined as the difference betweenthe annual growth and the loss of GDP due to(un)sustainable use of welfare resources: pro-duced resources (savings and expenditures oneducation) and non-produced resources (degra-dation of the environment resulting from the ex-traction of mineral and energy raw materials, treefelling and CO
2 emissions). The result - an an-
nual increase in the welfare for future genera-tions - is expressed as the share of genuine sav-ings in the GDP which is the difference betweenthe consumption (negative savings) and the re-newal of welfare resources (in % of GDP). The
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Slovenia EU-15 EU-3 Neighbouring Vishegradcountries group
= Genuine Savings Index 23.1 22.1 10.7 18.4 24.2+ Gross domestic savings 16.9 12.5 8.0 8.4 11.1- Fixed capital consumption 6.2 9.5 5.0 10.0 13.1+ Net domestic savings 7.1 4.7 4.9 3.5 4.8+ Education expenditures 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2- Exploitation of energy raw materials 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0- Exploitation of mineral raw materials 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0- Felling of trees 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.3- CO
2 emissions 12.9 14.0 9.6 12.6 17.4
Table 56: GenuineSavings Index, 1997(Source: Radej et al.,2000).
Table 57: Identifica-tion of four develop-ment patterns withregard to the enforce-ment of sustainability,illustrative example(Source: Prepared bythe Institute ofMacroeconomicAnalysis and Develop-ment (UMAR) -Economic Mirror, No.9/2000, p. 8).
SATISFACTION WITH THE CURRENT DEVELOPMENT
(with regard to the average EU-15 achievement
The current generation asksThe current generation asksThe current generation asksThe current generation asksThe current generation asks The future generations askThe future generations askThe future generations askThe future generations askThe future generations ask
HAS THE CURRENT LEVEL OFHAS THE CURRENT LEVEL OFHAS THE CURRENT LEVEL OFHAS THE CURRENT LEVEL OFHAS THE CURRENT LEVEL OF HAS THE LEVEL OF WELFHAS THE LEVEL OF WELFHAS THE LEVEL OF WELFHAS THE LEVEL OF WELFHAS THE LEVEL OF WELFARE INCREASED ENOUGH?ARE INCREASED ENOUGH?ARE INCREASED ENOUGH?ARE INCREASED ENOUGH?ARE INCREASED ENOUGH?
WELFWELFWELFWELFWELFARE DEARE DEARE DEARE DEARE DECREASED?CREASED?CREASED?CREASED?CREASED? HAS THE SHARE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CAPITALHAS THE SHARE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CAPITALHAS THE SHARE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CAPITALHAS THE SHARE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CAPITALHAS THE SHARE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CAPITALDECREASED IN THE TOTAL CAPITAL PORTFOLIO?DECREASED IN THE TOTAL CAPITAL PORTFOLIO?DECREASED IN THE TOTAL CAPITAL PORTFOLIO?DECREASED IN THE TOTAL CAPITAL PORTFOLIO?DECREASED IN THE TOTAL CAPITAL PORTFOLIO?
Ireland Relatively well satisfied
Finland They would inherit an above average welfare; particularly
Austria Relatively satisfied its environmental potential would be preserved
The current level of welfare is increasing Relatively dissatisfied
Hungary The level of total welfare would increase substantially but
Czech Rep. he price would be high - the additional degradation of
the environment would limit the developmental choices
of the future generations with regard to environmental welfare
Relatively satisfied
They would reproach the current generation with the lowSlovenia utilisation of the produced capital but would praise
Germany the enrichment of their developmental choices arising
Relatively dissatisfied from the undegraded environmental capital which they
The level of current welfare increases would have inherited
too slowly Mostly dissatisfied
Poland The level of total welfare would not increase enough and theUSA price for it would be high - the developmental choices would
be rather limited with regard to the current situation becauseof the high additional degradation of the environment
160 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
costs of consumption of welfare resources aremeasured as a total of the amortisation of a fixedcapital and the additional degradation of the en-vironment. The increase in the welfare resourcesfor future generations is measured by annualexpenditures on education and the reduction inthe degradation of the environment (in % GDP).
According to the GSI, Slovenia’s current eco-nomic growth does not threaten the welfare offuture generations, as the renewal (appreciation)of welfare resources exceeds their consumption(in 1997 the difference was 12.9 % of GDP). Nev-ertheless, that is no reason for satisfaction. Thecomparison with other countries shows thatSlovenia’s GSI is among the lowest of all. Its posi-tion slightly improves if we focus on the GSI de-duction items. According to them, Slovenia (withenvironmental degradation equal to 0.4 % of GDPdue to high CO
2 emissions) ranks in the middle
of the listed countries, together with Portugal andIreland, and that is only slightly under the EU-15average.
Table 57 shows how future generations wouldbe satisfied with the current economic choiceswere the current development patterns to stayunchanged for a long time and were the EU-15’s development pattern considered assustainably indifferent. Since this region is theworld promoter of sustainability the simplifica-tion seems acceptable.
In Slovenia the issues of the environment anddevelopment are not similar to those elsewhere,as the future generations seem to be advisingcurrent generations to increase the exploitationof the economic capital and thus inevitably de-grade the environment. In this way the currentgenerations would benefit and the future genera-tions would probably not be deprived. Domesticrecords, which show that the extent of tree fell-ing is too low, that consumption of water is mod-erate and that biodiversity and space are not ex-ploited, even support this hypothesis.
Trends in the priority sectors ofintegration of the economy and
the environment
Energy sector
Among the economic sectors, energy is oneof those which burden the environment most.Despite that, the development of the sector cancontribute to the sustainable development of theeconomy, especially if it manages to substitutethe non-renewable resources in production andconsumption. In order to reduce the energy-re-lated burdening of the environment, the share ofthe renewable resources in the consumption hasto increase and so does the energy efficiency(EC(95)682f).
The Resolution on the Strategy for Energy Useand Supply directly addresses the environmen-tal aspects of the energy sector management. TheResolution is based on certain principles of sus-tainable development and takes into account thesustainable use of biodiversity componentswhich function as an energy resource. The pri-mary strategic direction is to increase the energyefficiency of all sectors which consume energy.Beside the measures for efficient energy use, pri-ority must be given to the renewable resourcesand to utilisation of the thermal energy in theenvironment and of waste heat. In general, thestrategic directions for energy consumption andsupply contribute to the biodiversity conserva-tion. On the other hand, energy production cancontradict the biodiversity conservation mea-sures. The Convention on Biological Diversitystipulates that sustainable use is a use which con-serves biodiversity. However, beside the sustain-able use of biodiversity components, the appro-priate management of abiotic resources repre-senting habitats of many endangered biodiversitycomponents (for example aquatic animals andplants) is important. Still, the strategy is not de-fined in this sense; these issues should be in-cluded in the provisions concerning the activi-ties affecting the environment (construction ofelectric power facilities) where the environmen-tal and spatial requirements are considered. Thestrategic decisions direct and motivate develop-ment. On the other hand, respect for nature con-servation requirements is only a mechanismwhich mitigates the development trends, not in-fluences them. That is why the development ofcertain forms of energy production affectsbiodiversity and reduces it.
Primary energy resourcesThe composition of primary energy inputs
shows which energy resources are utilised in acountry to satisfy its final consumers. The pri-mary energy resources are: coal, lignite, crude oil,natural gas, geothermal energy, hydro energy,wind energy, sun energy, biomass (wood andwood residues, waste, biogas). Heat may be con-sidered a primary input in the case of geother-mal resources and heat produced in nuclearplants, or generated as hot water and steam in co-generation plants.
The composition of these resources reflects the(selective) changes in relative prices of energyresources, the restructuring of supply marketscaused by a low share of domestic coal and thechanges in the consumption structure, e.g. growthin the transport sector (se graph 29, 30, 31).
Primary energy production
The production of primary energy showswhich energy resources are available in a certain
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country. In Slovenia, energy self-sufficiency is 48%, energy dependency 52 %. In the EU, the en-ergy self-sufficiency is 54 % and energy depen-dency 46 %. It is expected that in Slovenia, andeven more in the EU, the energy dependency willincrease.
In the structure of energy production, the shareof solid fuel (coal) is expected to drop, becauseby 2008 the explotation of brown coal in Trbovljecoal mine will have gradually stopped. The shareof hydro energy is expected to increase with theconstruction of a number of hydroelectric powerplants on the river Sava. The share of “new re-sources” (wind, sun, geothermal energy) is verylow.
The potential for the utilisation of biomassand new resources is quite promising. It couldbe realised within the local energy supply sys-tems which might be included in the regionaldevelopment programmes. With regard to therich wood supply, local energy sectors in numer-ous municipalities could be organised in a sus-tainable manner.
Consumption of primary energy resour-ces
Consumption of primary energy resourcesshows which primary energy resources generatethe consumed energy. The losses caused by thedistribution and transformation of energy areincluded. From the environmental point of view,the structure of consumption in the EU countriesis better than in Slovenia. The reasons are thehigher consumption of natural gas and the lowershare of coal. On the basis of the National EnergyProgramme, the share of solid fuels is expectedto decrease (to 17.0 % according to the loweconomic growth scenario and to 18.2 % accord-ing to the high economic growth scenario) andthe share of gaseous resources should increase(to 19.8 % and 22.7 % respectively). TheConventional Wisdom scenario of the EU(CWEU) provides for an even faster restructur-ing of the primary energy consumption than inSlovenia. Consequentially, in 20-years timeSlovenia will be using a third more solid fuelsand substantially less gaseous fuels (approxi-mately a third) than the EU, even if it realises theplanned scenarios.
With regard to the environmental effects, theconsumption of primary energy resources shouldbe reduced by improved efficiency in the trans-formation of energy (co-generation) and itsutilisation and by regulated demand.
Final energy consumptionFinal energy consumption is the use of energy
which is intended for end consumers. In 1987,the end consumption was 168 PJ (168 x 1015 joule);it dropped to 150 PJ in 1992, and then substan-
tially increased. In 1997 it was 193 PJ, but in 1998it dropped slightly to 182 PJ (see Table 4). In thelast 15 years, the structure of final consumptionchanged significantly. The share of solid fuelsdropped from 24 % to merely 8 %, but the shareof consumed liquid fuels increased from 35 % toover 50 %. The share of other energy resources inthe final consumption did not change substan-tially. The share of gaseous fuels amounted toaround 15 %, electricity 20 %, and the district heat-ing somewhere below 5 %. In the last 15 years theshare of final energy consumption in industrydropped from 50 % to less than 30 %, but in trans-port it increased from 20 % to over 30 %.
According to the SEDS06’s low economicgrowth scenario (Strmšnik et al., 1999) it is ex-pected that the final energy consumption in theperiod from 2000 to 2020 would decrease by anannual rate of 0.1 %. If the GDP were to increase,the energy consumption would increase by 0.6 %per year. If the CWEU scenario (the National En-ergy Programme) were realised, in 2020 Slovenia’sfinal consumption structure would be similar tothat of the EU for the three most important en-ergy resources: the share of liquid fuels wouldbe a little over 40 %, gaseous fuels around 23 %and electricity approximately 21 %. The differ-ences would be notable in the share of solid fu-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Graph 29: Thestructure of primaryenergy production -1997.
Graph 30: Theconsumption ofprimary energyresources in Slovenia,the EU and the OECD.
162 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
els and district heating: in the EU the consump-tion would be twice as low as in Slovenia and theshare of new resources (wind, sun, geothermalenergy) would be substantially higher, it wouldsurpass Slovenia’s by more than 7 %.
Renewable energy resources
Renewable resources are those which cannotbe totally consumed because they are inexhaust-ible in the long-term. According to the Eurostat,these include solar energy, geothermal heat, bio-mass and waste (wood and wood residues,biogas, biofuels), wind energy and hydro power.In certain classifications of the renewable re-sources, which emphasise the environmentalaspects, the hydroelectric power energy is ex-cluded due to its impact on groundwater and theconstruction of large reservoirs.
In the last 15 years, the energy generated byrenewable resources amounted to between 21 PJand 24 PJ per year, and was approximately 23 PJin 1998. When comparing the renewable re-sources to the production of primary energy sothat primary energy definition is adapted to theEurostat methodology - which classifies nuclear
energy as primary energy (in a country whichuses the fuel, regardless of its origin or place ofenrichment) - it is established that the share ofthe produced renewable resources in the gener-ated primary energy is between 16 % and 19 %(18.1 % in 1998). These figures can be comparedto the EU data. In Slovenia, wood and wood resi-dues represent more than a half of all renewableresources (55.4 % in 1998) and hydroelectricpower around 45 % (42.4 % in 1998). The share ofother resources is negligible. In primary produc-tion, the share of used renewable resources wasbetween 8 % and 10 % in the last 15 years (8.7 % in1998). The share of hydroelectric power in thetotal amount of electricity was between 25 % and29 % (25.5 % in 1998).
In the EU the production of energy from re-newable resources has been increasing at a higherrate than the production of energy from otherresources in the last decade. There the share ofrenewable resources in the needed primary en-ergy has been increasing. In 1997 it was 5.8 % (inSlovenia 8.7 % in 1998). Of the total electricitygenerated in the EU in 1997, the share of electric-ity generated by the renewable resources was14.6 % (in Slovenia 25.5 % in 1998).
The EU Commission proposed that by 2010 atleast a 5 % share of renewable resources in thestructure of primary energy resources should beattained. The proposal was rejected (Decision 98/352/EC and COM(97)599) but the activities whichare focused on the increase of the share of suchresources are being carried out within the spe-cific EU environmental protection programmes.
A proposal for a (non-mandatory) directiveon renewable resources has been drawn up. Ac-cording to that proposal, the share of renewableresources in the needed primary energy shouldincrease from the current 6 % to 12 %, particularlythrough the increase of the share of electricitygenerated by the renewable resources (hydro-electric energy is most important) in the total pro-duction of electricity from the current 14 % to22 %.
Energy intensityEnergy is considered the essential source for
the economic growth, but at the same time thesupply of energy is one of the major reasons forthe degradation of the environment: it debilitatesthe environment (through the exploitation ofenergy resources) and burdens it (through emi-ssions). The connection between the consum-ption and the GDP growth (energy intensity) isbeing interrupted by the structural changes in theeconomy which have to be economically and en-vironmentally justified.
In the period from 1990 to 1997, the averageannual growth of energy intensity was 1.5 % with
Graph 31: Structureof final energyconsumption - 1997(Source: Povšnar inRadej et al., 2000)
Graph 32: Proportionof renewable1 energyresources in 2000(Source: Povšnar inRadej et al, 2000).
Note: 1Hydroenergy isconsidered a renewablesource, nuclear fuel isSlovenia’s primaryresource (according toEurostat).
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regard to the consumption of primary energy; thefinal consumption of energy increased by 2.5 %and the GDP only by 0.7 %. The result was lowerenergy intensity in the said period. For 1,000 con-stant EUR GDP, 492 kilograms of oil equivalentsof primary energy (toe; 466 more in 1990) and321 final energy equivalents (285 more in 1990)were used.
In 1997, at least twice as much energy per GDPunit was used in Slovenia as in the EU. It is ex-pected that the increase in the GDP will result inlower energy intensity: in Slovenia, the reductionis predicted to be faster than in the EU, neverthe-less, Slovenia will reach the same level only inthe next 20 years.
In comparison to the consumption in the EU,the detailed analyses of the energy consumptionof big consumers in the processing industryshow that energy efficiency (utilisation of energyper unit of product) of domestic companies isnot such so much weaker as to offer an explana-tion for the lagging behind in energy intensity.The problem can be explained structurally, withthe high share of energy-consuming sectors inthe national economy.
Energy-consuming industries pose a true dan-ger to sustainable development in Slovenia. For-eign investors are interested in the energy-con-suming technologies (non-ferrous metals, ironindustry, paper industry) because the prices andtaxes are seemingly low, in particular with regardto the environmental bases. In individual cases itwill not be possible to reverse the trend unlessthat is provided for in the national and local bud-gets. Support to certain activities could be givenif funds intended for the protection of the envi-ronment were concentrated in the energy sector,i.e. the finances under the Fund for the decom-missioning of the Krško Nuclear Power Plantwould be used for improving the efficiency ofenergy transformation and its utilisation, and forincreasing the share of renewable resources.
One of the most challenging issues of the en-vironmental and economic integration of Slo-venia into the EU is - in addition to the successfulregulation of the road and rail transport - the tran-sition to a lower energy intensity of the Slovenian
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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
economy by reducing the number of high energy-consuming industries.
Graph 33: Propor-tion of renewableenergy resources inproduction andconsumption (Source:Povšnar in Radej et al.,2000).
Figure 153 (left).
Watermills andsawmills have beenabandoned, yet theproduced energy hasbeen used sustainably.
Figure 154 (right).
Klavže on the BačaRiver, a once attractivegorge which, nowbeing used for electricpower production, haslost much of itsnatural beauty andconservation values.
Graph 34Graph 34Graph 34Graph 34Graph 34: Energyintensity, 1997;(Source: Povšnar inRadej et al, 2000).
164 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
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Impacts of the energy sector on biodi-versity
Impacts on the environment originate in everystage of the energy system: production, transfer,transformation, distribution and final consump-tion. To a certain extent, the increased consumptionof energy will be covered by the construction of anumber of hydroelectric plants on the lower Savariver where the areas of high biodiversity arelocated. The increased utilisation of renewableresources (small hydroelectric power plants,biomass, geothermal energy, thermal utilisationof waste, wind power plants) is expected.Biodiversity is primarily affected by use of:
� fossil fuels:� global warming modifies ecological con-
ditions on the planet in the long term; acidrain has adverse effects in particular onflora and fauna at the local and regionallevels; the consequences of climaticchange on biodiversity have not beensufficiently studied;
� the construction and maintenance of oiland gas pipelines cause the destructionof habitats; the storage of oil and gas de-rivatives is a large consumer of space, andthe result is the loss of habitats;
� oil spills during the transport of fossil fu-els threaten groundwater, surface watersand coastal areas as well as all speciesliving in these ecosystems;
� the functions and appearance of the land-scape are all influenced by mining (coal),generation of electricity, the distributionand transport infrastructure, waste land-fills;
� nuclear energy: beside the risk of radioac-tive contamination and radiation dangerousto humans and the environment, the follo-wing have an extremely harmful impact onbiodiversity:
� thermal pollution of watercourses by thedischarge of high temperature water usedas cooling water;
� negative visual impact of nuclear plants,including the infrastructure for safe stor-age of medium- and low-level radioactivewaste, on ecosystems and the landscape;
� hydroelectric power plants:
� flooding of large areas for the purpose ofreservoirs results in extensive loss of hab-itats, plant and animal species and theirmigration routes; the hydrological cycleis significantly affected and so is theamount and quality of water, the amountand structure of sediment and its trans-portation; they all cause changes in thestructure of the entire ecosystem;
� dams of hydroelectric power plants alterthe hydrological cycle, the quality andamount of available water, and cause themicroclimatic conditions to change; theagricultural and forest land is lost; the riskof landslides increases, and so do theerosion and sedimentation processes;dams stand out in the landscape; thechanges in the physical and chemicalcharacteristics of water cause the degra-dation of the ecosystem and changes inthe entire ichtyofauna and vertebratecommunities;
� small hydroelectric power plants withaccess routes, electricity lines and powerlines cause the fragmentation of habitatsand change the time and quantity distri-bution of flow, which destroys the structureof ecosystems, ecotones and landscape;
� other renewable energy resources, such aswind and solar farms with their infrastruc-ture have a great impact on the environment;they result in the loss of habitats and plantspecies, and present a disturbance to thelandscape.
Transport
Transport is the fastest growing source of en-vironmental pollution. In all countries accedingto the EU, the railway infrastructure is better thanthe road network. The existing transport infra-structure, in particular the railways, should beused in the transit of goods which is expected toincrease substantially. Accordingly, the eco-nomic incentives should be introduced.
In the 1990s, the mobility and transport inSlovenia increased. This is an indication thatspace, from an economic and environmentalpoint of view, is among the most important de-velopmental potentials of the State. In order toenforce the sustainable development pattern, theState will have to adopt a transport policy whichwill reduce the external transport costs. Simulta-neously, the impacts of transport policy on thenational savings will improve, since business in-
Figure 155. Hydro-electric power plant onthe Sava river. Largehydro-power construc-tions considerablychange the area’shydrological cycle,micro-climate andfunctioning of theecosystems andlandscapes.
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vestments will stabilise (conclusion of the na-tional highway construction programme) and theabsorption of private savings for the purchase ofnew cars will slow down (conclusion of thephase of mass purchase of private cars). In thissense, the National transport policy is thus theleast integrated policy.
In the field of transport, the importance oftransfer (transport of goods) from roads to rail-ways and the support to public passenger trans-port instead of private transport have again beenemphasised (also in the SEDS95). This objectiveis also stated in the National Programme ofSlovenian Railway Infrastructure Development.In the state budget some funds have been allo-cated to public passenger transport and to thehighway construction programme (the nationalprogramme for the construction of highways inthe Republic of Slovenia). However, there hasbeen a postponement of fund to be allocated to,e.g. the railway sector and to most other infra-structure activities.
The means of transport
The share of the international transport in theterritory of Slovenia is very high. In the total trans-port of goods (road and railway; 1995) the inter-national transport amounts to 77 % (railway trans-port 92 %) and domestic to 23 %. In the EU, theshare of road transport in total transport of goods
is higher than in Slovenia (83 % in 1995 in com-parison to 63 % in Slovenia). Only in Austria isthat share lower (52 %). The passenger road trans-port takes up 81 % of all public transport; in EU57 % of all passenger transport is done by busand coach operators.
In the Strategy of Economic Development ofSlovenia (1995) a few guidelines have been indi-cated for the formulation of the transport policywhich are still of current interest. Full supportshould be given to public passenger transportand not to private car transport. Gradually, theroad transport should be transferred to railway(that issue is also of interest in the EU, except inAustria). Roads and railways should be moder-nised and the railway service should be mademore attractive. Transit transport should be trans-ferred from roads to railways, and all environ-mental external costs of road transport shouldbe included in its price.
Impacts of transport on biodiversity
Beside the environmental burdening (pollu-tion and global climate change), transport affectsbiological and landscape diversity by being agreat area consumer. The result is the fragmenta-tion of habitats and their disappearance and thedegradation of landscape. A high quality and wellmaintained transport infrastructure, including thetechnological advances in the production oftransport means (lower fuel consumption, re-duced emissions), reduces the impact of trans-port on the environment. If the trends in the trans-port sector remain unchanged, the reduction ofbiodiversity will be caused in particular by:
� road and railway transport infrastructure
� direct reduction, degradation, fragmenta-tion and destruction of habitats and inter-ruptions to the migration routes of vari-ous animal species;
� exploitation of mineral raw materials forthe construction of roads and the relevantinfrastructure contribute to the degrada-tion of habitats and landscape;
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
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Slovenia EU-15 EU-31 Neighbouring Vishegradcountries2 group3
Road transport of goods (RTG) pc, 2.5 3.0 2.0 2.2 2.2
in 1,000 tonnes/km, 1997
International share in total RTG, in %; 199755 19.0 23.3 23.0 43.5
Road share in total transport of goods, in %62 83.0 93.3 70.0 53.5
Road share in total passenger transport, in % 81 57.0 74.0 62.7 66.8
Air passenger transport pc, in passenger km 308.0 1,247.0 790.0 527.0 125.3
NOTE: 1 The following EU-3 Member States are the closest to Slovenia according to the GDP pc: Spain, Greece, Portugal.
2 Italy, Austria, Hungary, Croatia.
3 Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Hungary.
Table 58: Transportstructure by means,1995 (Source: Povšnarin Radej et al., 2000).
Figure 156. Road andrailway corridor atPostojna. TheSlovenian priority isconstruction of themain motorways,therefore improvementsof the railway systemcome only second.
166 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� potential accidents during the transportof dangerous substances, when an extre-mely sensitive karst aquifer could be pol-luted and thus subterranean fauna affect-ed;
� shipping: pollution of the sea and coastalhabitats (spillage in the case of an accident,intentional and accidental discharges of oil,ballast water and waste from ships, trans-port of dangerous substances); constructionof ports causes the destruction of coastalhabitats, the species and coastal landscape;
� air transport: the construction of airports al-ters the hydrological regime and causes thefragmentation of habitats and their destruc-tion; the species are disturbed and the land-scape is degraded.
Agriculture
The share of agriculture in the general eco-nomic production of the EU is relatively small:2.3 % of the GDP and 5.3 % of employees (EEA,1995). Agriculture provides food and raw materi-als to people, and at the same time it affects theland use and the quality of the environment. Inthe EU associated countries, agricultural produc-tion has dropped significantly during the transi-tion, in particular in livestock breeding. Countrieshave lost their traditional markets, and consum-ers have started to buy cheaper basic products.In most of the countries, the number of cattleand sheep has fallen by approximately 50 %, andthe drop in poultry and pig production has beenabout 30-35 %. In comparison to 1989, only onethird of crops was produced. In conjunction withthe reduced production, the level of pollution fell(Graph 35 and Table 59).
In order to reduce the costs, agriculture is be-ing industrialised in Slovenia. This is evidentfrom the intensity of production, creation ofeconomies of scale, mechanisation and chemi-sation. The process is seen from the changed ex-tent of production (total area of cultivated land;average size of a farm) and in the intensity ofproduction (average consumption of pesticidesor fertilizes, irrigation per ha of arable land). Ag-riculture is the biggest water consumer in Medi-terranean Europe, and the consumption of wateris still on the increase. For agricultural consum-ers the water prices are often subsidised. Theadapted tax systems for the calculation of watersupply are provided for large consumers (exemp-tions, price reductions, price per ha of irrigatedland and not per consumption, etc.).
According to the national irrigation plan(which has never been implemented) the area ofirrigated land should increase substantially inSlovenia. The non-irrigated part of arable land
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Figure 157. Mouth ofthe Rižana River,changed by thedevelopments of thePort of Koper, asuccessful enterprise,yet for all activities ituses considerably largeareas.
Slovenia, 1998 EU-15 EU-31 Neighbouring Vishegradcountries2 group3
Quantity of sold pesticides 3.11 - - - -
per ha of arable land
Application of active pesticide - 2.17 2.98 0.90 1.58
substance per ha of arable land
NOTE: 1 The following EU-3 member states are the closest to Slovenia according to the GDP pc: Spain, Greece, Portugal.
2 Italy, Austria, Hungary, Croatia.
3 Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Hungary.
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Table 59: Applicationof pesticides, 1995(Source: Kovač inRadej et al., 2000).
Figure 158. Charcoal-burning in the Benavalley. There are stillsome places inSlovenia wherecharcoal has beencharred in the tradi-tional way.
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would thus become less economically interest-ing, resulting in the marginalisation of areas withbad production conditions. With the increasedintensity of production and yield the total areaof agricultural land could decrease. Both wouldhave negative effects on the environment. Themarginalisation of agricultural areas has a greaterimpact in Slovenia as a small country, than inlarger countries and the intensification of pro-duction will reduce its biodiversity. Although thecultural landscape will be maintained, the tradi-tional small business and other activities in therural area will be affected, and small farmers willbe ruined. With the intensification of agriculturalproduction the measures for controlling its nega-tive effects should be introduced.
Application of pesticidesIn comparison to 1994 the consumption of
pesticides per ha increased by 20 % in 1998: agrocompanies applied 6 times the amount of pesti-cides per ha than family farms. It is estimatedthat such a trend continued in 1999, since the re-form of agriculture did not begin that year, asplanned, due to the lack of budget funds.
The introduction of Common AgriculturePolicy measures should be evident in the in-crease of the arable land, the reduction of landwhere production is intensive and the increasein the share of organic production. The processesin the accession countries could be quite differ-ent: at first the production is intensified to raiseits competitiveness, but later on more environ-mentally friendly changes in the structure of ag-riculture could prevail, stimulated by the CAP.
With the adoption of Agenda 2000, the envi-ronmental objectives of agriculture became ex-tremely significant. One of the ways of deintensi-fying agricultural production is to reduce thequantities of the applied plant health productsand mineral fertilizes. Those farmers who under-take to manage their farms in an environmentallyfriendly manner are eligible for compensationbecause their production costs are higher thannormal. The introduction and implementation ofand control over the environmental measures inagriculture are mandatory in the EU.
Application of fertilizes per ha of arableland
In 1995, the consumption of NPK fertilizes perunit of arable land was 6 % higher in Sloveniathan in the EU-15 countries on average. Certaindata show that in recent years the surplus haseven increased. The differences among the EUMember States are significant, but the consump-tion is falling.
On family farms less than a third of the quan-tity of mineral fertilizes are consumed than in
the agro companies (1998). The reasons are therelatively high prices of mineral fertilizes andpesticides which increase the production costs.
It is estimated that the consumption of min-eral fertilizes per unit of arable land will decreaseafter 2000, when the financial incentives for sus-tainable agricultural production are enforced.The financial incentives for intensive agricultureare significantly higher than incentives for sus-tainable agriculture, consequently many smallfarmers will join agro-companies whose policyis to apply as many fertilizes as possible.
Irrigated land as percentage of arableland
In comparison to other countries, the shareof irrigated land in arable land is very small inSlovenia, approximately 0.5 %. Slovenia is rich inwaters but, on the other hand, it does not exploitits possibilities as far as irrigation of agriculturalland is concerned. In 1995, the Governmentadopted a strategy for the irrigation of agricul-tural land. In this strategy, the potential irrigationland was defined. It was established that waterfor approximately 50 % of this land could be pro-vided (around 60,000 ha) which is some 12 % ofall arable land in Slovenia (in EU 4.6 % on aver-age). All the considered land is affected by longsummer droughts which affect the quality andquantity of the current agricultural production.The relevant plan for the acquisition of a loan forthe purpose has been drawn up but the irrigationscheme has not been concluded.
Agriculture and biodiversity
Rural areas cover a large part of Europe. Thebasic activity in these areas is agriculture, andthus large quantities of nutrients and chemicalsare introduced into the environment, where agri-cultural systems, biodiversity and cultural land-scape are closely linked.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Graph 35: Applicationof NPK fertilizes (kg/ha) - 1995 (Source:Kovač in Radej et al.,2000).
168 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
STATUS OF AGRICULTURE (according todata from agri-environmental programmes)
The development of Slovenia’s agricultureafter the Second World War is reflected in itsstructure, production and market rules. Two di-verse types of agricultural production developed:the state-run production on big farms and privateproduction on small farms. The unfavourable sizestructure of agricultural land is reflected in thelow productivity and production intensity whichdecrease the competitiveness of Slovenia’s agri-culture in comparison to that of European andworld agriculture. Most Slovenian farms do notoffer full employment to an entire family livingon that farm. A rather large share of Slovenia’spopulation lives on farms (around one fourth ofthe total population), but only 12 % work in agri-culture. Approximately 50 % of all farms receivesincome from non-agricultural activities. InSlovenia, 96,669 family farms and 132 agro-com-panies were registered in 2000. More than 90 %of agricultural land is private, agro-companiesmanage less than 6 % of agricultural land. Theaverage size of a family farm with regard to the
size of the actually exploited agricultural land is4.8 ha, the average size for agro-companies is220.7 ha.
In Slovenia, the natural conditions for agri-cultural production are rather unfavourable.Around 75 % of agricultural land is located inareas with less favourable conditions for agricul-tural production, and approximately two thirdsof rural population live there (hill and mountainfarms). Only one fourth of agricultural land islocated in the lowland areas of Slovenia. In theland use structure, a large proportion is taken upby grasslands and only a minor share by fields.The natural attributes are suitable for permanentcrops and production of various fruits and highquality wine, but on the other hand they contrib-ute to the lower production capacity of agricul-ture, a limited range of cultures, and thus also tothe poor adaptability of Slovenian agriculture tocostlier production. A special problem is the natu-ral encroachment of vegetation on agriculturalland. In the last decades, natural encroachmentof vegetation on agricultural land has coveredaround 140,000 ha and the trend is continuing. In1991 the availability of arable land was 1,000 m2
per capita, and in 1999 it dropped to 860 m2.
LIVESTOCK BREEDINGLivestock breeding is the most important sec-
tor of Slovenia’s agriculture. In the structure offinal production it represents more than twothirds of the value. The major share is taken upby cattle breeding, followed by poultry and pigproduction. Livestock breeding is oriented to-wards breeding, which takes into considerationthe ethological and environmental aspects.
To a large extent livestock breeding is con-ditioned by natural attributes, the grasslands. Milkand meat are the most important products ofSlovenia’s livestock breeding. This is reflected inthe breed structure of cattle. Breeding of lightspotted (56-85 %) and brown cattle (around 30 %)prevails. The share of black and white breeds israther low (12-14 %), as well as the share of purebeef breeds and cross-breeds. To a certain extentfarmers also breed indigenous cattle breeds suchas: cika cattle, Istrian cattle and Slovenian browncattle.
After the Second World War, the poultry pro-duction developed fastest. In the poultry pro-duction structure, chicken for fattening (around60 %) and egg laying hens (around 27 %) prevail.With regard to the breeds, the share of theSlovenian indigenous breed Styrian hen is verylow and the imported hybrids take the largestshare.
In Slovenia, pigs are produced on large in-dustrial farms and traditional farms. Extensivebreeding is most wide-spread. However, on big
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 159.
Surroundings of Bičinin the Dolenjskaregion; for maintain-ing species diversity itis important to keepsmall forests in anagricultural environ-ment.
Graph 36: Structureof agricultural landuse in 2000 (Source:SKOP 2001-2006).
169
farms the production is oriented towards thebreeding of modern pork breeds. The breed struc-ture of pigs is extremely heterogeneous: Swedenlandrasse, Deutsche landrasse and various cross-breeds prevail; the number of other breeds suchas Large Yorkshire, Duroc and Pietrain is lower.Within the programme of the gene bank the onlyindigenous pig breed conserved is: the Krško-polje(blackbelted) pig.
Small ruminants almost disappeared afterthe Second World War, but the number of sheephas been increasing steadily in the last decade.Small ruminants are mainly bred on family farms.In 2000 the share of goats was 24 % and sheep 76 %.The sheep population is mostly indigenous:Jezersko-Solčava, Bovec, Istrian pramenka andBela Krajina pramenka sheep. In goat breeding,the Alpine and domestic goat prevail while theshare of the indigenous breed, Drežnica goat, isvery low.
In horse breeding the indigenous Sloveniancold-blooded horse and the Lipizzaner horse pre-vail. These two breeds are the symbols ofSlovenian horse breeding. In the sub-Alpine areathe Haflinger horse is being bred for recreationalpurposes and work. To a smaller extent theSlovenian trotter and the Posavje horse are alsobeing bred.
There is a long tradition of bee keeping inSlovenia but the number of professional beekeepers is low. The annual production of honeyvaries between 12 and 20 kg per bee hive. Besidehoney, many bee keepers produce pollen, royaljelly and propolis. Queen rearing has been re-vived since bee queens have become a valuableexport good. The trade in bees and queens of theindigenous Carniolan honeybee (Apis melliferaCarnica) was developed alredy in the 19th cen-tury.
PLANT PRODUCTION
In the total structure of agricultural land theshare of cropland is very small in Slovenia. Themost important areas for intensive arable farm-ing are located in the eastern part of Slovenia andin the river lowlands in the central part of thecountry.
Statistical data for 2000 show that 1,893 hawere intended for market oriented vegetableproduction. Of that, 1,765 ha were intended forthe production of vegetables, herbs, strawberriesand grown mushrooms, and 127 ha for the pro-duction of flowers and decoration plants. Theshare of traditional production was 85 %. Theshare of integrated (13 %) and organic farming (2%) was much lower.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Figure 160. Grazingin the Pivka Valley.Compatible sheepgrazing is useful formanagement of thegrasslands.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
For most crops the average production inten-sity is rather low. The same holds true for veg-etables. The production intensity is high onlywhen the production of crops (sugarbeet, hops)and vegetables (cabbage, lettuce, cucumbers) ismarket orientated. The production intensity hasbeen increasing in the last years, but for mostcrops and vegetables the production per ha isstill lower than in the EU countries.
In Slovenia grasslands cover nearly twothirds of exploited agricultural land, that is314,434 ha (93 % of meadows and 7 % of pas-tures). The total area covered by grasslands havebeen reducing in the last decade because suchland is quickly afforested.
Orchards cover 13,457 ha of agriculturalland (family farms orchards - 61 %, intensive pro-duction orchards - 39 %). The natural attributesare favourable for the production of variousfruits. The most important species is apple. The
Graph 38: Share ofvegetables in agricul-ture (Source: SKOP2001-2006).
Graph 37: Proportionof crops in agriculture(Source: SKOP 2001-2006).
170 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
production of pears, peaches, sour cherries andberries is important. In recent years the growingof olive trees has increased substantially. In ex-tensive meadow orchards with standard trees thetraditional old varieties prevail (‘bobovec’ (Kozjakapple), ‘carjevič’ (little tsar), Jonathan apple,parmena); in intensive orchards the followingvarieties grow: Idared, Jonagold, Golden Deli-cious, Gloucester. ‘Meadow orchards’ express theidentity of Slovenia’s rural areas and are a richsource of biodiversity in agriculture but unfortu-nately in the last few years they have been ne-glected. Consumers have been forced to buy newapple varieties. The production in extensive or-chards had no longer been economic and mar-ket oriented and consequently the trees hadgrown old, the orchards had not been managedand the trees not pruned. Fortunately, these or-chards are being revived since the market is againinterested in traditional varieties.
Wine-growing and wine production aretraditional and popular activities. They are com-plementary activities to 41 % of family farms, and
vineyards cover approximately 14,500 ha. Uncul-tivated vineyards are often overgrown. InSlovenia the wine-growing areas are divided intothree wine-growing regions: Primorje with aMediterranean climate; Posavje with a moderatecontinental climate and Podravje with a conti-nental climate. The wine-growing locations areamong the best in the world. At the same timethey are very demanding because two thirds ofvineyards are located in areas where the slopesexceed 20 %, and one third in areas where theslopes exceed 45 %. In good years, the share ofhigh-quality wine is 10 %, of quality wine 40 %and of table wine 50 %. The main problems inwine-growing are the disadvantageous age struc-ture of vineyards and the obsolete technologywhich is not being modernised. In addition thenatural conditions are not perfect. All these cir-cumstances are reflected in the low productionof wine per hectare. In the future more attentionshould be focused on domestic varieties and thepreparation of propagating material.
IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE ON BIOLOGI-CAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY
Farmers play an essential role in the conser-vation of biological and landscape diversity.Many areas, important from the point of view ofbiodiversity, are joined with the agricultural land(areas of extensive production and areas regu-lated by the EU Habitats and Bird Directives).
In Slovenia, the problems concerning agricul-ture and the environment are in particular relatedto:
� the abandonment of agricultural land andits consequential colonisation by scrub andtrees; the result is the deterioration of rurallandscape, further economic, cultural andsocial marginalisation of the affected areasand the reduction of biodiversity;
� intensive farming in lowland areas (increaseof arable areas, removal of vegetation cov-er, intensive arable farming):
� the potential threat is the pollution ofdrinking water and soil, followed by thelong term degradation and pollution ofnatural resources and the reduction in thediversity of animal and plant species;
� the disappearance of hedges, forests andsmall watercourses which reduces thediversity of habitats and landscape;
� the degradation of soil, if the activity isnot suitable for the given conditions, anderosion if the removal of vegetation cov-er and the cultivation of land are unsuit-able;
� fertilisation leads to the loss of habitatspoor in nutrients, it contaminates flora
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: B
ran
ka H
lad
)
Figure 161. Arableland is scarce on theKarst. Farmers havemade fields in thedolines, thereforecalled ‘created-dolines’;today most of them areabandoned and left toswift overgrowing.
Figure 162. TheJezernica stream is atypical canalised waterflow causing impover-ishment of itsbiodiversity anddiminished function-ing of the area.
171
and fauna with microbes and chemicals,heavy metals enter the food chain andwater is polluted (eutrophication, oxygenshortage, growth of algae and aquaticplants, reduced populations of fish andother aquatic fauna);
� pesticides poison wild animals otherthan those intended; degrade habitats andcause the disappearance of food sourcesfor higher animals; they increase the re-sistance of target species; they poisongroundwater which maintains the natu-ral balance in the aquatic and riparianecosystems; they reduce the drinkingwater supply;
� the canalisation of rivers and streamsmodifies the hydrological cycle and bur-dens the natural aquatic and riparian eco-systems (flora and fauna) by destroyingthe natural balance and by potential re-duction of biological and landscape di-versity; draining affects aquatic and ripa-rian ecosystems, wetlands are destroyed,the botanical structures of grasslands,reed beds and other habitats are changedas well as the structure of soil and soilecosystems, the need for irrigation increa-ses in areas where the water table is lowe-red;
� irrigation could lead to soil salinizationand acidification which reduce the spe-cies’ diversity; it depletes aquifers and wa-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Figure 163. Fritillariameleagris, an endan-gered species inSlovenia. Due to landreclamation foragriculture and urbanareas its localities haveconsiderably declined.(P
ho
to: M
atja
ž B
edja
nič
)
tercourses during dry periods and thatalters the ecological conditions in thewatercourse and near it;
� among other consequences the loss ofarchitectural heritage; some buildingsstructures function as habitats for certainanimal species (bats; old barns as nestingplaces for some birds - barn owl, commonkestrel).
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 164. Fields onthe terraces at Globodolin the Dolenjska region.
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
In some regions the landscape and biologicaldiversity are threatened by the intensification ofagricultural production (lowlands) and in othersby the abandonment of arable land in areas withless favourable conditions where intensive culti-vation is not possible (hills and mountains). Inlowlands most of wet meadows had been drainedfor intensive production of corn, wheat andsugarbeet. Because of the excessive applicationof mineral fertilizes and phytopharmaceuticalsthe fields, orchards and meadows becameinhospitable for many plants and animals.
Sustainable agriculture contributes to the con-servation of the environment and to ecologicalbalance. At the same time it influences the settle-ment patterns and the appearance of the culturallandscape. Agricultural activities play various
Figure 165. Plantingpotatoes in Bohinj.Maintaining the qualityof seeds is crucial forconserving the cultivar.
172 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
roles in Slovenia’s rural areas. That lists it amongthe countries with the highest number of differ-ent plant and animal species’ habitats in Europe.The conservation of natural resources is rela-tively high, the rural landscape is diverse and pre-served, the traditional farming has been main-tained and with it the cycle of substances.
Even though the technological improvementshave reduced the costs and prices of agriculturalproducts, the consumers tend to buy food whichwas produced in a traditional way. The increas-ing demand for organic farming products is aclear sign of new understanding of the quality offood.
Forestry
In comparison to other countries and othernatural resources forests are the most abundantnatural resource in Slovenia. Although most ofthe forests in Slovenia are privately owned (71%)- and it is expected that this share will be evengreater in the future due to the unfinished pro-cess of land restitution - the state of the forests isnot endangered if the valid legislation persists.
Forest management in Slovenia is based onbalancing of all forest functions (ecological, so-cial and economic) in the long-term perspectiveboth in private and public forests. Sustainableforest management is founded on forest manage-ment plans, which are adopted in close coopera-tion with stakeholders and are derived from theForest Development Programme of Slovenia.Biodiversity is given special attention in theprogramme as well as in forest managementplans.
Extraction of wood from the forests
In the period 1991-2000 the amount of fellingplanned in regional forest management plansattained 3 million cubic metres annually. How-ever, this figure was not reached mainly due to
the rather weak interest of forest owners withsmaller property, for whom the income from theforest would be very low and felling difficult toorganise. The gap between the planned and actu-ally harvested amount of wood was the biggestfor pulp and firewood, where the costs on aver-age were higher than the market price. Recently,the interest in felling firewood is rising becausethe fossil fuels are getting more expensive andwood is becoming an increasingly competitivesubstance for heating.
The low harvesting intensity in the period1991-2000 has not only resulted in positive envi-ronmental consequences, in the sense of attain-ing the goals of the UN Framework Conventionon Climate Change (a great proportion of carbonemission was sequestrated in wood), but has alsohad negative impacts. Much less thinning wascarried out than planned. This not only lessenedthe possibility of improving the quality of foreststands but has also reduced the chance of en-hancing biodiversity of the forests through ac-tive support to indigenous species that aresparsely distributed in the forests.
In the period 1991-2000 felling attained only40% of growth. Growing stock has therefore risenconsiderably, but is not yet optimal. Such trendsin the last decade enable the planning of a higherallowable cut. The Slovenian Forest Service hasthus in the draft regional forest managementplans, valid until 2010, proposed allowable cuton an average of 4 million cubic metres annu-ally, which is 25% more than in the past decade.
Graph 39: Total woodharvesting intensity;fellings as % of annualincrement; 1990(Source: Kovac inRadej et al, 2000).
Note: 1The followingEU-3 member states arethe closest to Sloveniaaccording to the GDPpc: Spain, Greece,Portugal. 2Italy,Austria, Hungary,Croatia. 3Poland, CzechRepublic, SlovakRepublic, Hungary.
Figure 166. Traces ofresin collecting on anold pine tree at Kamenon Karst are the onlyevidence of an activitythat has died out. (P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
173
The forestry experts do not expect such a level ofcutting to have negative impacts on the forestdiversity, particularly if special measures forbiodiversity conservation, which are part of thedraft plans, are implemented.
Forest management
Close-to-nature forest management, as prac-tised in Slovenia and some other European coun-tries, is one of the few activities in which the na-ture conservation and economic exploitation arejoined. It emerged from the recognition that for-ests are essential for living, where the protectionof homes and fertile land, especially in Alpineregion and in vulnerable karst areas, plays parti-cularly important role.
On the territory of nowadays Slovenia, theforesters began to plan the amount of felling anddevelopment of forests more than 200 years agoin order to safeguard the forest and ensure sus-tained yield from the forest. Since the 1960s, for-estry has become a modern science and eco-nomic activity based on the latest biology andforest ecology discoveries and experience in themanagement of natural processes.
Forests, important renewable natural resourceand landscape feature, are managed as naturalecosystems according to the principles ofsustainability and multipurposeness. The basicobjective of forestry is to ensure the sustainabilityof forests and their ecological, social and pro-duction functions in a manner similar to the natu-ral processes. To a great extent such forest man-agement conserves their natural biodiversity.
Forest management and silviculture measurestake into account the site and tree characteristicsof forests - their vitality, health and contributionto the overall stability as well as the capability tofulfil their functions. Tending is the most impor-tant measure for shaping forest stands in accor-dance with the goals set. The silviculture systemis chosen as a consequence of concrete circum-stances and does not depend on certain schemesthat would disregard the actual conditions. Thesilvicultural approach is site specific and is as arule based on small-scale interventions. In mostcases silviculture, which is aimed at productionof high-quality wood, also encompasses thefulfilment of ecological and social forest func-tions. Where these functions are exceptionallyimportant, the production of wood is limited.Such circumstances call for careful and planneddecision-making, in agreement with the forestowner and the local community. All these fac-tors are regulated by the Forests Act.
In the period 1998-2000, the Slovenian ForestService (Regulation on the forest managementand silviculture plans) evaluated the forest areaaccording to all 16 functions stipulated by the
Forests Act (four ecological, nine social and threeproduction functions).
The result of the evaluation is given in table60 for ecological functions. From the point ofview of biodiversity conservation, it is of vitalimportance that of the total 1,134,227 ha of for-ests, 46,805 ha have already been designated asprotective forests because of the role they playin the protection of forest land and stands, 10,923ha of forests however have been designated asforest reserves. In protective forests, human ac-tivities are only permitted exceptionally (tostrengthen their protective function).Forest re-serves are deliberately left to natural processesand no human interventions are permitted. A newproposal for the designation of ‘protective forests’and forest reserves has been drawn up by theSlovenian Forest Service. According to this pro-posal, ‘protective forests’ should encompass84,128 ha and forest reserves 13,505 ha. The pro-posal has been included in the forestry expertgrounds of the Spatial plan for the period until2020. Most of the planned nature parks in Sloveniacover forest areas, and the share of forests with aprotection status will thus increase.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Importance of the function Key Important
Function % %
Protection of forest land and stands 13.1 22.1
Biotope function 4.9 13.0
Hydrologic function 2.4 42.1
Climatic function 1.9 3.8
Table 60: Forestsurface area withemphasised ecologicalfunctions (status in2000).
(Ph
oto
: An
dre
j Hu
do
klin
)
Figure 167. AlthoughGlis glis has beentraditionally hunted inSlovenia, research hasnever been conductedon how hunting affectsdormouse populations.
One of the objectives of forest managementis to select small forest areas (up to a few tens ofares) located at ecologically outstanding sites(wetlands, steep rock walls) with a large share ofold and decaying trees, not normally present in amanaged forest, and to leave them unmanagedin order to create eco-cells.
Habitat protection
The Rules on the protection of forests laydown in detail that dead trees are to be left undis-
174 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
turbed. They also stipulate other measures whichcontribute to the conservation of biodiversity inforests. These measures include restrictions con-cerning: picking of mushrooms, plants and ani-mals in the forest; construction of forest roadsnear important habitats (lairs - dens, nests, mat-ing sites) of rare and endangered forest animalsand plants; carrying out of seasonal forest man-agement activities in the vicinity of these habi-tats.
The designation of ‘undisturbed zones’ cov-ering a few hundred hectares of forests is one ofthe measures by which favourable living condi-tions for forest animals and thus for forestbiodiversity conservation are ensured. Becauseof their location and ecological characteristicsthe “undisturbed zones” are essential for forestanimals. In order to preserve an environment asundisturbed as possible for animals, forest visi-tors are kept outside these zones.
Foreign businessmen might be stimulated to pur-chase products with a high input of productionfactors whose economic yield is higher than theeconomic costs if part of these costs were “paid”by the environment. The State owned natural re-sources and natural resources whose extractionis controlled by the State are mainly faced withsuch a situation.
It is important that the economy, whose envi-ronmental protection policy is to avoid costs aris-ing from the degradation of the environment,should not specialise in production whose com-petitiveness is the result of the utilisation of theunderestimated natural resources.
From a macro-economic and developmentalpoint of view, foreign markets are extremely im-portant, and because of this the share of naturalraw materials in the export of goods as well asthe harmonised fluctuation of their competitiveadvantages should be monitored.
Share of added value of ‘dirty’ industriesin the export
The major processing industry polluters arethe producers of iron and steel, industrial chemi-cals, non-ferrous metals, minerals, paper and pulpand other chemicals. These six sectors producemore than 80 % of all estimated harmful emis-sions (integral emissions) into the environment.In the period from 1995 to 1999, the total produc-tion in these sectors increased faster (averageannual rate of 2.0 %) than in the entire process-ing industry (average annual rate of 1,6 %).
In 1995 these particularly problematic activi-ties included 921 companies with 41,600 employ-ees and they made one fifth of the added valueof the processing industry. The priority with re-gard to the environmental protection is to focuson the production of chemicals and artificial fi-bres and the production of other non-metallicmineral raw materials.
The export orientation of this ‘dirty’ produc-tion exceeds that of the processing industry onaverage. In 1995 the processing industry exported50.7 % of its production. In total 60 % of the esti-mated integrated emissions from the processingindustry can be related to export.
Slovenia’s export of ‘dirty’ products is focusedon 4 main product groups whose share is morethan 50 %: paper and cardboard, aluminium,metal products and cut paper and cardboard. Inthe last few years the share of the following prod-
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Processing industry = 100
Intensity of the export of goods with regard 16.7 16.3 16.6 15.6 15.3
to the natural resources, in % of export
Share of added value of dirty industries, in % of added value 20.3 - - - -
Figure 168. Ravne naKoroškem, the main airpolluters are domesticheating systems andtraffic, as well as locallyindustry.
Table 61: Environ-mental aspects of theexport of the process-ing industry (Source:Zakotnik in Radej etal., 2000).
Processing industry
With regard to the transition to sustainabledevelopment, the content of natural resources inproducts should be adapted to their long-termrelative rareness. A country with limited rawmaterials and energy resources should notspecialise in the manufacturing of products witha large content of raw materials but in the manu-facturing of products in which the produced in-put is high (knowledge, work, capital, technol-ogy). Such an economic orientation is particu-larly relevant for the export-oriented industry.
175
ucts increased: metal products (from 11.4 % to14.1 %), aluminium (from 14.0 % to 17.6 %), flatand rolled steel alloy products (from 2.5 % to 6.6%). The preliminary estimates show that the con-ditions have been improving since the late 1990s.
The competitiveness studies (Gmeiner, inRadej et al., 2000) show that Slovenia should en-courage technological progress in the followingindustries:
� rubber industry;
� production of machinery and equipmentwith the application of the following tech-nologies: surface materials technology, high-efficiency metals, joining techniques;
� car industry;
� production of electric and optic equipmentin the field of telecommunication signalprocessing, thin film techniques, optoelec-tronics, laser techniques. These subsectorscover nearly two thirds of the production ofthe processing industry (2000). In the peri-od from 2001 to 2006 their growth is expect-ed to be faster by 0.2 % than the growth inthe processing industry on average.
Impact of industry sector on biodi-versity
The impacts of industry on the reduction ofbiodiversity are as follows:
� due to the low prices of land, industrial andsmall business facilities are often built inwetlands and other areas important for thenature conservation;
� waste landfills, the pollution of air, soil andwater, including thermal pollution, and theabstraction of water all affect the quality ofaquatic and riparian ecosystems and thenatural balance in them;
� surface exploitation of natural resourcesphysically affects ecosystems and their bal-ance.
Mining
In Slovenia, the geological conditions aresuch that energy and metal and non-metallic min-eral raw materials are available to a certain ex-tent.
The energy mineral raw materials includecoal, uranium, oil and natural gas and geother-mal energy resources. Slovenia’s coal-bearingregions are: Velenje basin, Zasavje tertiary basin,Krško-Brežice plain and North-East Slovenia. Ura-nium deposits are located in the Žirovski vrh areaand in the vicinity of Škofja Loka. There are sev-eral areas in Slovenia where oil and natural gasmight be found (Mura region, Coastal area, the
Alps and Dinaric Mountains and some tertiarybasins). Geothermal energy could be exploitedon approximately 16 % of the territory. Prospec-tive areas are: the Pannonian basin, Rogaška-Celje-Šoštanj area, Krško-Brežice depression, Planina-Laško-Zagorje area and Ljubljana basin.
There are around 200 deposits of the metalmineral raw materials; not all of them are ex-ploited, in some cases the deposits are minimal.Economically important could be the depositsof mercury, lead and zinc, copper, antimony, ironand bauxite.
The non-ferrous mineral raw materialsof higher market value (industrial minerals andaggregates) which could be exported are notabundant in Slovenia. The mineral raw materialsof lower value (raw materials for the construc-tion industry) prevail. Slovenia exploits them tocover its own needs, or else enriches them andthey are processed into semi-products and finalproducts. In Slovenia the following mineral rawmaterials are exploited: chart, quartz sand, cal-cite, lacustrine chalk, bentonite, tuff (pozzolana),ceramic and brick clay, raw materials for the limeand cement industry (limestone, marl), naturalstone, technical building stone (limestone, dolo-mite, keratophyre, meta-diabase), as well as graveland sand. Domestic mineral raw materials areused in the construction, glass, ceramic andchemical industry, metallurgy and metal indus-try, for remediation operations in the environ-ment and waters, in agriculture, the food process-ing industry, etc.
Mining is a traditional activity in Slovenia. Inthe past, the exploitation of mercury was impor-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 169. The leadmine at Mežica.Nowadays used fortouristic purposes, itattracts domestic andforeign visitors. Partsof the mine with somerare minerals wulfen-ite, calcite, galena andsphalerite are protectedas natural monuments.
176 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
tant at the global level but nowadays the techno-logically accomplished underground exploita-tion of lignite plays an important role.
In the last decades the underground mines ofenergy materials and metallic mineral raw mate-rials have been closed down, only surface min-ing of non-metallic mineral raw materials andunderground coal mines remain. Of all coalmines only the Velenje mine and the Trbovlje-Hrastnik mine still operate. The Žirovski vrh ura-nium mine is the only mine which has beenopened since the Second World War. It is cur-rently being closed down (the operation startedin 1991). The Idrija mercury mine was closed in1991, and in Mezica the last tonnes of lead andzinc were produced in 1994.
Trends in the development of miningThe need for mineral raw materials is increas-
ing in Slovenia. Companies mostly import rawmaterials, only a few of them exploit the domes-tic deposits (brick, cement, lime production).With the programme for construction of the high-way network, the need for raw materials used inconstruction has drastically increased. It isplanned that in the near future only new and ex-tended existing surface mining sites of non-me-tallic mineral raw materials will be exploited.Through the legislation, the mining sector triesto incorporate in its activities the measures forreducing the adverse effects on the environmentand people, in particular on the local population.Illegal exploitation of mineral raw materials re-mains the key problem which causes imbalancein the provision of mineral raw materials andpresents an unfair competition to legal exploita-tion. At the same time, illegal excavation burdensthe environment and degrades habitats.
Mining and biodiversity
In most cases, the effects of mining on biodi-versity can be controlled. The exploitation sites
are rather limited and the processes of exploita-tion, enrichment and processing of raw materi-als do not have permanent adverse effects on theenvironment. The exploitation of mineral rawmaterials degrades ecosystems, and the rehabili-tation of the mining areas, such as surface min-ing sites (quarries, gravel pits, sand pits), is es-sential for the biodiversity conservation becausethese secondary habitats are populated by en-dangered plant or animal species. They are par-ticularly significant in areas where similar natu-ral habitats have disappeared (sandy cliffs, wa-ter covered areas, etc.). The cooperation betweenthe mining and nature conservation sectors guar-antees the biodiversity conservation on and nearthe exploitation sites and provides for biodiver-sity conservation within the framework of therestoration of disused mines, quarries and pits.An example of good biodiversity conservationpractice is the sand pit near Bizeljsko, where thehabitat of the European bee-eater (Merops apia-ster) is preserved. The information on that habi-tat has also been made available to the public.
Tourism
Tourism is the world’s fastest growing indus-try. The World Tourist Organisation (WTO) esti-mates that in 1999 tourism generated US$ 455 bil-lion, and the expected income in 2020 is US$ 2,000billion. A similar trend is evident in the numberof tourists. In 1999 there were 664 million peopletravelling, and in 2020 the number is expected toreach 1.5 billion.
Tourism and recreation bring income andjobs, increased understanding of other cultures,preservation of natural and cultural heritage andat the same time investment in infrastructure. Onthe other hand, some forms of tourism, and somerecreational activities, can cause destruction ofhabitats and degradation of landscapes and com-petition for natural resources (land, freshwater)and services (energy, transport). More than otherhuman activities tourism depends on the qualityof the natural and cultural environment for theircontinued success. However, as particular areasbecome attractive destinations for tourism andrecreation, unmanaged environmental impactsmay undermine future earnings. This is particu-larly crucial in Central and Eastern Europe, wherethe temptation might be to develop unsustain-able tourism as a fast boost to economic recov-ery.
In Slovenia tourism employs 50,000 peopleand generates SIT 350 billion (or 9 % of GDP).According to the World Tourist Organisation esti-mates, by 2020 the tourism will have grown by 6 %in Slovenia and by only 2 % in the rest of Europe.The rate of growth is expected to be higher onlyin Russia and Croatia.(P
ho
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eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 170. A watermill on the Mura river.
177
According to the accommodation capacityand the number of overnight stays there are onlythree important tourist regions in Slovenia: theCoastal area with Portorož and Izola, the Alpinearea with Kranjska Gora and Bled, and the healthresorts in the North-East Slovenia (Čatež,Moravske Toplice and Podčetrtek with the high-est number of visitors).
The Resolution on strategic goals for the devel-opment of tourism in the Republic of Slovenia andits programme of activities and implementationmeasures, stipulates that the basic tourist prod-ucts are the environment and the attractivenessof the environment. In Slovenia there are numer-ous outstanding natural and cultural features.The development of tourism in Slovenia isfounded in particular on:
� the preserved wildlife;
� the outstanding natural attractions;
� the exploitation of small-range natural at-tractions which offer opportunities for theestablishment of nature trails for organisedvisits suitable for school children and small-er groups.
It has been emphasised in the Resolution thattourist products should be easily accessible andauthentic and that nature should be conservedand protected. In the tourist offers available toguests the following benefits should beemphasised: the outdoor activities, the explora-tion of nature and its enjoyment. The priorityobjectives of the Resolution are the measuresconcerning the protection and restoration of re-sources for further tourist development and theconservation of landscape and other culturalcharacteristics. Slovenia’s activities in tourismwill be primarily oriented towards the develop-ment of the sustainable forms of tourism whichfacilitate wise land use and environment friendlyactivities, facilities and installations. In the Reso-lution, the areas suitable for tourism are defined.In some of these areas biodiversity has been pre-served (the mountains, the Karst and Coast Re-
gion, health resort areas).The developmental con-cepts are defined for such tourist products whichexploit the potential of areas with preservedbiodiversity. In certain regions these conceptstake into account the impacts of tourism on thesustainable use of biodiversity components.
Tourism is an economic branch which suc-cessfully markets high biodiversity and pre-served nature and at the same time conservesareas of high biodiversity if the conditions, in-cluding knowledge, are right. The Resolutionstipulates that the natural and cultural heritageshould be commercialised in such a way that thenational parks and other protected areas of natu-ral and cultural heritage are included in the tour-ist offer so that they are economically used insuch a way that the environment is protected andthe profit increases. In the Resolution there areno additional provisions concerning the relationbetween the establishment of protected areas andthe relevant infrastructure on the one hand, andtourist development on the other. When discuss-ing the tourist infrastructure, the parks’ facilities,which enable visitors to experience nature andenjoy its wildlife, are not included. It is statedthat “a re-evaluation of the tourist use of the
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Figure 171. Trenta.The typical architectureis an expression of thelocal people’s responseto natural conditions.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Country IUCN Protected area No. of inhabitants No. of visitors
category (ha) (per year)
Germany I Bayerischer Wald National Park 0 1,500,000 - 2,000,000and Biosphere Reserve (13,000)
Poland I Ojcow National Park (2,000) no data 250,000
Estonia II Lahemaa National Park (65,000) no data 1,000,000
France II Vanoise National Park (40,000) 0 2,000,000
Slovak Republic II Tatra National Park (74,000) no data 4,000,000
Slovenia II Triglav National Park (85,000) 2,000 2,000,000
France V Brotonne Parc Naturel Regional (40,000) 33,000 900,000
Republic of Ireland V Glenveagh National park (10,000) 0 100,000
Great Britain V Lake District National Park (229,000) 40,000 20,000,000
Table 62: Visitors toselected Europeanprotected areas (Source:FNNPE, 1993)
178 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Triglav National Park and other protected areas,where more cost-effective utilisation of space andhigher profit are possible, could be carried out”.In addition it is emphasised that “for this purpose,the type and manner of tourist use should be laiddown at the time of the designation of a protectedarea (the number of visitors per day)”. In Euro-pean protected areas (parks), where the contri-bution to tourism and the local economy is sub-stantial, the role of the appropriate park infra-structure and whole tourist offer in the extensionof guests’ stay (average stay and prolonged touristseason) has been emphasised. In this case theprotection status of an area functions as a trademark which guarantees the experience of nature.The valuable natural features of the protectedarea and its biodiversity are preserved, becausethe visitors are restricted in their explorations bythe park infrastructure.
IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON BIODIVER-SITY
Similar to other activities in the environment,tourism increases the use and the burdening ofthe natural resources (in particular drinking wa-ter, land, pollution of water and air, noise, risks ofnatural disasters such as landslides and ava-
lanches) and the fragmentation of ecosystemsand thus the loss of biodiversity. The impacts areevident at the local, regional and global levels(emissions from road transport). The tourists ar-eas are presented according to the topics dis-cussed in the Report on the state of the environ-ment (the EEA, 1995: 489-497).
1. National parks and protected areas. InEurope, a total of 2900 nationally protectedareas cover 8.5 million km2 sites (includingsites in the former USSR and Turkey). Tour-ism in protected areas has become increas-ingly popular in recent years (table 62).
National parks and other protected areas areby their nature vulnerable to environmen-tal degradation, and require careful environ-mental management (tourism facilities,overcrowding changes in habitats, erosion,invasive species, conflicts between tourismand nature conservation as well as tradition-al agriculture etc.). Problems are greatest inareas closer to urban centres and where ar-rivals are mainly by private car. However,increased tourism and recreation may alsocontribute to improved resource manage-ment, as a result of higher incomes for bothparks and local people, and tourist interestin flora and fauna may help to safeguardbiodiversity.
In Slovenia the most visited areas areBohinjsko jezero, Pokljuka, Vršič and theTrenta Valley in the Triglav National Park.Most visitors come in July and August. Manycome because of numerous summer festi-vals (the Bohinj Nights, Kravji bal etc.).
2. Rural areas. A recent comprehensive sur-vey of EU tourists in 1986 suggested that, fortheir main holidays, 25 % of EU citizens pre-fer to visit the countryside. Western Europe-an countries are witnessing the rapid devel-opment of rural tourism. This is caused part-ly by the necessity to diversify the ruraleconomy, due to the declining role of agri-culture. The types of impacts in rural areasare similar to those in protected areas, al-though they can affect wider areas. The in-creasing popularity of golf may in particu-lar have a powerful adverse impact on na-ture. Golf developments can cause environ-mental damage where they require remov-al of earth, take farm and forest land, de-stroy the natural landscape, disrupt existinghydrological patterns, and entail the drain-ing of wetlands to create greens, fairwaysand artificial lakes, need irrigation, fertilis-ing and use of pesticides.
3. Mountains. Mountain areas are populardestinations for tourism in Europe. Most ofthe tourism and recreation in mountain ar-
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 172 (below).
The frozen Cerknicalake attracts manyvisitors. Lack ofinfrastructure,unorganised visits andbad behaviour by somevisitors affect natureand cause damage toagricultural land.
Figure 173 (bottom).
Primula auricula, isone of those plantspecies which attractvisitors, and are also amotif of naturetourism, particularlywhen found outside thealpine area.
179
eas in Europe is concentrated in the 190,000km2 of the Alps. This area receives some100 million tourists every year, of whichabout 40 % visit during the holiday seasonand the remaining 60 % weekends. Alpinetourism is developed above all in France,Switzerland, Austria and Italy. The numberof visitors to the Alps in the summer hasstayed roughly constant over the last 20years. However, winter visitors have in-creased considerably over the same period.The Alpine region is an extremely sensitivespace, and the mountains are the last remain-ing areas in Central and Eastern Europe thatare relatively untouched by human activity.They support a rich biodiversity, althoughrelatively few species can survive in theharsh environment.Of the Slovenian mountains the most popu-lar are the Julian Alps - Triglav, the area ofTriglav lakes, Komna, the area of the Krnlakes, Pokljuka and Velo polje and the moun-tains in the vicinity of Vršič mountain pass.The cumulative environmental impacts ofskiing are considerable:
� construction of ski pistes and related in-frastructure, including access roads andparking and tourist centres, have requiredforest clearance, thus leading to a higherincidence of avalanches,
� loss of habitats and disturbance of endan-gered species,
� increasing water and air pollution (usual-ly there are no purification installations),exhaust from private cars and coaches,
� increased (unsustainable) use of water(producing artificial snow by using 28million litres of water per kilometre ofpiste, artificial snow melts slowly, reduc-ing the short recuperation time for Alpinegrasses and flowers, and contributing toerosion, increased risk of runoff and ava-lanches),
� extraction of water for producing artifi-cial snow affects the watercourses par-ticularly during the winter drought, andseriously alters the ecological conditionsin and around the watercourses,
� ski pistes, cables, tourist centres and in-appropriate developments are associatedwith visual and functional degradation oflandscapes.
Tourism and recreation in mountain areasin summer are less concentrated than activ-ities associated with skiing in winter. Theimpacts are more considerable along much-used long distance footpaths and cross-country motorcycling routes, which candestroy the vegetation cover, leading to in-creased soil erosion.
4. Coastal areas. The Mediterranean basin isstill the world’s most important tourist des-tination, currently attracting some 35 % ofinternational tourists world-wide. The Med-iterranean basin’s attractive landscapes,cultural heritage, traditional lifestyle andgood climate and beaches have made it avery popular tourist destination. Between1970 and 1990, the number of tourists to theMediterranean basin tripled from 54 to 157million. Impacts of tourism in the Mediter-ranean:
� overdevelopment (unplanned growth ofhotels, pools and other tourist facilities)with little regard for visual impacts or lo-cal architecture,
� alteration of the natural shore to createbathing-areas, and construction of mari-nas and other infrastructural requisites,
� planned development directed towardsmass tourism,
� lack of sewage and effluent treatmentand disposal (only 30 % of municipalwastewater from Mediterranean coastaltowns receives treatment before being
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 174 (top).
Mountaineering hasan impact on the alpinenature, particularly insummer and along themain paths, includingall main accesses to theAljaž tower on the topof Mount Triglav.
Figure 175 (above).
Winter-sports centre onKrvavec. Skiinggrounds change thealpine landscape andalter the functioning ofthe sensitive ecosys-tems. Most problematicare areas where wateris extracted for makingartificial snow.
180 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Trends in Slovenian tourism are similar to theworld trends. “Experience centres” (aqua parks,thematic parks) are becoming fashionable. An-other trend is exclusive tourism for the rich whoarrive in personal planes (small sport airfields),they play golf and reside in luxury hotels. Theadrenaline sports (hang-gliding, sky-diving,canyoning) attract other people. For them theSoča Valley is one of the most popular destina-tions. Areas of untouched nature are an advan-tage in the development of tourism and can besuccessfully marketed. However, its natural ca-pacity has to be taken into account otherwise thearea is not only affected but it also loses its basictourist attraction.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
discharged), spillages from pleasure boatsare also a major source of pollution,
� unsustainable exploitation of natural re-sources (overabstraction of water fordrinking water, bathing, golf courses andwater theme parks),
� traffic congestion on coastal roads andconstruction of new roads causing frag-mentation of habitats and disruption tomigrating routes,
� changes in traditional lifestyles where lo-cal populations are outnumbered by tour-ists, particularly in poorer regions withoverdependence on tourist incomes.
5. Cities and heritage sites. Many of themajor tourist attractions in Europe are ofhistoric, cultural or religious interest. Muse-ums and historic buildings in cities are visit-ed by more than 750,000 visitors per year.The UNESCO World Heritage List, currentlywith over 350 sites world-wide, includes cul-tural, natural and mixed sites. Currently thereare about ten times as many cultural sites asnatural sites in Europe.
6. Thematic and leisure parks. There havebeen growing investments in theme parksthroughout Europe. These are designed tospread the tourist season throughout theyear, and increase domestic tourism. How-ever, the resource use of these parks is con-siderable.
Figure 176. MarinaIzola. The Sloveniancoast is only 46 kmlong, the developmentpressures are high,and some uses - likeconstruction of ports -entirely change thecoastline.
Figure 177. Rafting isbecoming more andmore popular inSlovenia, inflictinggreat pressure particu-larly on the Soča river.
Figure 178. Gather-ing forest fruits has along tradition inSlovenia. However, ifcommercialised ordone massively, it canthreaten the speciesand affect theirhabitats.
(Ph
oto
: Bra
nka
Hla
d)
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Although specialised studies on the impactof tourism on biodiversity have not yet been con-ducted, the field data compiled by the regionalinstitutes for the conservation of the natural andcultural heritage already show that animals arebeing disturbed and plants destroyed, especiallyin the Alpine region (cable cars, ski slopes, visi-tors) and that the Slovenian coast has beenheavily burdened (marinas, shipping, anchoring,visitors).
Sustainable use of biodiversitycomponents in other sectors
Beside the economic sectors dealt with in theabove analyses and evaluations, there are somefields that are of extreme importance for thebiodiversity conservation. Fisheries, hunting,picking of various plants and animals, trade inplant and animal species, water management andbiotechnology are activities which directly orindirectly use the components of biodiversity.
Fisheries
Freshwater fisheries
Inland waters in Slovenia are divided between11 fishing regions and 65 fishing districts. Approxi-mately 90 % of all fishing waters are managed by62 local anglers associations affiliated in an um-
181
brella organisation, the Fishing Association ofSlovenia. The remaining waters are managed bythe Fisheries Research Institute in Ljubljana. Fish-ery management is carried out on 11,823 ha ofwaters and is based on breeding, restocking andsport fishing. The sustainable breeding of indig-enous species is carried out on 849 ha of pro-tected waters. The reserves cover 176 ha or up to3.6 % of all fishing waters in Slovenia.
The Fishing Association of Slovenia has morethan 16,000 members. Its tasks are: to draw up thestrategy for the development of freshwaters fish-ery, to supervise the work of the local anglersassociations, to provide training courses for fish-ers and anglers, and to cooperate with nationalauthorities and organisations. The most impor-tant objectives are the protection and breedingof indigenous species and their introduction intoopen waters. All local anglers associations drawup and implement their own 5-year fish-breed-ing plans and the annual restocking and breed-ing plans which comply with these. In additionto scientific research, the Fisheries Research In-stitute in Ljubljana is also involved in the man-agement of indigenous fish species and the fishcadastre. It monitors the status of fishing waterson the basis of the data on restocking and catchof specific freshwater fish species provided bythe local anglers associations, and its own dataon the quality of fishing waters.
The Slovenian inland waters are not commer-cially exploited. Waters are designated as sportfishing areas or protection districts. The latterinclude the breeding streams, standing water in-tended for breeding indigenous species and re-serves for producing fish roe of the endangeredindigenous species to restock of breedingstreams.
The main objective of sustainable breeding isthe production of one-year and two-year finger-lings of indigenous species. These specimens aretranslocated to sport fishing districts for mainte-nance and supplement stocking during the peri-ods of most intensive angling. The Salmonid spe-cies are bred in breeding streams and the Cyprin-idae species in fish ponds.
Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) in the Blacksea basin, and marble trout (Salmo truttamarmoratus) in the Adriatic basin are bred in asustainable manner. In order to protect themarble trout, the stocking of brown trout in theAdriatic basin was prohibited in 1996. As a result,the number of half-breeds between the brownand marble trout decreased in the breedingstreams of the Adriatic basin. Until 1997, on aver-age 17,500 half-breeds were caught in these breed-ing streams. The number dropped to 7,000 in theperiod from 1997 to1998 (Budihna & Bertok,2000).
In Slovenia, the sustainable breeding of Cyp-rinidae species is not extensive and no appropri-
ate breeding programmes have been drawn up.Of the Cyprinidae species the following are mostfrequently bred: sneep (Chondrostoma nasus),Danube roach (Rutilnus pigus virgo), northernpike (Esox lucius), pike perch (Stizostedionlucioperca), tench (Tinca tinca), and to a lesserextent, sheat fish (Siluris glanis), while the quan-tity of bred common carp (Cyprinus carpio) isconsiderable.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Graph 40 (top): Area ofsurface waters used forfishing.
Graph 41 (above): TotalSlovenian freshwater fishcatch from 1991 to 1998(Source: Budihna andBertok, 2000).
Graph 42 (below): TotalSlovenian c c c c catch of Salmonidspecies in 1998 (Source:Budihna and Bertok, 2000)
182 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
In fish farms the intensive breeding of indig-enous species is carried out up to the fingerlingsstage. Among the most popular are marble trout(Salmo trutta marmoratus), huchen (Huchohucho) and grayling (Thymallus thymallus).Brown trout is bred for supplement stocking andfor placing on the market. The streams wheresport angling is conducted are populated withnon-indigenous species such as steelhead(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brook trout(Salvelinus fontinalis).
The sport fishing catch should be equal to thefish growth rate (fish biomass of suitable lengthto be caught). The catch of Salmonid species (47to 55 tonnes) and Cyprinidae species (214 to 259tonnes) has been quite constant in recent years.
In Slovenia, 9 Salmonid and 28 Cyprinidae andother species are caught. The sport angling is troutoriented, however the following species are themost interesting: huchen (Hucho hucho), marbletrout (Salmo marmoratus), brown trout (Salmotrutta fario), half-breeds between the marble andbrown trout, grayling (Thymallus thymallus),steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), northern pike(Esox lucius) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio).Of the Salmonid species the steelhead is mostcaught, and of the Cyprinidae species the com-mon carp.
Freshwater fishery and biodiversityOvercatch may cause a drop in the number of
specimens of a certain species or its total disap-pearance. The latter is usually related to thechanges in the habitats, the translocation of fishbetween different basins and the introduction offish from geographically distant areas. Pursuantto the relevant legislation, the introduction of non-indigenous species in Slovenian watercourses isprohibited but anglers often populate the waterswith such species in order to increase the num-ber of fish in a stream and to increase the varietyof species. In most water habitats the result hasbeen the loss of the natural balance. Such conse-quences are the result of the introduction of whiteamur (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp(Hypophthalmichthys nobilis). Fish ponds werepopulated with white amur to remove the redun-dant aquatic vegetation, and the purpose of theother two species was to reduce phytoplankton.With the introduction of carps, the breeding andfishing waters were populated with other non-indigenous species: carassius (Carassius gabelio),brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus) andpseudorasbora (Pseudorasbora parva). The con-sequences of the translocation of species be-tween various basins which can not be remediedare the disappearance of an endemic species ofthe Adriatic basin - Chondrostoma genei whichhas been replaced by Chondrostoma nasus, andthe genetic pollution of the endemic marble trout(Salmo marmoratus) as the result of the popula-tion of the Soča river watershed with the browntrout (Salmo trutta fario). The cross-breeding hasbeen so successful that the genetically puremarble trout can now only be found in a few ofthe Soča’s tributaries (Povž, 2000).
Marine fisheryIn Slovenia modern marine fishing was de-
veloped after the Second World War. In the 1950s,Izola was the biggest fishing centre in the formerYugoslavia and the catch gradually increased untilthe mid 1970s. In the 1980s the use of new fishingtechnology resulted in a sudden growth in thequantities of the caught fish, and in 1983 the big-gest catch was recorded - 8,076 tonnes. Since thenthe quantities had gradually dropped and thendrastically fell in the early 1990s, because the fish-ing areas in the Croatian sea were no longer ac-cessible to Slovene fishermen and the formermarket was lost. Since 2000 the catch hasamounted to around 2,000 tonnes per year.
The large scale fishing, which is importantfrom the economic point of view, includes pri-vate and commercial fishing. It is carried outmostly in Slovenia’s territorial waters and partlyin the international waters of the North AdriaticSea (commercial fishing).
Graph 43 : Sloveniancatch of some non-salmonid species in1998 (Source: Budihnaand Bertok, 2000).
Graph 44: TotalSlovenian marine fishcatch from 1989 to1999 (Source: Marceta,2000).
183
Private fishermen mostly posses small vessels.Therefore they mainly catch fish in the territorialsea. They use different fishing gear, such as staband tangle nets, beach seines, purse seines, potsand longlines. Since the 1980s, they have alsobeen using bottom trawls. With regard to the spe-cies the catch is diverse. Musky octopus (Eledonemoschata), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis),whiting (Merlangius merlangus), commonpandora (Pagellus erythrinus), dover sole (Soleavulgaris), flounder (Pleuronectes flesus) and otherwhite fish species are caught in smaller quanti-ties. In commercial fishing mostly seines hadbeen used until 1978. They were gradually re-placed by pelagic pair trawls and since 1991 theseines have no longer been used. Such fishingmostly focuses on pelagic species (99 %), whilethe share of demersal species (0.8 %) and cepha-lopods (0.2 %) is almost negligible. In the indus-trial catch of pelagic species the major share wastaken up by sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in thelast decade (1991-1999). It amounted to approxi-mately 90 % of the total catch of marine fish in
Slovenia in that period. In commercial fishing,sardine is a target species. Other smaller pelagicspecies such as anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus),sprat (Sprattus sprattus), horse mackerel (Trachu-rus spp.), mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and chummackerel (Scomber japonicus) are caught by pe-lagic trawl and are only a side catch.
According to the estimates (Marčeta, 2001),the share of commercial fishing in the total catchis 94 % and the share of private fishing 6 %. Theshare of sport fishing is unknown. More than 90 %of the marine fish catch, mostly small pelagicspecies, is processed. More commercially valu-able fish like john dory (Zeus faber), dover sole(Solea vulgaris), bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), gilt-head bream (Sparus auratus) and commonpandora (Pagellus erythrinus) are sold on fish-markets and in restaurants around Slovenia.
A significant subsector of the marine fishingis mariculture, the growing of various fish andshellfish. Mariculture in Slovenia started with thegrowing of the Mediterranean mussel in Strunjan-ski zaliv and Piranski zaliv in 1980. The productionof shellfish (Mytilus galloprovincialis) had beenincreasing until 1988, with the peak of 703 tonnesa year. When the export of the Mediterraneanmussel to Italy stopped, the production fell andnow it only meets the domestic demand. Theresult was the transformation of mariculture intoa fish breeding facility. In 1991 the breeding ofbass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead bream(Sparus auratus) began in the Gulf of Piran.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
Graph 45: TotalSlovenian marine catchfrom 1991 to 1999, catchof European sardine(Sardina pilchardus),and catch of other fishspecies in tones (Source:Marceta, 2000).
year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
gilthead bream 0.4 4.3 5.7 40.9 20.3 20.8 59.9 55.7 30.6(Sparus auratus)
bass 2.2 6.3 12.6 34.3 29.0 53.0 29.0 53.8 34.9(Dicentrarchus labrax)
shellfish 65.3 140.1 42.7 27.5 12.8 50.4 36.6 44.0 35.0(Mytilus galloprovincialis)
total 67.9 150.7 61.1 102.7 62.1 125.2 126.7 153.5 100.5
Table 63: Slovenianmaricultureproduction intonnes in the period1991 - 1999 (Source:Marčeta, 2000)
(Ph
oto
: Cir
il M
linar
)
Figure 179.
Hippocampusguttatus, is athreatened speciesdue to habitatalteration, as well asto selling driedanimals as touristsouvenirs.
184 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
The studies of the marine fish fauna have al-ways been closely related to the economic ex-ploitation of the sea. Therefore, they have mainlyfocused on the fishing species. The main objec-tives of these studies have been research into thepropagation, migrations and depth distributionof fish during the year and the estimates of thestock of pelagic species: sardine, sprat and an-chovy; the research into the structure and dynam-ics of the populations of commercially exploitedorganisms in the Slovenian part of the Gulf ofTrieste; and the accessibility of the benthic re-sources (Kubik and Štirn, 1975; Kubik, 1976; Štirn& Bolje, 1989; Bolje, 1992). Since 1995 the statusof the fish stock in the Slovenian part of theAdriatic Sea has been monitored (Červek &Marčeta, 1995, 1997, Marčeta & Červek 1998,Marčeta & Ramšak, 1999).
Marine fishery and biodiversityThe occasional lack of oxygen in the benthic
layer, the degradation of habitats and theovercatch are the main factors that threaten thepopulations of fish and other marine organisms.Among the most endangered Mediterranean spe-cies are the Mediterranean killfish (Aphaniusfasciatus) and two species of seahorses (Hippoc-ampus hippocampus and Hippocampus guttatus).The species are endangered because their habi-tats have been threatened and because the dried-out specimens are sold as tourist souvenirs.
While discussing the effects of marine fish-ing on species, the Slovenian part of the AdriaticSea can not be separated from its other parts.Declines in the stocks of red mullet (Mullusbarbatus) and hake (Merluccius merluccius) havebeen noted in the Adriatic Sea. Pursuant to thelegislation, the use of trawling fishing gear (pe-lagic and benthic trawls) is prohibited. In excep-tional cases the Ministry of the Agriculture, For-estry and Food issues permits for the use of suchfishing gear. The collection of shellfish withdredgers - which literally plough the sea bottom -is strictly prohibited. The sporadic deaths ofbottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and seaturtles have been noted in the Adriatic Sea. Themain reason is the tangling of animals into thefishing nets.
The Slovenian sea is divided into three pro-tected areas: the Strunjan Nature Reserve, theDebeli Rtič Natural Monument and the cape RtMadona Natural Monument. In order to meet therequirements of the European Union, the marinemeadow of neptunegrass (Posidonia oceanica)will have to be protected.
Hunting
In Slovenia, 415 local hunting associationswith 21,906 members (in the year 2000) manage
1.5 million ha of hunting grounds. The remain-ing 271,647 ha of hunting grounds are includedin 11 breeding and hunting districts which havebeen given different status: some are managedby the Slovenian Forest Service, others by the lo-cal hunting associations, and some function asindividual legal entities (including the TriglavNational Park). Large hunting grounds, whichemploy management staff, were designated asgame breeding grounds soon after their estab-lishment. Their purpose is to conserve all gamein the natural environment, both for breeding andfor hunting. In the process of the establishmentof these grounds, the size of the habitats of themain species had been taken into account in or-der to harmonise the interests of agriculture, hunt-ing, forestry and other activities (water manage-ment) in the area. One of the activities carriedout in the breeding and hunting districts is scien-tific research.
species year 1990/91 year 2000/01
brawn bear 41 45roe deer 40,295 31,080red deer 5,043 3,686chamois 1,404 1,983wild boar 3,641 5,068pheasant 37,820 39,658hare 9,388 2,135mallard 11,080 6,164
Hunting and biodiversityThe hunting statistics show that the number
of shot small game (brown hare Lepus europeus,mallard Anas platyrhynchos) decreased in the lastdecade. Brown bear (Ursus arctos) is being shoton the basis of the annual decision issued by theminister responsible for agriculture, forestry andfood. The number of specimens to be shot is de-fined with regard to the estimates of the size ofthe population. Similar decisions are being is-sued for grey wolf (Canis lupus) and Eurasian lynx(Lynx lynx). In the last ten years, 9 wolves and 38lynx were legally shot.
It is evident that hunting tourism is on the de-cline. The reason lies in the decreased numberof small game and the lack of interest in this ac-tivity. Nowadays hunting tourism is oriented to-wards the hunting of hoofed game, for which thedemand in the European market is higher thanthe supply. In the hunting season 1998/99, 5358hunting tourists visited Slovenia’s huntinggrounds. Most of them were Slovenes (1,939),followed by Austrians (1,524), Italians (1,360),Germans (391) and others (144).
In order to guarantee the availability of thetrophy specimens, in the past the hunters con-served certain endangered bird and mammal
Table 64: Comparisonof the number ofanimals shot in thehunting season of1990/91 and 2000/01(Source: Lovska zvezaSlovenije, 2000).
185
species. In the Medved Breeding and HuntingDistrict in the Kočevje region and in the JelenDistrict in the Notranjska region the vital andstable population of brown bear has been pre-served. In both districts wolf was protected inthe mid-1970s. In 1993 this species was officiallyprotected in the entire territory of Slovenia pur-suant to the Decree on the protection of endan-gered animal species. Lynx had populated theterritory of Slovenia until the mid 19th century. Itwas repopulated in 1973 in the Medved Breedingand Hunting District. The project is consideredto be one of the most successful repopulationsof lynx in Europe. In the breeding and huntingdistricts on the mountain range of Begunjščicathe population of Capra hircus ibex has beenmaintained by repopulating the area with speci-mens introduced from abroad. A new colony hasbeen established on Planjava and Brana in theKamnik Alps. In the Julian Alps the repopulationof the Triglav Breeding and Hunting District withthe Capra hircus ibex started in 1965. In addition,the breeding activities of hunters contributed to
the expansion of red deer (Cervus elaphus), cham-ois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and small game.
In the period from 1963 to 1968, around 3,000specimens of brown hare (Lepus europeus) fromthe Czech Republic and Vojvodina were releasedwithout any expertise. There were no expectedresults so the repopulation was stopped. Therepopulation of grey partridge (Perdix perdix) hasalso been unsuccessful. Since common pheasant(Phasianus colchicus) can no longer be naturallybred in Slovenia the commercial introduction isused. This means that pheasants are introducedin the area during the hunting season. However,such introduction is being opposed by many. Therepopulation of mallard has been successfulbecause the total or partial protection has beenenforced by the introduction of a shorter huntingseason, the repopulation of specimens andplanned management.
Trends
In the future the hunting organisations couldorientate themselves towards the implementa-tion of the tasks concerning the protection of wildanimals and their habitats, the training of hunt-ers, educating the young and the public, and par-ticipating in the research programmes. The eco-nomic effects of the game management shouldbe secondary to the nature conservation objec-tives. The objective of hunting activities is nolonger only care for game but also for its habi-tats. The old, deep-rooted misconceptions: thatpredators are harmful; that game should be man-aged in the same way as livestock; that large num-bers of herbivore game should be maintained;that non-indigenous species should be intro-duced; and that it is only trophy hunting thatcounts - should be substituted by knowledgeabout these matters (Tarman, 1996).
Hunting in Slovenia is well organised and thehunters are well educated, so their contribution
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
year pheasant partridge mallard
1969/70 48,809 2402 01970/71 37,070 1040 601971/72 74,694 1935 2101972/73 54,749 1393 27941973/74 57,973 1869 13871974/75 44,919 985 50731975/76 38,331 2618 45271976/77 0 0 01977/78 55,781 170 21371978 56,093 100 28291979 53,795 50 32581980 41,419 0 23701981 51,449 0 35241982 39,790 0 29281983 35,042 1030 35311984 44,424 776 33981985 20,236 0 24821986 46,635 1491 26591987 36,074 2070 53631988 52,468 4143 63011989 56,128 3236 88591990 47,786 3791 73681991 46,929 4541 82751992 55,723 4317 56831993/94 62,101 7324 60261994/95 58,929 5740 80381995/96 56,880 5991 70781996/97 57,299 6725 55011997/98 62,317 5973 79621998/99 21,618 815 22891999/00 24,228 1452 2343
Table 65:
Repopulation of smallgame in the huntingdistricts of Sloveniafrom 1970 to 2000(Source: Lovska zvezaSlovenije, 2000)
Figure 180. Due touncontrolled andexcessive gathering ofmushrooms manyspecies and theirhabitats are threatened.
(Ph
oto
: Do
rote
a V
erša
)
186 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
to the nature conservation efforts should be no-table (Kryštufek; 2000). Already in the past, thehunters protected numerous species when theirpopulations were endangered because of theexcessive hunting or because their habitats hadbeen threatened. Within the framework of theiractivities, hunters maintain pastures for game,create puddles, set up bait stations for bears andbirds of prey and feeding facilities for deer, theyfix nestboxes for birds nesting in hollows and setbaits for the vaccination of foxes (Papež et al.,1996).
The intervention in an animal population andits habitat can affect the entire ecosystem. It ispermitted to interfere (hunting, fishing) with thepopulations of animal species which constitutean indivisible part of an ecosystem, but such in-terventions should be planned on the basis ofthe analyses of the state of the ecosystem orbiomic entities.
Gathering and picking
Gathering is among the activities which couldadversely affect biodiversity. People pick fungi,fruit (blueberries, strawberries), medicinal plants(arnica, centiyane), decorative plants (Rhododen-dron luteum, Pulsatilla grandis) and some ani-mal species (snails, frogs, molluscs, etc.). Someof these species are highly marketable. The analy-sis of the intensity of picking, the commercialuse of the species and their impact on biodiver-sity has not yet been conducted, but the monitor-ing of the picking of protected fungi has beenmore systematic.
Fungi
Higher fungi (hereinafter referred to as fungi)should be discussed from various aspects. Theyrepresent a significant part of biota and at thesame time they are interesting for people. Mush-rooms are edible, but on the other hand some arepoisonous. Certain species are valuable marketgoods which fetch high prices. Mushroom pick-ing is a popular hobby among Slovenes. The tra-dition of picking and consuming wild fungi iskept up in other European countries and is wellestablished in Eastern Europe, particularly in Italyand France. In recent years, mushroom pickinghas become popular in other countries wheresuch a tradition had not existed in the past (GreatBritain, Scandinavian countries). Mushroompicking is closely related to recreational activitiesand to the ancient motivation of a man as agatherer, not hunter or farmer. Often this motivegives rise to the desire to know more about fungi,and the knowledge often surpasses the consumeror amateur level. Amateur mushroom pickers/mycologists are the basic source of knowledge
about the taxonomy of fungi in Slovenia andaround Europe.
The fact that mushroom picking is so popularin Slovenia, and that this natural resource is ex-ploited for commercial purposes, has initiatedthe need to monitor and control the trade inmushrooms.
Pursuant to the Decree on the protection ofwild fungi, the legal and natural persons who areregistered mushroom purchasers have to keep aregister of the species and quantities of pur-chased fungi (Table). It is difficult to talk aboutthe increase or decrease in the commercial ex-ploitation of fungi since the annual quantitiesdepend on the ‘mushroom season’.
The available data show that over 500 tonnesof mainly fresh wild fungi are purchased everyyear. The most popular fungi are of genus Bol-etus, Armillaria and Cantharellus. Nine more wildfungi species are being purchased in smallerquantities. Most of the purchases are carried outin September and October, since most mush-rooms grow in autumn.
Excessive mushroom picking is one of thefactors of potential threat to fungi in their naturalenvironment. The taking of young mushroomscauses a disturbance in their development. Thepicking of edible mushrooms threatens also theinedible and even poisonous ones, because somepickers destroy them on purpose. The mecha-nism of the endangerment of fungi is explainedin detail in the chapter on higher fungi.
Amateur mushroom pickers are organised in20 registered associations, grouped within theAssociation of Mycological Societies of Slovenia.The objective of these societies is to educate themembers about the conservation of the diversityof fungi and thus reduce the adverse effect ofunlimited picking and exploitation of fungi asmarket goods. Many people who are interestedin the picking of mushrooms, the experts andamateur mycologists, are members of the Asso-ciation of Mycological Societies. Its potential inthe field of education, mycological exhibitionsand the implementation of programmes for theconservation of fungi has not yet been realised.
Trade in animal and plant species
Illegal trade, hunting, and habitat degradation,are the main reasons for the decline of popula-tions of many animal and plant species all overthe world. At the global level, the trade in endan-gered species exceeds US$ 40 billion per year.Every year 15 million mammals, 4 million birds,10 million reptiles, 500 to 600 million fish, 200tonnes of corals, 10 million orchids, and manyother species are taken from the wild. In 2000,the Convention on International Trade in Endan-
187
gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)(Official Gazette of the RS, 31/99) entered intoforce, which covers more than 30,000 speciesendangered because of the international trade.
It is estimated that approximately 1 millionexotic animals are legally imported to Sloveniaevery year, more than half a million marine andfreshwater fish, around 4000 birds, a few thou-sand reptiles, a few hundred mammals, a fewhundred bird spiders and other invertebrates(aquatic organisms and corals). The number ofimported animals is probably higher becausesome animals are imported illegally.
Beside a few hundred species of marine andfreshwater fish, the Slovenian companies usuallyimport reptiles and birds, in particular parrots. Inthe pet shops they mostly sell specimens of thefollowing bird species bred in captivity: Agapor-nis roseicollis, Melopsittacus undulatus, Nymphicushollandicus, Platycerus eximius and Psittacuserithacus, which are imported from Hungary andthe Netherlands. Recently, these species are alsobeing imported from the countries where theyhad been taken from the wild. In the period from1998 to 2000, most large parrots of the genus Ara,Amazona and Cacatua were imported by theLjubljana ZOO, only a few specimens were im-ported as personal or household effects, and byother traders for breeding.
In Slovenia the following reptile genera aremost popular: Iguana, Agama, Gekko andVaranus. The specimens are usually taken fromthe wild (Madagascar, Solomon Islands, Egypt)even though they are listed in the internationalRed Lists of endangered species. The traders buythese species to sell them in the domestic andforeign market and to breed and sell the offspring.Mammals (reindeer, red deer) are imported forfurther breeding, for the entertainment establish-ments, educational purposes and for exhibitionto the public (zoo’s, tourist farms, circuses). Incomparison to other animals, the import of mam-mals for commercial purposes is not very fre-quent. Almost all imported mammal species hadbeen bred in captivity, usually in zoo’s aroundEurope. Mammals are often not imported live,but as hunting trophies of animals shot in Africa(wart-hog, various antelopes and gazelles,wildebeeste, buffalos, zebras). With a few excep-tions these species are not threatened by trade.
With regard to trade in plants included in theCITES Appendices, Slovenia only has the data ofother Parties to the Convention which have in-cluded Slovenia in their annual reports on im-ports and exports of CITES species. Slovenia’sManagement Authority has not yet issued anyCITES document for the import, export or re-ex-port of any species included in Appendices tothe Convention. This does not necessarily mean
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
that there is no trade in rare and endangered plantsin Slovenia. On the contrary, almost every flowershop sells plants covered by CITES, such as vari-ous orchids, euphorbias, cycads, pitcher plantsand cactuses. The majority of these plants havenot been taken from the wild but have been arti-ficially propagated in nurseries, and most prob-ably legally imported into Slovenia. On the basisof indirect data on the export it can be concludedthat 17,116 plants taken from the wild were im-ported from Turkey for commercial purposes in1992-1994 and in 1999. The majority (67%) weresnowdrops (Galanthus spp.) and cyclamens (Cy-clamen hederifolium). Also for commercial pur-poses, 1,664 kg of the extract of wild growingPrunus africana were imported in the periodfrom 1996 to 1998. All plants originated from Af-rica and Madagascar (95 %).
The import and breeding of the non-indig-enous species represents an unpredictable threatto the natural environment of Slovenia. The sur-vival of rare species is directly threatened by theirbeing taken from the wild on various conti-
Graph 46: Import toSlovenia between 1998and 2000.
Graph 47: The purposeof import of liveanimals in 2000.
188 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
nentsyet, yet at the same time these poisonousand dangerous animals pose a threat to domes-tic wild fauna, domestic animals and even tohumans. Animals which are intentionally re-leased from the breeding farms, fish farms andsimilar facilities, or those which had escaped,directly compete for food and the living spacewith the indigenous animal species. In somecases even the gene pool of the indigenous spe-cies is threatened. The illegally imported animalswhich have not been examined by a veterinary,and for which the potential adverse effects onthe indigenous animal species are not known,pose a threat with regard to the transferral of dis-eases and parasites to other animals and humans(zoonosis).
An example of the harm caused by the inten-tional release of non-indigenous species whichthreatens the existence of an indigenous speciesis the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta). Itpopulates many standing water in Slovenia andthus threatens the indigenous European pondturtle (Emys orbicularis). Therefore, the importof the red-eared slider to Slovenia, and to the EUcountries, was prohibited in 1997. Animals of cer-tain non-indigenous species, such as muskrat(Ondatra zibethicus) and racoon dog (Nyctereutesprocynoides), which had escaped from breedingfarms in other countries, have populated the ter-ritory of Slovenia. In the neighbouring countries,populations of eastern chipmunk (Tamiasstriatus) have appeared.
Many dealers, collectors, researchers and de-signers of nature protection plans are attractedto Slovenia due to its diverse and conserved floraand fauna. At the global level the demand for firesalamander (Salamandra salamandra), whichis widespread in Slovenia, is rather exorbitant.Bird preparators, collectors of bird eggs and fal-coners are interested in various bird species.Among the collectors of invertebrate species thedemand for cave animals (in particular for cave
beetles) and butterflies is excessive. The interestof certain foreign research institutes and muse-ums around the world in the karst endemic spe-cies Proteus anguinus should not be neglected.With regard to the reintroduction and repo-pulation projects, the brown bear (Ursus arctos)plays the main role.
Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Plan-ning, Environmental Agency strives for the con-servation of the indigenous fauna and for theprotection of the globally endangered species byadopting international conventions and EU di-rectives and regulations; by implementing thenational legislation and by informing the public.To prevent illegal trade on endangered species,Environmental Agency successfully cooperateswith various governmental offices (customs of-fice, police, INTERPOL, inspections, etc.).
Water management
The introduction of the system of concessionshas defined and harmonised in detail the condi-tions for the use of natural resources. That is re-flected in the increased cost-efficiency of theutilisation of these resources and the betterbiodiversity conservation. According to the En-vironmental Protection Act, a natural or legalperson is obliged to obtain a concession for theuse and exploitation of water from watercourses,aquifers and sea, if the exploitation of water isregistered as an activity or when water is a domi-nant component of the concessionaire’s activity.The concessions are granted for the followingactivities:
� household drinking water supply;
� bottling of drinking water;
� exploitation of thermal, mineral or thermo-mineral water in the health sector or for rec-reational purposes (swimming pools);
� generation of electricity in hydroelectricpower plants (small and large powerplants);
� irrigation of agricultural land;
� breeding of freshwater and marine fish;
� artificial snow-making in ski centres;
� exploitation of sediments.
Biotechnology and biosafety
There are several laboratories in Sloveniawhich have been conducting basic research inthe field of molecular biology for years, in par-ticular the research on gene structures and theirexpression:
� the laboratory of molecular genetics of theDepartment of Biology at the Biotechnical
(Ph
oto
: Ro
ber
t Bo
lješi
č)
Figure 181. Endan-gered animal speciesfor sale on a street inBarcelona.
189
Faculty, which started with the gene re-search on bacteria in the 1970s;
� the Institute of Biochemistry at the Medicalfaculty, where the first bacterium gene wascloned and expressed in 1986;
� the Department of Biochemistry and Molec-ular Biology at the Jožef Stefan Institutewhere the first synthetic gene was designedand expressed. In these laboratories a num-ber of microbe genes and genes of higherorganisms have been cloned, thus facilitat-ing the study of the relation between struc-ture and function in many important pro-teins.
The Zootechnical Department at the Biotech-nical Faculty is interested in animal biotechnol-ogy and the use of recombinant DNA in animals.The work is oriented towards the analysis of ananimal genome, the production of molecularmarkers, gene-based diagnostics and researchinto the basic mechanisms regulating gene ex-pression. Genome analysis is focused on discov-ering genes which affect the productivity of ananimal (milk proteins, fat content, growth rate)and on characterising the domestic indigenousspecies and breeds (marble trout, Lipizzanerhorse, Krško polje pig). Such activities will facili-tate the planning of effective programmes for theconservation of these species and breeds. In thelaboratories the methods necessary for the in-sertion of foreign genes in the heritable materialof an animal are being introduced. The gene-based diagnostics of specific hereditary diseasesof animals and of infections caused by micro-organisms is an every day routine task. Similardiagnostic approaches are being introduced atthe Veterinary Faculty in Ljubljana.
Basic genetic research into human hereditarydiseases and disabilities, and genetic research for
diagnostic purposes have been conducted at theMedical Faculty in Ljubljana since 1988. The ac-tivities include research on genes and mutationsof 8 to 10 genetic diseases or gene malfunctions.The procedures comprise the following: clinicaland prenatal diagnostics of certain monogeneticdiseases, such as cistic fibrosis, hemophilia A andsome muscular distrophies; diagnostics oflimfoms; determination of the presence of infec-tion agents (AIDS virus, hepathitis B); DNAtypization for tissue transplantation, and for per-sonal identification in forensic medicine andcriminology.
Slovenia has not yet been directly or indirectlythreatened by the GMOs. All the relevant activi-ties are focused on the scientific research in con-tainment. Slovenia should be aware not only ofthe globalization processes in science andeconomy, but also of the fact that the country isnot a closed system and is therefore exposed tothe influences from the neighbouring countries.
Graph 48: Number ofconcession permitsgranted between 1995and 2000.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA AND BIODIVERSITY
190 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
191
The principle objective of the macro-eco-nomic policy in the field of economic develop-ment is the maintenance of stable economic con-ditions for the conclusion of the process of mar-ket transition and accession to the EuropeanUnion by continuous growth of added value (4-6 %growth in GDP). The most important goal of themicro-economic policy are the reforms orientedtowards the increase of competitiveness on theEuropean single market. In the field of economicstructural reforms which directly affectbiodiversity the reform of the enterprise sector,in particular agriculture, the state and regionaldevelopment should be carried out. These arethe priority development fields according to theSEDS06 and the National Development Prog-ramme.
ENTERPRISE SECTOR
In order to guarantee sustainable economicdevelopment the following key structural re-forms will have to be implemented for the trans-formation of the enterprise sector: privatisation,entering/exiting of sectors, establishment of anundiscriminatory state aid system and incentivesfor innovations.
Company privatisation andrestructuring
Companies may be divided into three groups(Simoneti, Rojec, Rems, 2000):
� concentrated ownership companies (for-eign, private, daughter), which have beenestablished as private;
� dispersed ownership companies (publiccompanies with the majority stake held byinstitutional owners and non-public com-panies with the majority stake held by inter-nal owners) which have been privatised;and
� non-privatised companies.
The concentrated ownership companies aremuch more successful than other companies.With regard to the investments and employmentthese companies have achieved higher growth,and the differences are increasing for the capitalprofitability, value added per employee, valueadded, number of employees and assets. The dis-persed ownership companies have been increas-ing their level of success but at the expense ofdefensive restructuring and at a slow pace. Thenon-privatised companies still generate losses butthe trend is slowing down. With regard to the
IMPLEMENTATIONOF THE PRINCIPLESOF SUSTAINABILITYTHROUGH STRUC-TURAL ECONOMICREFORMS
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 182. Traditionand skills are needed tomake a lace pattern. Inthe same way, linkageand cooperation atlocal, regional andnational levels are vitalfor sustainabledevelopment.
192 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
operating cash flow and the value added peremployee positive trends have been recorded.
In order to improve the level of competitive-ness the following should be done:
� conclude the transitional restructuring ofthe enterprise sector by consolidating theownership;
� solve the issue of companies with operat-ing losses and no future;
� create conditions for the fast developmentof competitive enterprise sector, in particu-lar by enabling the domestic and foreigncompanies more rapidly to enter the mar-ket, nullifying the administrative obstaclesfor investments; stimulating the internation-alisation of the economy; stimulating thedevelopment of small and medium-sizedenterprises.
Bankruptcy legislation
The relevant bankruptcy legislation and theeffective implementation of bankruptcy proce-dures are the two mechanisms for regulating theentering into or exiting from the market of un-successful companies and for their restructuring.In Slovenia this field is regulated in accordancewith the modern directions concerning the re-structuring of unsuccessful companies, thus pro-tecting the rights of creditors, owners and em-ployees.
In the future, the further training of officialreceivers will be necessary. They will have to befamiliar with the legalities of the bankruptcy pro-cedure, the operating procedure, the financesand the financial statements. The bankruptcy pro-cedures, formally conducted by the courts,should be sped up together with the reduction ofother court backlogs.
State aid
State aid is an instrument of macro-economicredistribution of financial resources to specificcompanies and groups of companies. Such re-distribution causes distortion of the market andis thus strictly regulated.
In Slovenia the share of state aid in the GDP ishigher than in the EU countries. The reason isthat in Slovenia the value added per employee isseveral times lower than in the EU. Without tak-ing into account the municipal level and agricul-ture and fisheries, the share of state aid in theGDP was 2 % in 1998 and - 1.7 % in 1999 and theannual average in 1996-98 was 1.12 % GDP (with-out taking into account the agriculture and fish-eries).
The state aid used to function as a mechanismfor solving social-related issues in big unsuccess-ful companies and its purpose was to cover regu-lar operation costs. To a lesser extent it was usedfor promoting development related activities (re-search and development, environmental protec-tion, training, etc.).
Regional aid is a category of less restrictedaids, but the inadequate regional policy in Slo--venia has to a great extent prevented its alloca-tion.
Transition to the innovationbased economy
According to the estimates of the Interna-tional Institute for Management Development(IMD) for 1998, Slovenia is ranked among the firsthalf of the developed countries (close to Ireland)with regard to the share of GDP intended for re-search and development (RD) (1. 48 %) and tothe number of employees in R&D per 1,000 (4,15).In the IMD Report for 2000, Ireland is ranked 17th
with regard to the Science and Technology crite-ria which assess the innovativeness of a country.However, Slovenia is ranked 40th. It is evident thatresearchers and finances do not guarantee theregeneration of Slovenian companies in view ofapplication of innovations.
The obstacles which innovativeness faces inSlovenia are primarily the insufficient R&D staff,the excessive costs of prototypes, the financiallydemanding cooperation with the institutes andthe university, and the distrust and hindrances inrelation to the cooperation of companies in aconsortium. The explanations for such low effi-ciency of the transformation of financial inputsinto successful innovations lie in the analysis ofthe components of these criteria which show thatSlovenia lags behind in the impact of the basicresearch on long term economic and technologi-(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 183. A fencetypical of the Toplavalley is made of woodoff-cuts.
193
cal development (ranked 43rd), the suitability ofthe system of mandatory education (44th), andthe interest of youth in science and technology(47th). In the short term Slovenia could improvethe management of technology, in particular bytechnological cooperation (now ranked 32nd),the transfer of R&D from university to compa-nies (45th), as well as by limiting the lack of fundsallocated to development (34th), improving theapplication of technologies (36th) and limitingthe danger of reallocating R&D units (44th).
STATE SECTOR
The developmental processes in the operationof the state have been restricted by globalizationand by the market founded independence ofother autonomous social actors. So far, theprogress in this field has been minimal. The mainunsolved issues, which hinder the developmen-tal success of the state, are:
1. Inadequate management organisation. Hi-erarchical organisation prevails; the efficien-cy criteria do not play an important role inmanagement; no motivational mechanismsfor human resource management are avail-able; the opinions of the users of adminis-trative services are not acquired systemati-cally.
2. The solutions for the long term harmonisa-tion of policy measures have not yet beenfound. In 1993 the Government adopted aplanning programme which provided forfour-year budgetary projections and thedrawing-up of sectoral regional progra-mmes, the spatial plan and the Strategy ofEconomic Development of Slovenia (SGRS).Since the planning programme did not pro-vide a binding long-term harmonisation ofthe decisions concerning public finance, wenow have numerous sectoral developmentdocuments which generally have the statusof an act, but it is impossible to realise themwithin the framework of realistic public fi-nance allocation. The problem of non-har-monisation had been ‘solved’ by the negoti-ations on the budget appropriations, andthus the substantive issues concerning theallocation of funds were not consideredimportant and have not been taken into ac-count.
In such circumstances, when the technicaland financial arguments had prevailed inthe allocation of budgetary funds, the “soft”and unconventional sectors of economicdevelopment - whose budgetary proposalswere not technically supported - lost most.The Strategy of Economic Developmentdefines this as an implementation deficit. It
has been established that the implementa-tion deficit is one of the structural factors of(non)development which has extremelyasymmetric effects.
The regulations in the field of public fi-nance, adopted in the last two years, incor-porated the principles of the programmeplanning and the planning documents in thesystem for the preparation of the currentbudget. This reduced the significance of thebudgetary negotiations and emphasised thesubstantive arguments. The annual budgetrepresents only a part of the entire econom-ic and developmental policy since manystate measures do not have direct impacton the budget, or else their impact is lessimportant than their economic and devel-opmental consequences. Even after the re-form of the public finances the decisionsabout the distribution of budgetary fundsfor different purposes can not be taken onthe basis of the fiscal criteria. The impactson all development actors should be takeninto account, not only the impact on the statebudget.
3. The centralisation and over-concentrationof the responsibilities and tasks in publicadministration. The state often directly man-ages the companies in the field of publicservices and the economy, even though theoperators could be more effective if theyhad been autonomous. The institutes of thedevelopmental partnership with the civilsociety, the economy and regions are tooweak to exploit all the available develop-mental potentials.
All the mentioned issues form the reasons forthe reform of public administration and publicservices.
Public administration reform
The European Commission, which monitorsthe progress in the administrative institutionbuilding, considers that the reform of public ad-ministration has not been successful since thebasic acts concerning the Government, adminis-tration, public agencies, inspections and civilservants have not yet been adopted. As a resultthe priority development directions have notbeen implemented and the new fields and sec-tors of public administration suffer the imple-mentation deficit.
Public utilities reform
In principle the State’s involvement in theeconomy should be limited. In the market eco-
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nomy, competitiveness and thus self-regulationof the market should be ensured. The analyses ofthe economic status show that the market struc-ture in Slovenia is defective.
The two main instruments of the reform arethe regulatory roundup and privatisation. Thecompanies operating in the field of water man-agement, the generation and distribution of elec-tricity and road construction have been partlyprivatised. In their case the relevant capital injec-tions have been transferred to investment firms.
Energy sector
The main burdens from the past faced by theenergy sector are the high energy intensity of theeconomy and the high level of dependency onthe import of oil and natural gas. Domestic facili-ties for the storage of oil and natural gas are notsufficient. The issue of stranded investments inthe energy sector can only be addressed by sub-stantial redistribution of prices.
The implementation of the Energy Act willbring substantial change in the field of energy.This field is managed as a public service and itcomprises the distribution of electricity and gas.The generation of electricity is considered to bea market-oriented activity and the electricitymarket has already been liberalised for domes-tic producers. In 2003 it will be liberalised forforeign companies. With the designation of thestatus of unauthorised consumers to all who con-sume more than 41 kW of electricity, around 64% of the supply will be competition-based andthe consumers will have unrestricted access tothe network.
It is expected that the unfavourable composi-tion of the electricity resources will increase theshare of stranded investments (Šoštanj, Trbovlje)and thus induce higher prices for unjustified con-sumers. In compliance with the EU regulationthe market will be opened for the purchase ofnatural gas in 2003. The control over the energysector is carried out by a special supervision body- the Energy Agency. This Agency will be respon-sible for determining the prices of electricity andgas, the utilisation of the network and the super-vision of the operation of this economic sector.
Telecommunications
With more than 40 telephone main lines per100 inhabitants Slovenia has reached a relativelyhigh level of penetration, but the quality of ser-vices lags behind the developed countries.
Except for the mandatory public service forthe transmission and emission of the radio andtelevision programmes (RTVS), the telecommu-
nication services, which are based on the use ofthe radio frequency spectrum, have been libera-lised. The frequencies for such services are be-ing allocated on the basis of concessions (li-censes).
With the adoption of the TelecommunicationsAct, the foundations for the liberalisation of thetelecommunications sector have been set up. Atthe same time these services have lost the statusof a public service. The sector will be regulatedby an independent agency with an administra-tive, technical and financial autonomy.
Transport
The completion of the construction of themotorway network has been the principle invest-ment project in recent years. The project had beenbased on the fact that transport flow has beenmostly concentrated on the roads. As a conse-quence, the transport safety in Slovenia is inad-equate and the burden on the environment is dif-ficult to control. The reasons for the economi-cally insufficient utilisation of the railway systemare of an economic and political nature, but thegeography of Slovenia and the technologicalcharacteristics of the rail transport also contrib-ute to the problem.
In the last decade progress has been madewith regard to the reform and commercialisationof the transport sector. The liberalisation of roadtransport is reflected in the increased number ofsmall-scale transport operators which caused an
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 184. MountNanos. Telecommuni-cation towers are adisturbing element ina natural landscape,and can causeadditional problemswhen erected in abotanically importantarea.
195
imbalance between the demand and supply inthe market of transport services and thus forcedthe operators to orientate towards internationaltransport, in particular to freight transport. Therailway transport services are provided by a pub-lic undertaking. Despite the staff reductions andthe rationalisation of other operating costs thesector is still greatly dependent on the transfer ofbudgetary funds. The state budget providesfunds for the passenger and combined transportsubventions, and funds for the maintenance andconstruction of infrastructure.
In compliance with the EU guidelines, thereorganisation of the Slovenian Railway Com-pany is planned. This undertaking will most prob-ably remain united, although two separate com-panies will operate within it - one in the field ofinfrastructure and the other in the field of trans-port.
Public utility sector
Of all the infrastructure sectors, public utilityhas recorded the highest surplus of the neededinvestments with regard to the realised invest-ments: at the beginning of the decade, the needssurpassed the executed investments by 4.5 times,which clearly shows that the public utility sectorwas under-invested in the past. The reasons areof a systemic nature:
The construction of the public utility infra-structure (waste water treatment, waste, gas, dis-trict heating) and the provision of public servicesfall under the responsibility of a local commu-nity and state (dual responsibility). Although atfirst all the responsibilities were to be transferredto the local level, the actual systemic solutionsconcerning the financing of local communitiesdo not guarantee the provision of sufficient fundsfor the implementation of the plan. Many localcommunities are too small to manage the publicutility sector successfully and they lack techni-cal knowledge.
The responsibility for fixing the prices of ser-vices has been transferred to the local communi-ties and as a result the prices differ significantly.These differences could induce the re-centra-lisation of the regulation system, which wouldsupport competition in the public utility services.
AGRICULTURE
The two reforms that affect the developmentof the sector are the implementation of the newRural Development Strategy and the restitutionof the agricultural land and forests within thedenationalisation reform.
In order to meet the objectives of the agricul-tural structural policy and the development
policy, three sets of measures have to be imple-mented:
� improvement of the structure of agricultur-al land;
� modernisation and adaptation to progressof the food processing industry;
� integrated rural development.
In order to fulfil these tasks the state has ac-quired pre-accession aid for rural development -SAPARD.
In 2001 the trial implementation of the sec-ond pillar of the agricultural reform - the agri-environmental programme started. Its purposeis to maintain agricultural activities and topopularise sustainable agricultural productionwhich conserves biodiversity and protects thelandscape while the rural area is developed. Theagri-environmental programme is extremely im-portant, in particular from the point of view ofthe low intensity of agricultural production. Thecomparative advantages of Slovenian agriculturelie in the intensification of agricultural produc-tion. Therefore, the implementation of theprogramme should be strengthened in the future.
The restitution of agricultural land and for-ests is currently under way: in the first half of2000 in total 38,000 denationalisation requestswere submitted for 127,000 ha of agricultural landand 167,000 ha of forests. The decisions on 44 %of agricultural land and 62 % of forest land havealready been issued. According to these decisions86 % of the considered agricultural land and 92 %of the considered forest land have been restituted.
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The main goal of the regional policy is to re-duce the differences between regions with regardto their economic development. The develop-ment potentials of the regions should be im-proved, in particular those which are directly re-lated to the local development actors. The mostsignificant are the differences in the demographicconditions, human resources, economic structureand the success of local companies, the avail-ability of infrastructure, environmental problemsand various developmental problems. The dif-ferences are also reflected in the irregular distri-bution of new undertakings. Growing differencesin the rate of development are often the result ofthe unexploitation of the endogenous develop-mental potentials of specific regions.
Furthermore, the natural resources are alsounevenly distributed. There are no rich and vari-ous natural resources available in Slovenia. Offossil fuels only the low-quality coal deposits canbe exploited. Important renewable resources are
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water and biomass, in particular wood. However,Slovenia is rich in environmental services whicharise from high biodiversity and thus in the di-verse land use and the utilisation of naturalwealth.
Forests cover more than a half of Slovenia’sterritory. Agricultural land covers nearly 40 % andaround 7 % is taken up by urban areas and infer-tile land. In the recent years the land use catego-ries have been subject to many changes. and theconflict of interests concerning the land use cat-egories and the degradation of the environmenthas escalated. The destruction of the traditionalway of life poses a serious threat to the effortsfor the wise land use and for the protection ofthe natural resources and the natural and culturalheritage. The most serious problems are causedby lavish use of the natural resources, the pollu-tion of (drinking) water and air, the degradationof cultural landscape and the increased pressureon the architectural heritage and nature. The con-sequence is the loss of biodiversity.
In Slovenia the ‘urban-industrial’ type of re-gional development is enforced. Urbanised in-dustrial areas cover one third of the territory, andthere four fifths of the population live. This typeof regional development is defined by theimbalanced spatial distribution of infrastructureand the structural disproportions between cen-tres and their hinterland. That is evident in theevery day mass migrations which incur negativeexternal costs. Illegal building is an example of
the increased pressure on the rural hinterlandand high quality landscape with regard to theurbanisation. In the areas between settlements,dispersed urbanisation is taking over. Its mainfeature is the excessive land use , the undefinedsettlement pattern and the disturbed landscapewhich are all the result of the deficient regionalorganisation and spatial planning. The recentpolycentric development has emphasised theimportance of municipal centres, which in turnled to the duplication of activities and excessiveland consumption. A tendency toward the estab-lishment of new municipalities is apparent. It ispromoted by the current system of financing, butin fact the establishment of municipalities, whichare financially independent of the state and acton their own initiative, should be advanced.
On the other hand the traditional ‘rural-agricultural’ type of regional development, whichis dominant with regard to the total surface area,only moderately contributes to the number ofpopulation in total as well as to the creation of itswelfare. From the development standpoint theseare problem areas where there are not enoughjobs available and the educational level of theactive population is low. These are large undi-vided areas where the emigration processes aredistinctive and long lasting. Slovenia is a rathersmall country and the development problemsarising from the current regional differences are
(Ph
oto
: Pet
er S
kob
ern
e)
Figure 185. Aestheticharmony is part ofeveryday life, and areflection of ourbalanced relation withnature.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)
Figure 186. Valuinglife in figures isimpossible, whether fora bird or any otherliving being. Theproblem is that webecome aware of thatvalue only when it islost.
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emphasised by the fact that border areas wherethe development lags behind cover a rather largeshare of the territory; besides, it has been sometime since agriculture in rural areas played a de-cisive role in Slovenia’s economy. It is more andmore dependent on the nearby urban core wherejobs can be found. In the future it will be neces-sary to protect the environment of a significantproportion of the national territory (30 % insteadof 5 %) which has been economically utiliseduntil now. However, the establishment of pro-tected areas should be economically justified sothat the expenses of the protection of the naturalresources and valuable natural features wouldnot be covered by the slowing down of the devel-opment of municipalities. The economically jus-tified protection of the natural resources and valu-able natural features is the best guarantee for theirconservation.
In the EU the development policy is realisedthrough the incentives for harmonised regionaldevelopment and since Slovenia is in the processof accession to that union, such a policy will haveto be adopted. The regions functioning as devel-opment actors have long been neglected eventhough the polycentric development has been themain direction of Slovenia’s regional policy fordecades. In order to make changes concerningthe stimulating of regional development, threereforms have to be carried out: designation ofregions and local administration units; spatialplanning; regional policy.
Designation of regions andlocal administration units
Currently, the Constitution of the Republic ofSlovenia is being amended and as a result it willbe possible for the National Assembly to adopt aFramework Regions Act. By this act the founda-tions for the designation of regions as local gov-ernmental units will be set up. There are differ-ent internal and external reasons for the estab-lishment of regions functioning as mandatorylocal communities. The most meaningful reasonis the widening gap in the level of developmentin various parts of Slovenia which causes themarginalization of a large share of the territory.The institute of region should be placed betweenthe level of small municipalities and the State andthus mitigate the position which the State holdsin relation to the weak municipalities. The re-gions will take over the matters which can not betransferred from the state level to the level of (too)small municipalities. At the same time the Statewill be decentralised and the principle ofsubsidiarity enforced. The preservation of thespecific features of development in certain re-
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITY THROUGHSTRUCTURAL ECONOMIC REFORMS
gion, and thus the diversity of the state, wouldbenefit from the decentralisation and deconcen-tration of public decision-making in matterswhich would more successfully and/or ratio-nally be solved at a lower administrative level.
Spatial planning
Slovenia is a small, transitional and extensivelyinhabited country where spatial component is amore decisive development factor than in largecounties, in particular because of its outstandingbiodiversity and value. In the field of spatial plan-ning many issues have been raised in the lastdecade; the balance of means allocated to newmunicipalities has not been settled; the urbanisticdocumentation on permitted land use is obso-lete; tax incentives are not available because thecosts of the supply of utility services are incor-porated in the market prices of the real-estate in-stead of being partially converted into higher util-
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
imić
)(P
ho
to: P
eter
Sko
ber
ne)
Figure 187 (below).
The Divje jezero (WildLake) in the communeof Idrija has beenprotected for its naturalvalues since 1967.
Figure 188 (bottom).
Goričko (NE Slovenia).Regional developmentis based on naturalcharacteristics,considered also in aproposal for theestablishment of alandscape park.
198 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ity services prices through financing with localbonds intended for the construction of the infra-structure; etc. Consequently, the prices of the real-estate are high and the relevant market is paraly-sed. There is a lack of furnished sites intendedfor the construction of industrial complexes andthere are no direct (foreign) investments in theindustrial sector. In general, the space is not ahighly valued feature, in spite of its scarceness,diversity and the transitional nature of the coun-try.
Regional policy
The Regional Development Agency is the cen-tral institution responsible for the implementa-tion of the programmes for stimulating harmo-nised regional development. Slovenia has beengranted economic and social cohesion fundswithin the PHARE programme for three pilot (sta-tistical) regions: Pomurje, the Savinja region andZasavje. Within the PHARE progra-mme a num-ber of joint transboundary development progra-mmes are being carried out.
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At the national level the nature and biodiver-sity conservation is the responsibility of the Na-tional Assembly, the Government, the Ministryof the Environment and Spatial Planning, theEnvironmental Agency, the Institute for NatureConservation and its organisational units whichoperate in seven regional institutes for the pro-tection of the natural and cultural heritage andin the institutes responsible for the managementof protected areas established by the state. In total139 civil servants employed at various adminis-trative and technical organisations are profes-sionally involved in the nature conservation atthe governmental level. The implementation ofthe Nature Conservation Act is directly super-vised by 8 inspectors.
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF THEREPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA
The National Assembly adopts the laws, pro-grammes and other documents which are impor-tant for the biodiversity conservation.
Pursuant to the Environmental Protection Actit has established the Council for EnvironmentalProtection whose tasks concern the biodiversityconservation. The Council is a civil society insti-tution and it deals with the protection of the en-vironment and nature.
The Committee for Infrastructure and theEnvironment is, as a working body of the Na-tional Assembly, responsible for the preliminaryreading of the material covering the field of na-ture conservation and thus biodiversity as well.
GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLICOF SLOVENIA
Pursuant to the adopted legislation and incompliance with the national policy and pro-
gramme decisions the Government adopts theexecutive regulations and directs and harmonisesthe implementation of policy decisions throughthe competent ministry. In 1997 the Governmentestablished the Council for Sustainable Develop-ment whose tasks also include the nature con-servation issues.
Ministry of the Environmentand Spatial Planning
Nature conservation is the responsibility ofthe Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Plan-ning. The Nature Conservation Departmentwithin the Ministry formulates decisions, imple-ments the nature conservation policy and har-monises the intersectoral projects and strategieswhich have an impact on the nature conserva-tion (7 employees).
Administrative and technicalorganisations
The Environmental Agency is a body withinthe Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Plan-ning and it implements the technical and admin-istrative tasks concerning nature conservationand the protection of valuable natural featuresin compliance with the provisions of the NatureConservation Act. Pursuant to this Act the Insti-tute for Nature Conservation has been estab-lished. As a technical organisation it is respon-sible for the implementation of the legally deter-mined tasks which are carried out as a natureconservation public service. These tasks are inpart carried out by seven organisational units in-volved in the nature conservation within the re-gional institutes for the protection of the naturaland cultural heritage. The reason lies in the fact
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that the established institute has not yet begunfunctioning. The nature conservation public ser-vice is performed by the managers of protectedareas. Beside them, another three public institutesand one concessionaire perform these tasks incompliance with the legislation, and one contracton the stewardship of a protected area has beenconcluded.
Environmental Agency of theRepublic of Slovenia
The Environmental Agency is a body withinthe Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Plan-ning. It covers various working areas of the min-istry (nature conservation, environmental protec-tion, water management, hydrology, meteorol-ogy, monitoring of the state of the environment,geophysics, rehabilitation). Specific work areasare organised in five offices and this guaranteesthe harmonised operation of various sectors.
The Nature Conservation Department is a con-stituent part of the Office for the Environmentwhich is one of the 5 offices mentioned. Its tasksare to keep nature conservation registers; issuepermits and consents with regard to nature con-servation; draw up proposals of programmes andmeasures for nature conservation; monitor thestate of valuable natural features; carry out ex-pert tasks with regard to the international obliga-tions concerning nature conservation; supervisethe work of public services related to nature con-servation; perform tasks concerning the estab-lishment of protected areas; keep records con-cerning nature conservation control and recordsof real-estate located in protected areas whichare the property of the State; provide trainingcourses for civil servants employed in the fieldof nature conservation; carry out procedures forasserting the right of pre-emption in protectedareas, and to decide on the amount of compen-
sations. There are 21 civil servants employed inthe field of nature conservation which is 5.3 % ofall the Agency’s staff.
Nature Conservation Instituteof the Republic of Slovenia
The Nature Conservation Institute performsthe nature conservation tasks stipulated by thelaw which are mainly of a technical nature. TheInstitute has been conferred powers to issue en-vironmental protection consents and guidelines,to keep the register of valuable natural featuresand the records and data bases in compliancewith the law, to guarantee the uniformity of meth-ods and procedures, to implement the technicalsupervision and direct control of the designatedareas and to grant consents in the procedure forobtaining consent for legal transactions on thereal-estate located in protected areas. Until theofficial start of the operation of the Institute, thesetasks are performed by the nature conservationunits of the regional institutes for the conserva-tion of the natural and cultural heritage. Currently40 experts are employed at these institutes. Incompliance with the new legislation these pub-lic services are planned to be reorganised.
Management institutes
Large protected areas are usually managed bypublic institutes. However, for their managementa concession may be granted or a contract con-cluded. By 2001 three management institutes hadbeen established (the Triglav National Park, theŠkocjanske jame Regional Park and the KozjanskoRegional Park), and one concession granted (theŠkocjanski zatok Nature Reserve). These threepublic institutes have 71 employees. The man-ager of the protected area carries out the man-agement, protection, technical and control tasksin the protected area. Beside the mentioned taskshe/she also draws up a management plan pro-posal, cooperates with local communities, andmanages real-estate located in the protected area,if stipulated by the instrument of protection; guar-antees the protection of valuable natural features;presents the protected area and carries out othertasks in compliance with the Nature Conserva-tion Act, the document on protection, the docu-ment on the establishment of a public institute,the document on the granting of a concession orthe concession contract.
Stewardship of valuablenatural features
On the basis of a public tender the steward ofthe Sečoveljske soline Landscape Park has been(P
ho
to: M
arko
Sim
ić)
Figure 189. Informa-tion Centre of theTriglav National Parkat Log in Trenta.Information andeducation centres inprotected areas areplaying a crucial rolein the conservation ofnatural values and inraising publicawareness.
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selected. The protection of this valuable naturalfeature has been ensured with the concussion ofa stewardship contract and money for 6 employ-ees has been allocated.
Control
Inspection
Environmental inspection
Inspection of the implementation of the pro-visions of the Nature Conservation Act is carriedout by the inspectors responsible for the natureconservation at the Inspectorate for the Environ-mental and Spatial Planning. If the provisionsconcern the competencies of other ministriestheir implementation is supervised by the com-petent inspectors. Special authorisations havebeen granted to the customs authorities. Withregard to the stipulated measures concerning theimport, export and transit of plants and animalsand other goods these authorities may order theseizure of animals when they are treated contraryto the stipulated regulations; the seizure of plantsand the handing-over of these plants or their sale;and the seizure of other goods when they aretreated contrary to the regulations. They may in-form the competent inspector and store the goodsand propose the institution of proceedings andimpose a mandated penalty pursuant to the Na-ture Conservation Act.
In compliance with this Act the Inspectoratefor the Environment and Spatial Planning is re-sponsible for the inspection of the entire natureconservation sector. Other inspectorates areauthorised to inspect the specific working areas.At the Inspectorate 23 inspectors are employed.They supervise the implementation of the NatureConservation Act and the regulations issued pur-suant to it. It is planned that 8 inspectors will beadditionally trained. The actual specialisation ofthe staff requires supplementary education andtraining programmes which cover specific natureconservation fields. So far, the Inspectorate hasnot carried out a systematic control but it re-sponds to the reports and participates in jointcampaigns. The inspection data are annually dis-cussed in reports but the specific data on naturehave not yet been statistically processed.
The implementation of the provisions of theAct Regulating Urban Planning and Other Formsof Land Use and other spatial planning acts issupervised by the inspectors responsible for spa-tial planning who are employed at the Inspec-torate for the Environment and Spatial Planning.When an urban inspector establishes pollutionof, damage to or degradation of the environment,a risk to the environment or damage caused tothe valuable natural features and cultural heri-
tage which had occurred during the constructionactivities or any other activities carried out with-out a location permit being granted, or contraryto other stipulated conditions, he/she informs thecompetent body of the situation.
Inspection in the field of agriculture,forestry, fisheries and hunting
The Inspectorate for Agriculture, Forestry,Hunting and Fisheries is a body within the Minis-try of Agriculture, Forestry and Food. The agri-culture, phytosanitary, forestry, hunting and fish-eries inspection is carried out within the Inspec-torate.
The implementation of the provisions of theAgriculture Act is supervised by the agricultureinspectors. However, the implementation of theprovisions on the control of the production ofand trade in agricultural products and on the cus-toms procedure for the export of agriculturalproducts and specific foodstuffs is supervisedby inspectors responsible for control of the qual-ity of agricultural products and foodstuffs.
The implementation of the provisions of theAgricultural Land Act is supervised by the agri-culture inspectors, except for the provisions onforests which are supervised by the forest inspec-tors.
The enforcement of the Seeds and Propagat-ing Materials Act is supervised by the agricultureinspectorate which also controls the quality ofseeds and propagating material (objects andother material needed for the production). Whenthe forest seeds and propagating material areconcerned the control is carried out by the for-estry inspectorate.
Pursuant to the Plant Protection Act the bod-ies and public services responsible for the pro-tection of plants have to control and inspectplants, plant products, land, storage facilities, theprocessing and storage of plants and plant prod-ucts and other controlled objects. The purpose isto identify the harmful organisms, to report aboutthem and to exterminate them. The implementa-tion of this Act is supervised by the phytosanitaryand forest inspectors.
Pursuant to the Freshwater Fisheries Act thefishing organisations, which manage fishing dis-tricts, have to organise a breeding and guardingservice which is carried out by the fish wardensso that all waters are appropriately supervised.The implementation of the provisions of this Actis ensured by the fish inspectors.
The implementation of the provisions of theMarine Fisheries Act is supervised by the fisheryinspectors. In the implementation of the tasks offish inspection the bodies of the Ministry of theInterior and the Maritime Transport Administra-tion in Koper participate.
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The enforcement of the provisions of the For-ests Act is supervised by the forest inspectors. Theactivities affecting forests are also inspected bythe competent hunting inspectors, fishery inspec-tors and construction and urban inspectors. Theenforcement of the provisions of this Act relatedto the prevention of fires and their extinguishingare supervised by the fire inspectors and the bod-ies of the Ministry of the Interior. The main rightsand obligations of the forest inspectorate are tosurvey activities in the forest and document them;review and monitor the enforcement of the gen-eral provisions of the forest management and sil-viculture plans; stop all activities which do notcomply with the provisions of this Act and theregulations issued pursuant to it; in emergencysituations order the provisional measures to pre-vent damage; review and monitor the enforce-ment of the forest protection measures and verifythat the conditions for carrying out activities inforests have been met by the operators.
The enforcement of the provisions of the for-estry legislation and other acts, which stipulatethe rights and obligations of the forest inspec-tors, is supervised by 17 forest inspectors. Theyoperate in 12 units: Murska Sobota, Maribor, Celje,Dravograd, Novo mesto, Kočevje, Krško,Ljubljana, Kranj, Postojna, Nova Gorica and Koper.The Head of the Inspectorate Office coordinatesand supervises their work.
The forest inspection supervises the imple-mentation of the provisions of:
� Forests Act;
� Decree on the protection against fire in thenatural environment;
� Decree on the prohibition on driving vehi-cles in the natural environment - 31 reportsand 7 proposal to institute misdemeanourproceedings;
� Decree on the protection of wild fungi - only30 inspections have been carried out be-cause of the short and slow season (exceptin Prekmurje and Dolenjska).
The implementation of the provisions of thementioned decrees is not regularly supervised,only at the time of most frequent violations andoften in cooperation with the police.
The hunting and fishing inspectors are orga-nised in the inspectorate of ten dislocated unites.Sixteen inspectors are working on the field. Thehunting inspectors inter alia control hunting,implementation of hunting management plans,administration of hunting organisations, as wellas check on holders of protected animal speciesand interference of the life cycles of protectedanimal species.
Trade inspection
The Trade Inspectorate is a body within theMinistry of the Economy. It supervises the imple-
mentation of 17 acts and more than 50 executiveregulations covering trade, hotel management,small business and other activities. It is respon-sible for the inspection of the quality of prod-ucts and services, the labelling of products, pri-ces, consumer protection and competition, theprevention of moonlighting and the observationof the copyright and other related rights.
The trade inspection is not authorised to per-form inspection in the field of nature conserva-tion. Within its competencies the trade inspec-tion:
� Supervises the exploitation of the gravel pitsin the territory of Slovenia in accordancewith the provisions of the Small BusinessAct. With regard to the entities, which per-form the mentioned activity, it establisheswhether the conditions stipulated by the laware met but it does not ascertain whetherthe activities affect nature and valuablenatural features or whether these are pro-tected.
� After the amendments to the Decree on theprotection of wild fungi had been adopted,the Trade Inspectorate supervised the tradein fungi in 2000. The Trade Inspectorate de-termined whether fungi have been pur-chased by the registered natural or legalpersons, inspected the records kept by thepurchasers and the quantity of fungi placedon the market. The inspections have beencarried out at the registered purchasers, onmarkets and at the fungi exporters. On thebasis of reports that individuals had beenpurchasing fungi on the field an inspectionparty was organised in cooperation with theforest inspectors and the police. Unfortu-nately, the unregistered purchasers have notbeen found.
� During the regular checks on the operationof hotels and restaurants the trade inspec-tions control the purchasing, selling andmediating in the selling of endangered ani-mals species in compliance with the Decreeon the protection of endangered animal spe-cies.
These tasks are carried out within the frame-work of the annual plan drawn up by the MainOffice of the Trade Inspectorate or on the basisof potential reports. The main objective is to en-sure equal opportunity to operate for all the par-ties present in the market and the protection ofconsumers.
Direct control
Direct control in nature is to be carried out bythe nature conservation and voluntary wardens.However, the Government and the Minister have
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to issue the relevant executive acts. Nevertheless,the managers of protected areas do already in-spect these areas. The Institute for Nature Con-servation will guarantee the inspection of natureoutside these areas. The supervision of the imple-mentation of the provisions of the Nature Con-servation Act is also the responsibility of theSlovenian Forestry Service personnel who meetthe conditions stipulated by the law.
Police
The police is responsible for the supervisionof the implementation of specific regulationswhich guarantee the conservation of biologicaland landscape diversity in Slovenia. These are asfollows:
� Penal Code of the Republic of Slovenia;
� Nature Conservation Act;
� Animal Protection Act;
� Forests Act;
� Road Transport Safety Act;
� Decree on the prohibition on driving vehi-cles in the natural environment;
� Decree on the protection against fire in thenatural environment;
� Decree on the protection of wild fungi.
Customs Service
The implementation of the nature protectionmeasures is not the primary concern of the cus-toms authorities but is nevertheless an importantpart of their work. Its importance will only in-crease with the accession of Slovenia to the EU.In compliance with the Customs Act, prohibitionsand restrictions may be introduced for the move-ment of goods out of or into the customs terri-tory of Slovenia, in particular with regard to theprotection of public morality, safety, protectionof health and lives of people, animals and plants,protection of the environment, protection of thenational values of artistic, historic or archaeologi-cal nature or the protection of intellectual prop-erty rights. However, they are not covered by theCustoms Act but by other regulations.
The tasks and responsibilities of the customsauthorities are covered by the following regula-tions:
� Environmental Protection Act:
� Order on the prohibition of sale and im-port of vehicles without catalytic convert-ers;
� Decree on CO2 Tax;
� Order on the management of ozone-de-pleting substances;
� Decree on the protection of wild fungi;
� Order on the export, import and transit ofwastes;
� Nature Conservation Act;
� Decree on the protection of endangeredanimal species;
� Convention on International Trade in En-dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora:
� Order on the implementation of Resolu-tion No. 10.2 of the Conference of the Par-ties to the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fau-na and Flora:
�Forests Act;
� Animal Protection Act:
� Rules on the conditions and method oftransport of animals.
The regulations concerning nature conserva-tion have not often been breached. In most casesthe breaches concerned the illegal trade in en-dangered birds. Due to the global increase in theillegal trade in endangered species of wild faunaand flora, and because the relevant legislationhas been adopted, the customs officials partici-pated at numerous meeting and training coursesin 2000 and 2001. The events concerning the com-bating of the illegal trade in endangered birdswere organised by the DOPPS - BirdLife Sloveniaand the events concerning the implementationof the CITES by the Environmental Agency.
In 1998 the customs service participated inthe drawing up of the Decree on the protectionof wild fungi pursuant to which the export offresh or processed mushrooms from Slovenia isprohibited. It is permitted to export processedmushrooms which have been bought in Sloveniaand the purchase can be proved by the trader’sreceipt.
In general, the customs authorities control thepassenger transport at the border crossings andthe goods transport on the entire territory ofSlovenia. All live animals, raw materials of ani-mal origin (all types of game hides and skins,hunting trophies) and other shipments by whichcontagious diseases could enter Slovenia may beimported at specific border crossings where theveterinary inspector carries out the documenta-tion and identification inspection and physicallyinspects the goods. The same applies to the ship-ments of plants, parts thereof and plant productsby which pests could enter Slovenia. These ship-ments are inspected by the phytosanitary inspec-tors at specific border crossings. The border cus-toms authorities do not permit the use orutilisation of goods which have been permittedin accordance with the customs regulations un-til the competent inspector has issued an importpermit. With regard to the transport of goods it is
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mandatory to check whether a consent or permitpursuant to the Decree laying down import andexport regimes with regard to certain goods isneeded for the import of goods or whether otherprohibitions and restrictions are laid down inother regulations (for example in compliancewith Article 24(6) of the Veterinary Service Act,the importer of non-indigenous wild animals hasto obtain an consent issued by the competentminister).
Information systems
The information systems are vital for ensur-ing the basic support to decision-makers. Theyaffect the quality of the basic information whichis vital for the formulation of the relevant poli-cies and regulations. Such systems are indispens-able in ensuring the accurate information neededfor the keeping of international inventories andthe drawing up of national reports. The basicproblems in this field are:
� the fragmentation of data on biodiversity indifferent institutions; the quality of data var-ies and they are based on different method-ologies;
� unclear or undefined conditions for access-ing the data;
� lack of databases with computer support ac-cessible by the Internet and other networks;
� temporal and topical gaps concerning thecollection and processing of data;
� the lack of financial and human resourcesin the process of modifying old data intodigital format and their management.
Clearing house mechanism
The data bases with the relevant informationon biodiversity in Slovenia are mostly located atdifferent institutions or sectors. They are orga-nised in different ways, which makes them diffi-cult to access and to organise them in joint databases. With such joint data bases it would be pos-sible to reach knowledge-based and reasonabledecisions on actions to be taken. The Clearing-House Mechanism, founded as a process to bedeveloped in the course of the implementationof the Convention on Biological Diversity, hasbeen set up as a part of the information system.
The Clearing House Mechanism - CHM isan information and communication system forthe exchange of information on biodiversity; itsupports the implementation of the Conventionon Biological Diversity at the international andnational levels. At the same time it provides sup-port to the implementation of the convention and
facilitates the achieving of its goals within theframework of:
� collection, preparation, provision and shar-ing of data on biodiversity, i.e. the accessi-bility of the data bases or their managers,strategies, legislation, programmes, reports,projects, etc.;
� support and enhancement of expert andtechnical cooperation at all levels;
� participation of national bodies, expert andacademic institutions, local communities,non-governmental organisations, privatesector;
� communication through the electronic andother communication media with interna-tional and other national mechanisms forthe provision of data, the international con-ventions and organisations, and individu-als concerned with biodiversity.
The central Clearing-House Mechanism of theConvention, situated in Montreal, links the par-ties to the Convention and other users into thewide web http://www.biodiv.org/chm which con-tributes to the implementation of the principlesof the Convention. The CHM organises other part-nership projects, workshops and training pro-grammes in the developing countries. A similarinformation system found at http://www. sigov.si/mop/vsebina/cbd was set up in Slovenia in June2000. It provides the data concerning the follow-ing fields:
(Ph
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: Mar
ko S
imić
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Figure 190. Breznopod Velbom onKaninski podi: it isexceptional with a 501metre-deep entranceshaft. When discoveredit used to be the deepestvertical cave-entrancein the world. Most ofthe undergroundworld has beendiscovered by cavers.
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� national legislation on biodiversity;
� biodiversity in Slovenia;
� reports on the implementation of the Con-vention and other reports on biodiversity;
� addresses of institutions whose tasks are re-lated to the biodiversity conservation;
� list of the relevant projects;
� link to the Convention Secretariat and thecentral Clearing-House Mechanism;
� links to the international data bases, the leg-islation data bases and the documents rele-vant for the Convention.
With the establishment of the above men-tioned information system the requirements ofthe Aarhus Convention have been fulfilled in part.
NON-GOVERNMENTALORGANISATIONS
Role and importance of the non-govern-mental organisations in society
The term non-governmental organisations(NGO) in Slovenian praxis stands for the civilinitiative of the citizens organised in societies,institutes and institutions. Pursuant to the Societ-ies Act societies are open to the equal participa-tion of all citizens. Each member is given the rightto participate in the operation of a society. Simi-lar societies merge into associations to achievebetter organisation or to increase their influence.Institutes and institutions are organised byfounders who in their own judgement control theparticipation of other citizens in the operation ofthe institute or institution. In the areas which areimportant for the biodiversity conservation thesocieties mainly participate in the field work, inthe raising of public awareness and advocatingtheir beliefs. The institutes and institutions func-tion as non-profitable providers of services onthe market (including the raising of awarenessand educating) and as advocates of their beliefs.
In the past, mainly the environmental NGOsand their members made an important contribu-tion to biodiversity conservation and the imple-mentation of the activities concerning the Con-vention on Biological Diversity. In numerous Eu-ropean countries the citizens organised insocieties and associations carry out an impor-tant part of the work in the field of biodiversityconservation. This potential should be properlydeveloped in Slovenia. So far, the NGOs havehelped to conserve biodiversity in the followingways:
� the collection of data on natural heritage andthe state of biodiversity;
Some examples of data provided by NGOs:
DOPPS - BirdLife Slovenia: registers the nest-ing and wintering birds of Slovenia for the or-nithological atlases; records the nesting birdsin protected areas and in areas still to be pro-tected, monitors the waterbirds and some nest-ing birds (corn crake, white stork, commontern, etc.);
Slovenian Odonata Society gathers data forthe odonata atlas;
Societas Herpetologica Slovenica collectsdata on the area of distribution of amphibiansand reptiles;
Speleological Association of Slovenia:most data on caves and their fauna have beencontributed by speleologists organised in theAssociation, which keeps the Cave Register -the managed data base on caves; it is very im-portant for successful conservation of biodi-versity in subterranean habitats;
� raising awareness, educating and arousingenthusiasm of the general public - the NGOsand environmental and nature conservationorganisations, especially those with directaccess to the general public (via their publi-cations, regular meetings, organised edu-cation, etc.) play an important role in thestimulating public awareness (described inChapter on communication);
� youth camps organised for research and ed-ucation of youth (Hoče 1997, Mislinja 1998);
� focusing of work and funds on the biodiver-sity conservation - societies focus the workof volunteers and the funds on biodiversi-ty; the funds include finances which forvarious reasons are unavailable to the gov-ernmental organisations; the NGOs expressthe interest of a large part of the civil soci-ety and influence the policies; indirectly thefunds from the state budget are allocated tobiodiversity conservation.
Strategic importance of NGOs for thenature conservation
The NGOs participate in the implementationof the Convention on Biological Diversity, mainlyin the field of sustainable development. Studieson NGOs which contribute to the in situ conser-vation of biodiversity (nature conservationorganisations) have not yet been compiled. Ac-cording to the 2001 study, carried out by the Re-gional Environmental Centre for Central and East-ern Europe (REC), there are 107 environmentaland nature conservation organisations inSlovenia. The activities of 27 of them are focusedexclusively on the environment. In total 34organisations are mainly concerned with the en-
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vironment (50 - 100 % of activities are focused onthe environment), while for 23 organisations theenvironment is not their primary concern (lessthan 50 % of their activities are focused on it).
The NGOs are mainly concerned with
� providing information (70 NGOs);
� organising conferences and othermeetings (68 NGOs);
� education (67 NGOs);
� environmental education (65 NGOs);
� public awareness campaigns (63 NGOs);
� publications (61 NGOs);
� environmental monitoring (45 NGOs);
� organising public events (44 NGOs);
� research (41 NGOs);
� consultancy (42 NGOs);
� organising cleaning campaigns andcamps (37 NGOs);
� lobbying (36 NGOs);
� network (31 NGOs).
The main advantage of the NGOs is their abil-ity to implement the Convention on BiologicalDiversity directly by raising public awarenessand their influence on the developmental deci-sions at the regional level. The Natural HistorySociety is the oldest nature conservation NGO,but the one with most members is the DOPPS -BirdLife Slovenia.
With regard to the number of environmentalNGOs, those stand out which are engaged in en-vironmental education (72) and the nature con-servation (71). They are followed by theorganisations interested in biodiversity (39), for-mulation of environmental policy (39), publicparticipation (39), tourism/eco-tourism (38), wa-ter management (34) and protection of wild ani-mal species (32). Other fields include the envi-ronmental impact assessment (31), environmen-tal legislation (29), waste management (26),sustainable/organic farming (25), air quality/pol-lution (21), agriculture/pesticides (19), forestry(18), transport (16), climate change (15), energy(15) and economic instruments (9).
A more detailed presentation of the Slovenianenvironmental and nature conservation NGOsis available on the REC homepage (http://www.rec-lj.si) which monitors and updates theirinformation. Two data bases are particularly im-portant:
� the list of environmental NGOs in Sloveniaand the data base concerning the interest ofNGOs to participate in the decision-makingprocedures and in the preparation of plans,programmes and policies;
� the list of environmental NGOs in Sloveniafacilitates the search for information onNGOs by different keys; the data base onthe interest of NGOs to participate facilitatesthe inclusion of those NGOs which operatein a certain field or which carry out certainactivities/measures.
The areas in which other environmental NGOsare active, and which are (more or less) alsodirectly important for biodiversity include::
� agriculture/pesticides,
� air quality/air pollution,
� climate change,
� economical instruments,
� environmental impact assessment,
� environmental legislation,
� environmental policy making,
� energetics,
� forestry,
� public participation,
� sustainable/ecological agriculture,
� tourism/ecotourism,
� transport/traffic,
� waste disposal/management,
� water management.
In 2000 and 2001 the REC supported and coor-dinated the drawing up of the Programme of co-operation between environmental NGOs and the
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
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Figure 191. Katasterof the SpeleologicalAssociation ofSlovenia (in thepicture) housing allthe documentation onthe discovered caves.Caving is not justvisiting caves, caversthoroughly documenttheir work.
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Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning- Partnership for the Environment. The pro-gramme serves as a basis for the establishmentof the environmental partnership, the institutionalstrengthening of the environmental NGOs andtheir participation in the decision-making pro-cesses. With the adoption of the programme thegovernmental and non-governmental sector alikeaccepted the obligation to implement the envi-ronmental partnership. The programme, whichis in its initial phase, sets the specific objectives,mechanisms and activities for the establishmentof efficient cooperation.
In April 2001, the REC and the Ministry of theEnvironment and Spatial Planning organised thefirst environmental forum, at which the ministerand other representatives of the Ministry andNGOs discussed the main environmental prob-lems and the directions for more efficient coop-eration between the two sectors and the prioritydirections and possibilities for improving futurecooperation.
The governmental institutions and the NGOscooperate through:
� public tenders for NGOs;
� national and international projects;
� creating the opportunities provided by grant-ing the status of societies to organisationswhich participate in nature conservation(the Nature Conservation Act).
Pursuant to the Nature Conservation Act, theprofessional and amateur societies in the fieldof nature conservation carry out the activities inthe public interest in that part in which the pur-pose of the establishment of the society and itsactivities themselves extend beyond the reali-sation of the interests of the members of the soci-ety. The act stipulates the conditions for acquir-ing the status of a society acting in the publicinterest. A society acting in the public interesthas a right to act in the interest of nature conser-vation in all administrative procedures andadjucatory proceedings. The minister grants thestatus of a society acting in the public interest toany society which fulfils the conditions. It maynullify the status if the society ceases to meet thestipulated conditions.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Since 1991, Slovenia has substantially incre-ased the level of international cooperation in thefield of nature conservation. Cooperation andcontacts with the international non-governmen-tal organisations have been strengthened andvarious activities concerning the implementationof the international treaties - either succeeded
from the former Yugoslavia or signed and rati-fied anew - have been carried out. Slovenia ac-tively participates in all working bodies of theinternational conventions.
Accession to the EU
The central direction of Slovenia’s policy is toaccede to the European Union, and for that pur-pose its legislation has to be harmonised withthat of the EU. Accordingly, the legal andorganisational conditions for the implementa-tion of the Birds directive, Habitats directive andthe acquis concerning the trade in plant and ani-mal species are currently being reviewed in thenature conservation sector. The main aim is toestablish and conserve the areas included in theNATURA 2000 network.
Environment for Europe
The ministerial Environment for Europe pro-cess is important from the point of view of theimplementation of the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity, in particular in the following fields:
� the National Environmental Action Pro-gramme (NEAP) defines the objectives ofand priorities for the biodiversity conserva-tion and regulates the cooperation with theworking group responsible for drawing upthe NEAP within the OECD;
� the Report on the state of biodiversity, to beincluded in the Report on the state of theenvironment in Europe (Dobris Report); incooperation with the European Environ-ment Agency (EEA) Slovenia participates inthe uniform system for collecting and re-porting of environmental data, in particularthrough the EIONET;
� the Pan-European Biological and Land-scape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS) forms afoundation for the regional (Pan-European)implementation of the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity. Slovenia chairs the Strate-gy Council from 1998 until 2003.
Ministerial conferences on the protec-tion of forests in Europe
Slovenia actively participates at these confer-ences, and the Ministry of Agriculture, forestryand food cooperates with members of otherstates in the drawing up of work programmes.
Bilateral contacts and activities
Protected areas, protection of water sourcesand local developments are the main areas of
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208 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
cooperation between Slovenia and neighbouringcountries. Some examples include:
� with Austria, proposals to establish protect-ed areas: a trilateral protected area betweenGoričko (Slovenia) - Raab (Austria) - Örseg(Hungary) and a bilateral protected area inthe Karavanken and Kamnik-Savinja Alps(an INTERREG project);
� with Hungary and Austria, a trilateral pro-tected area in Goričko and along the MuraRiver;
� with Croatia, protected areas of Žužemberk-Gorjanci; the Kolpa, Drava and Mura Rivers;
� with Italy, a protected area in Karst and Tržič/Molfoncone;
� Alpe-Jadran, an agreement of cooperationbetween Italy, Austria, Croatia and Slovenia.
DEFICIENCY OF THEBIODIVERSITY CONSERVATIONINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The analysis of institutional deficiency issummarised from GEF & UNEP Report (2000).
Institutional level
At the institutional level, capacity develop-ment focuses on the overall organisational per-formance and functioning capabilities of thesingle institution, as well as its ability to adapt tochanges. The effectiveness of their work suffersfrom the overall and deep changes in the politi-cal, administrative and social system whichSlovenia has been undergoing. These are, at thesame time, the main causes of changes or imbal-ances in their institutional mandates. Manage-ment of human, information and financial re-sources in public institutions is influenced bythe capacities at the system level, such as salarystructure, budgetary allocations, procedures, re-sponsibilities as well as skills and abilities of in-dividuals.
Universities and research institutions are suf-fering from a rapid decline in funding both sci-ence and education. Fundraising efforts and thestruggle for survival may have a negative impacton the fulfilment of their missions and mandates,since accessibility of funds has become a crite-rion overruling the needs for research in certainareas.
1. Capacity constraints in the Managementof Institutions:
� lack of qualified and properly skilled per-sonnel to manage institutions in the condi-tion of a market economy, resulting in weakmanagement, oversight and enforcement,
� lack of team work within the institutions.
2. Capacity constraints in the Staff Manage-ment Policies:
� salary structures and the incentives systemwithin the public institutions not possiblyaffect the individuals’ motivation,
� management systems do not reward indi-vidual initiative and achievements, and thisdoes not create an environment for effec-tive use of individual skills,
� general lack of certain professions workingin the area of biodiversity due to deficien-cies in education system.
3. Capacity constraints in the Financial Reso-urces framework:
� public institutions in general, and particu-larly those of the environment, educationand research sectors tend, to be underfund-ed to the extent that it hinders their effectivefunctioning,
� insufficient opportunities for alternative fi-nancing through the existing institutionalframework of biodiversity projects.
Institutions mandated with activities whichare relevant to the conservation of biodiversity
Some examples of co-operation with otherinternational non-governmental organisa-tions on nature conservation:
� IUCN (The World Conservation Union) -Slovenia co-operates with the organisa-tion’s headquarters, its European Region-al Office, Commissions (World Commis-sion on Protected Areas, Species SurvivalCommission, Commission on Educationand Communication);
� REC - the Environmental Action Pro-gramme for Central and Eastern Europe,Sofia initiative for biodiversity conserva-tion in Central and Eastern Europe;
� UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Cen-tre (UNEP-WCMC) - exchange of data onprotected areas and threatened species;
� BirdLife International - a programme ofwork on Important Bird Areas (IBA), work-ing with the partner organisation in Slove-nia;
� PLANTA EVROPA - project on botanicallyimportant areas;
� EUROPARC - participation in exchange ofexperience and staff working in protectedareas (PHARE);
� ICOMOS - International Council on Mon-uments and Sites, its National Committe isworking in Slovenia (ICOMOS/SI);
� Eurosilva - Forest Tree Physiology Re-search.
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and sustainable use of its components frequentlylack effective means to co-ordinate the activitiesand gathering information, or even simply tocommunicate with other actors. The main con-straint in this respect is the unclear distributionof responsibilities for activities related to theConvention on Biological Diversity among Gov-ernment agencies, the private sector and civilsociety.
Human resources. The availability of hu-man resources for conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity within the country isinfluenced by a number of factors including, butnot limited to, quality of education and profes-sional training, attractiveness of certain profes-sions, pay and incentive systems in different sec-tors, etc. The main capacity constraints in thisfield are:
� lack of qualified staff in the public sector,
� lack of opportunities for decision makersto receive training in novel concepts rele-vant to sustainable development, includingbiodiversity conservation,
� gaps in curricula at all academic levels,
� environmental education lacks an econom-ic background,
� education in social and economic fieldslacks a background on environmental is-sues, hence the general level of understand-ing of linkages between the environment
and development is low, and the conse-quences of biodiversity loss are not under-stood,
� lack of qualified lecturers in certain fields,particularly in environmental policy andeconomies and in environmental commu-nication.
Individual level
The general level of knowledge and technicalskills among decision makers concerning thecountry’s environmental problems is satisfac-tory, however, managerial and communicationskills are inadequate at all levels of administra-tion. Scientific capacity is generally available, butthere is a critical lack of certain professions work-ing in the area of the environment - above all en-vironmental economists, environmental lawyersand bank analysts concentrating on the economicand financial analysis of environmental and na-ture conservation projects. Consultation inbiodiversity relevant fields is still not an estab-lished practice. An important general deficiencyis also the lack of training opportunities, on theone hand, and the lack of interest in adequatetraining on the other. Capacity building is notbased on a program approach; instead, there pre-vails the project approach, leading to low-prior-ity projects and not allowing for the main capac-ity gaps to be bridged.
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210 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
211
DOMESTIC FINANCIALRESOURCES
Budget appropriations are the fundamentalsource of funds intended for the nature conser-vation. In total 0.07 % of the budget appropria-tions is available to the nature conservation sec-tor.
Other resources:
� the analysis of the share of the funds indi-rectly allocated to the nature conservationthrough other sectors (within the frameworkof environmental protection, agriculture, taxreliefs) has not yet been carried out and isthus a priority;
� the analysis of the ecological funds of theeconomic operators and sponsors (for ex-ample Helios or Mobitel Funds) intendedfor the nature conservation projects or cam-paigns has not yet been carried out;
� the analysis of the share of the financial re-sources of NGOs, which are funded fromthe budget, by sponsors and from voluntarywork, has not yet been carried out.
FOREIGN FINANCIAL RESOURCES
Several international projects, focused on theestablishment of protected areas, are currentlybeing carried out in Slovenia. The Governmentsof the Netherlands and Great Britain and the Eu-ropean Union provide financial assistance for thepreparation of projects, the exchange of experi-ence and study visits. Main financial assistance:
� The Global Environmental Facility (GEF)- financing of the project concerning the na-tional biological and landscape diversitystrategy; the project includes the overviewof the state of biological and landscape di-versity, and the strategy with the correspond-ing sectoral and action plans.
FINANCIAL
RESOURCESFigure 192. Partnership orany other type of cooperationbetween the State and theprivate sector - includingindustry and NGOs - isimportant for nature conser-vation. An example of goodpractice is the Helios trustfundfor the conservation of watersin Slovenia. It provided fundsfor cleaning up the caveslocated in the catchment areasof the sources of drinkingwater.
212 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� LIFE - in 1994 the project concerning the es-tablishment of the Notranjska Park and theNotranjska karst UNESCO biosphere areawas carried out; the LIFE financial supportamounted to EUR 169,000, the contributionof Slovenia to the financing of the projectwas equal to the EU support.
In 2000 Slovenia became equal to the EUmember states in responding to the calls forexpression of interest. In the past it wasgranted funds from the LIFE-third countriesprogramme but in the period from 2000 un-til 2004 it can also draw funds from the LIFE-nature and LIFE-environment programmes.The general objective of the LIFE is to offersupport to projects which contribute to theimplementation and development of theCommunity environmental policy, the inte-gration of the environment into other poli-
cies and to sustainable development. Thespecific objective of LIFE III-nature is tocontribute to the implementation of the Di-rective on the conservation of natural habi-tats and of wild fauna and flora (92/43/EEC)and the Directive on the conservation of wildbirds (79/409/EEC). The maximum rate con-tributed for the project by the Commissionis 75 %.
The European Commission has received310 project proposals from 5 accession can-didate countries in the total amount of 80.6million. Among the projects, those havebeen selected which in the Commission’sopinion significantly contribute to the na-ture conservation at the European level, inparticular to the implementation of the‘Natura 2000’ network. Of 94 projects, 3 havebeen proposed by Slovenia. In total they
� PHARE
project name project description funds fundsprovided provided by EU by Slovenia
PHARE CBC 1994 400,000 euro 100,000 euroTIMAV/KARST PARKSL-9403.02.01-04
PHARE CBC 1995 490,000 euro 110,000 euroTRIGLAV NATIONAL PARKSL-9506.02.02
PHARE CBC SLO/H/A 1995 560,000 euro 140,000 euroTRI-N-NATURE PARKGORIČKO-ORSEG-RAAB1995 ZZ - 9524.01
PHARE 1996 300,000 euro 60,000 euroPROJECT PREPARATIONFACILITY
PHARE CBC 1997 100,000 euro 20,000 euroNATURAL MONUMENTDOLŽANOVA SOTESKASL-9702.05.04
PHARE CBC SI/H 2000 1,600,000 euro 625,000 euroJOINT NATURE PARKDEVELOPMENTSI.00.08.01
The integral analysis of the results of the listed projects has not been carried out.
Technical support for establishment of Karst Re-gional Park (Fundaments for Management Plan,Park Management Office renovation and equip-ment (Škocjan 2), small funds, education)
Technical support for Triglav National Park (Fun-daments for Management Plan, environmentalsanation of mountain posts, renovation of thePocar’s home, education - rangers)
Trilateral Nature Park Orseg-Raab-Goričko (Inven-tory of the region, zonation, DevelopmentProgramme, Grad castle sanation, Bicycle routes)
Management Plan for recreational use of the up-per Soča valley (Setting in place access points tothe river, parking)
Setting in place Dovžanova soteska trail, Infrastruc-ture for water supply
Technical support for establishment of LandscapePark Goričko (Management Plan, managementstructure/office, education, Information OfficeGrad castle, promotion of old crafts)
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amounted to 849,835 Euro. The projects are:
� peat bogs in the Triglav National Park;
� restoration and protection of habitats andthe protection of birds in Škocjanski zatok;
� management plan for dry grasslands inthe mountain pastures of Oslica andVetrnik (Kozjansko Regional Park).
� PIN MATRA - The Netherlands Governmenthas financed and co-financed two projects:
� the project concerning the establishmentof the Sežnik Regional Park (from 1996 to1999) in the amount of 92,500 Euro, and
� two projects concerning the Communica-tion support to the nature conservation(1999 and 2001) in the amount of 5,220Euro.
� AVALON - The Netherlands’ Government fi-nanced the project concerning the introduc-tion of organic farming in the Triglav Na-tional Park in the amount of 41,030 Euro.
� EUROPARC EXPERTISE EXCHANGE.
MAJOR DEFICIENCIESOF THE FINANCIAL FUNDS
The main capacity constraints are:
� government funds allocation to activities rel-evant to the implementation of the Conven-tion on Biological Diversity is insufficientdue to environmental matters having re-ceived less attention than production sec-tors,
� lack of transparency in financing actions toconserve and sustainably use biodiversitysince the Convention on Biological Diversi-ty is implemented through different sectors,
� low incentives, or none at all, for the privatesector to finance actions addressing globalenvironmental challenges,
� banking sector insufficiently involved in fi-nancing environmental and sustainable useprojects,
� lack of alternative financing opportunities,
� insufficient co-ordination of external aidand its projected direction,
� lack of capacities in all sectors and in localcommunities to identify, draft and imple-ment biodiversity projects and negotiaterelevant agreements,
� lack of schemes which would provide grantsor soft loans to non-governmental stake-holders,
� lack of project management skills at all lev-els,
� lack of knowledge, interest and skills for rais-ing international financial resources.
(Ph
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)
Figure 193. Animalsare used as motifs on allSlovenian tolar coins.
FINANCIAL RESOURCES
214 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
215
A key element in the area of nature conserva-tion and environmental protection is raising theawareness of every persons right to live in ahealthy environment and both their individualresponsibility and societies responsibility to thatend. Only then can the public play an active rolein decision-making processes which change con-sumer activity and production patterns. The ac-tive involvement of society in the process of shap-ing and implementing specific policy is a prereq-uisite for real advancement towards sustainabledevelopment.
Strategic role of environmental educa-tion and communication is emphasised aboveall in following international documents and con-ventions:
� Global Biodiversity Strategy, WRI, IUCN,UNEP, 1992;
� Caring for the Earth. A Strategy for Sustain-able Living. IUCN, NEP, WWF, 1991;
� Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio deJaneiro, 1992);
� Agenda 21 (Rio de Janeiro, 1992);
� Pan-European Biological and Landscape Di-versity Strategy (PEBLDS, Sofija, 1995)
� The Aarhus Convention (Aarhus, 1998).
In spite of the general support that environ-mental education enjoys, being regarded, for onething, as important groundwork for the imple-mentation of international conventions and otherdocuments, the actual political will to carry thisout is demonstrated only through a modest shareof financial, technical and human resources.
No scientific literature or studies on biodiver-sity and the communication of broader natureconservation issues exists in Slovenia. The datathat has been collected, based on the knowledgeand the experiences of environmental and otherorganisations and individuals, barely allows evalu-ation of the existing position, although this
evaluation ought to be thoroughly analysed infuture.
The ratification and implementation of theAarhus Convention will bring fundamental modi-fications to the field of environmental commu-nication and public participation in environmen-tal issues. The recommendations of the conven-tion are of crucial importance in that they willenable higher efficiency of governmental andnon-governmental organisations and assure effi-cient participation of non-governmental organi-sations in the preparation of environmental pro-tection guidance and laws.
The State stipulates nature conservation andenvironmental policy, implements corre-sponding regulations, co-ordinates inter-ministerial co-operation, provides financesand similar, although it cannot be efficient indoing this without both political consensusand public support.
Sustainable development requires co-opera-tion between all social and economic sectors.Biodiversity conservation issues are complexand only manageable if all concerned are ca-pable of either efficient inter-sectoral co-opera-tion or, of assuring public participation in thedevelopment and implementation of nature con-servation and environmental policy.
Improvement of the environment, nature con-servation, economic development and democra-tisation are closely connected. Democratisationis one condition for sustainable development as,only in a democracy, can the public express itsdesire for healthier surroundings and the preser-vation of biological diversity.
Non-governmental organisations can be suc-cessful mediators between the general public,State and other stakeholders. A strong environ-mental movement influences the formation andrealisation of government policies. The role of
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non-governmental organisations can be crucialin stimulating the general public into accepting alifestyle more compatible with biodiversity con-servation.
Actions aimed at environmental educationand raising the awareness of the general publicto the significance of biodiversity conservation,play an important role in this process. Humanbeings generally change their behaviour only ifthe change brings them health, financial, moral,ethical or any other benefits. That is why com-munication and education plays an importantrole in motivating people towards biodiversityconservation. This directly follows on from theopportunity to participate in decision-makingprocesses and have access to justice, as theAarhus Convention foresees.
Slovenian strategic documents on environ-mental protection and nature conservation con-vey, in principle, the need for public awarenessand education, but do not in any way - neitherpolitically, strategically nor institutionally - ad-dress this issue. They lack statutory or formalfoundations as well as organisation, human re-sources and finances.
Generally speaking, planned and targeted en-vironmental education and communicationabout biodiversity and other environmental is-sues are still in the early stages of developmentin Slovenia. There is a significant deficiency inbackground information, training programmesand their implementation, especially in voca-tional and technical education as well as all othercommunication activities. The situation is a littlebetter in the field of education about pollution.
The reasons for the current unsatisfactorycommunication about biodiversity conservationare above all:
� Insufficient awareness by political and na-ture conservation management staff thatstrategic and planned communication is akey efficiency factor for implementation ofa particular policy;
� Conservation of biodiversity is not per-ceived as being a high national priority. Thisis demonstrated by the tendency to reducethe natural science element of the curricu-lum, as well as through a reduction in thestate budget funds allocated for nature con-servation as a whole;
� Insufficient awareness of professional vo-cational services - as the general subject ofbiology has been reduced or eliminated.This subject, with its ecological content, al-lows the comprehension of biodiversity andits relation to sustainable developmentwhereas the more ‘academic’ subjects donot consider sustainable development andthe use of natural resources;
� Insufficient knowledge by government andnon-governmental organisation employeesabout the methods and effectiveness ofproper communication. There are current-ly limited possibilities for such training, assupply and demand regarding this subjecthas not yet been quantified. Even thoughthere is an obvious need for such knowl-edge, only an ad-hoc training approach ex-ists in this area providing limited opportu-nities for either the gaining of theoreticaland practical knowledge or through ‘followup’ training;
� Profile the inadequacy and limited capabil-ity of educational organisations and organ-isations to provide different types of train-ing courses on biodiversity conservation,environment protection and sustainabledevelopment. For example the SlovenianAdult Education Centre, Academy of Admin-istration and other similar organisations.The Nature Conservation Service has noeducational facilities, while its modest bud-get merely allows ad-hoc opportunities foroccasional training, which is mostly depen-dant on foreign financial aid;
� Although there is an opportunity to obtainthe legal status of a “society acting in thepublic interest”, the State has not developedappropriate methods for co-operation withnon-governmental organisations in the fieldof biological diversity and preservation ofnatural values. This co-operation currentlyonly functions through individual projectsgiving isolated or partial results that lack anyoverall evaluation of achievement;
� The lack of a common business and com-munication culture as well as the presenceof ‘conventional views’ on co-operation,partnership and public participation;
� Insufficient co-ordination between develop-ment and conservation activities - althoughthis directly affects the efficient use of cur-rent institutional capabilities and the corre-sponding positioning of the activities in theenvironment;
� Communication between the governmentand the stakeholders is fragmented or in-sufficient;
� Only moderate experience regarding pub-lic debates and efficient integration of thepublic in the decision making processes (forhistorical reasons there has always been anunderestimating the importance of commu-nication in the process of achieving socialconsensus);
� Insufficient institutional capability and in-terest by local authorities in forming localsustainable development policies - success
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in achieving the goals of the Convention onBiological Diversity relies on fulfilment ofdemands at the local level, where peopledirectly influence biodiversity. With regardsto biodiversity there is a marked absence ofa regional level in the country’s organisa-tional framework.
ENVIRONMENTALCOMMUNICATION
Environmental communication is a two-wayprocess of social interaction (Oepen & Hama-cher, 2000), allowing people to understand keyenvironmental issues, their mutual co-depen-dence, and is aimed at their active involvementin solving environmental problems. The purposeof environmental communication is not merelyin providing information but involves shaping acommon vision on a continuous future as wellas in strengthening social capacities for solvingor avoiding nature conservation and environ-mental problems.
One-way communication (top down) pre-vails in Slovenia. This originates from a ‘tradi-tional’ model of communication, based oncentralised decision-making by a small group,informing the general public and defending de-cisions. The general public plays a relatively pas-sive role in this model of communication. Gov-ernmental and non-governmental organisationsuse the so-called ‘instructive model of com-munication’, assuming that the general publicneed additional knowledge following which theirbehaviour will automatically change.
Research and experience indicate that peopledo not tend to change their behaviour and life-style solely based on knowledge. Communica-tion represents a mechanism for achieving goals,being highly efficient in combination with otherinstruments, financial, economic and technologi-cal, all of which can lead to different behaviourpatterns and desired changes.
The contemporary communication approachis two-way, based on the active public participa-tion in the decision-making process. This ap-proach allows us an opportunity to avoid ob-stacles which may lie in the path to solutions.This ‘constructive model of communica-tion’ is based on the existing knowledge of indi-viduals and communities and is derived from anunderstanding and assessment of their needs. Theaim is to expand on existing capabilities and de-velop current potentials. This form of communi-cation is still in its early development stages inSlovenia, but a good example of this model (de-spite its initial problems) was the establishmentof the Snežnik Regional Park, a project co-fi-nanced by the Dutch government through theMATRA programme.
The use of adequate communication meth-ods and resources is of crucial importance inachieving success. Typically the combination ofthe following proves to be most efficient:
� Direct communication (hearings, group dis-cussion, telephone calls, conferences, work-shops, symposiums, round tables, exhibi-tions etc.);
� Communication through mass media - print-ed or electronic (newspapers, reviews, pressconferences, brochures, manuals, radio,television, internet etc.);
� Raising awareness, education and training.
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Direct communication
Regardless of which mode of communicationis necessary for achieving efficient results on thepreservation of biological diversity, it is crucialthat basic conditions are met. These conditionsare primarily: appropriate problem analysis;analysis of the factors generating the problems;definition of the communication goals; identifi-cation of concerned parties (target groups); se-lection of appropriate methods and communi-cation channels; and promotion, assessment andupgrading of results.
The most frequent types of direct communi-cation are:
� Conferences and consultations, e.g. the Con-ference on the Drava-Mura biosphere re-serve; the annual conference of the EURO-PARC Association; the Ramsar Conference;
� Workshops, e.g. “The foundation of theSnežnik Regional Park”, “Revitalisation ofquarries in the Karst region”, “Sustainabledevelopment in the Karst region”, “Instruc-tive workshop on ways of governing andmanaging protected regions”, “Prevention ofcriminal activities involving birds in Eu-rope”, an expert and inter-ministerial work-shop on the preparation of “BiodiversityConservation Strategy“, “Farming, natureconservation and tourism along the Murariver” and agri-environmental programmes
Figure 194. In 1996, inČrna na Koroškem theState Authority forNature Conservationand the Losehill StudyCentre from Englandorganised a workshopon nature conservationfor school teachers.
218 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
for agricultural consultancy services, natureconservation services and non-governmen-tal organisations;
� Information line - a telephone number avail-able to future residents of the Snežnik Re-gional Park which will allow them to askquestions and offer suggestions;
� Media and internet contacts to support di-rect communication.
Although it has often been found that there isinsufficient inter-ministerial co-operation inSlovenia, conditions are improving in this area.This is especially the case in forestry, which hastraditionally incorporated nature-preservationprincipals into its legislation and programmes.Even though other areas of the agricultural sec-tor are still insufficiently represented by inter-ministerial co-operation, successful co-operationhas been established between the Ministry ofTransport and the Ministry of Environment andSpatial Planning with respect to the highwaynetwork, at consultancy meetings with individualministries in the framework of preparing the“Biodiversity Conservation Strategy” and in re-lated action plans. Initial steps have also beentaken by the nature conservation service on co-operation in the preparation of the state develop-ment programme (regional developmentprogramme), and noticeable progress has beenreported in the area of inter-ministerial co-opera-tion in the mining sector.
Mass media communication
According to the data from Netherlands aboutthe impact of mass media on viewers or readers(Rientjens, 2000), we learn that the average citi-zen can currently choose from 35 television chan-nels that broadcast on average 20 hours ofprogrammes a day. Viewers, however, watch only0.4 % of everything that is on offer. For newspa-pers, the figures are a little better, but on averagewe read less than 10 % of all the information pro-vided. We tend to read, listen or watch those itemsthat interest us and does not upset us. In this re-spect the impact of the mass media on changingour behaviour patterns regarding nature conser-vation or environment issues is rather limited.But, nevertheless, the mass media is indispens-able and powerful at:
� Giving factual information to a large audi-ence;
� Drawing attention to an issue;
� Stimulating discussion;
� Putting pressure on politicians and indus-try;
� Getting people to do something if they arealready virtually convinced it is a good thing.
Despite unrealistic expectations, mass mediacannot resolve problems and conflicts of inter-est, radically change people’s attitudes orbehaviour and develop consensus within soci-ety, but they can and do help. These are tasks tobe undertaken by nature conservation staff andpoliticians and that requires planned - analyticaland strategic - direct communication with stake-holders groups who have the power and meansto make the changes.
Mass media messages are effective only incombination with direct communication. An ad-ditional problem with mass media communica-tion is that people rarely have the chance to sayanything back. There is usually no easy way ofknowing whether the message reached them,whether they understood it, or whether theyagreed with it. Respecting these limitations theeffect of communication remains unclear.
The issue of nature conservation is reason-ably well covered by Slovenian means of com-munication and the coverage and quality of themessages can be categorised as:
� News and reports;
� Articles demonstrating the inadequate veri-fication of sources on ‘both sides’ and a sen-sationalist approach (focusing on extremeevents). The ‘eco-fundamentalist’ approachcan be seen only in rare instances;
� The subject of nature conservation usuallymakes the headlines during crises, givingthe impression that nature conservation andbiological diversity are considered a prob-lem and not primarily an opportunity;
� Articles and reports aimed at raising aware-ness.
Since biological diversity is lagging in signifi-cance in regard to the problems relating to na-ture conservation (i.e. there are public surveysregarding environmental questions, but no sur-veys on biological diversity), a detailed analysisis necessary regarding the methods, content andeffects of communicating information about bio-logical diversity.
Printed media
Newspapers and periodicals. None of theSlovenian newspapers or periodicals has a col-umn or a page dedicated to the subject of envi-ronment protection or nature conservation andbiodiversity. Articles covering these issues arepublished irregularly, with short news reportspredominating. The subject matter may be no-ticed from time to time in ‘’letters to the editor’’and a few newspaper supplements, for examplein the supplement “Knowledge for Development”in the newspaper Delo.
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Technical and popular science publica-tions. There are no specialist publications dedi-cated to bringing together professionals and pub-lic to ensure a steady circulation and flow of in-formation about nature conservation. This taskwas performed, years ago, by the magazines “Na-ture Conservation” and “Our Environment”.
Technical and popular science magazineswhich occasionally cover topics related to na-ture conservation are “Acta Carseologica”, “Karst”,“Our Caves”, “Forestry Herald”, “EnvironmentalUpbringing in Schools”, “VITRina”, etc. Other pe-riodicals are published by numerous non-govern-mental organisations, even though their circula-tion is somewhat limited and heavily reliant onboth public interest and the availability of finan-cial resources.
Publishing houses periodically issue mono-graphs and similar literature involving natureconservation issues. For example, “A hundrednatural curiosities of Slovenia”, “Natural curiosi-ties of Posočje”, etc. There are no manuals or text-books covering biological diversity in Slovene,the closest being “Protective Biology” and “Naturein Slovenia - its condition and perspectives” (Soci-ety of Ecologists of Slovenia, 1996).
Bulletins. The Ministry of Environment andSpatial Planning has regularly published a freebulletin since 1994, occasionally including infor-mation on topics related to nature conservation,including biodiversity. It is circulated internallyas well as to other ministries, the media, non-gov-ernmental organisations, etc.
The Slovenian Environmental Agency pub-lishes a free bulletin that is primarily designedfor local residents of the future Snežnik RegionalPark. This introduces them to the significant ideasbehind of the establishing of the park, advisingthem about the natural features, giving examplesof good practice and providing them with an-swers to their questions.
Electronic media
Radio and television. Periodic coverage ofcurrent events related to biodiversity and natureconservation is limited to daily news progra-mmes. Certain TV and radio programmes, suchas “Gore in ljudje”, “Sprehodi v naravo”, “Tednik”and “Studio ob 17-ih”, are characterised as beingmore thematic. Numerous documentary progra-mmes associated with biodiversity or other na-ture conservation issues are imported (animalprogrammes prevailing), the majority of these areof superior quality. Particularly noticeable areprogrammes produced by the BBC. This kind oftelevision production is in short supply in Slo-venia.
Radio (like all other local or regional media)can be of great support in disseminating ideasand information to a precisely defined (target)region for a precisely defined (target) public.Local (regional) media has a large audience,as it reports from a familiar domestic environ-ment. Postojna’s Radio 94 is a typical exampleof an insufficiently used opportunity to gainsupport for the founding of the Snežnik Park.The radio station covers the entire park region,it has no competition, and it is popular andhas a team capable of producing programmeswhich people like to listen to.
The Internet. An increasing number of gov-ernmental, research and other professional insti-tutions, private companies and non-governmen-tal organisations have their own internet home-pages, thus contributing their share of infor-mation and promotion related to biodiversityconservation.
Principal limitations ofmass media communication
Some limitations of mass media communica-tion are:
� Insufficient awareness or media interest inpursuing problems related to the impor-tance of biological and landscape diversityas well as their association with socio-economic development. The currentcoverage is insufficiently systematic andsometimes even biased;
COMMUNICATING, PUBLIC AWARENESS, ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
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ko S
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Figure 195. The StateAuthority for NatureConservation - since2001 the Environmen-tal Agency of theRepublic of Slovenia -issues publicationsaddressed to differenttarget groups.
220 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
� There is no systematic approach to environ-mental training of journalists or journalis-tic/media training for environmental pro-fessionals. There are only a few authors ca-pable of covering nature conservation issuesamongst environmental themes in Slovenia;
� There is no investigative journalism cover-ing topics on nature conservation, includ-ing biodiversity;
� Lack of skills as well as insufficient person-nel and financial resources of nature con-servation services being assigned to mediacampaigns, as well as insufficient interac-tion between the nature conservation sec-tor and journalists and the media in a broad-er sense.
PUBLIC AWARENESS
Awareness raising is based on the notion thatexperiential learning and both spiritual and in-tuitive perception can trigger an emotional in-volvement (Oepen, 2000). In practice this ap-proach is often used rather unsystematically. Thisis characteristic of nature conservation effort inSlovenia too.
Our public is quite positive towards speciesdiversity conservation. The protection of differ-ent plant species during the last hundred yearshas helped to raise awareness of the need fornature conservation in general. But public per-ception concerning the protection of animal spe-
cies is highly sensitive (for example, there are ne-gative attitudes towards reptiles, “vermin”, etc.).
In essence, protection of animal species hassufficient public support although the situationis a volatile one. The relationship that people havetowards large animals such as bears, is typical.The public almost unanimously condemned theculling of bears in 1999, while the same publicvigorously demanded and accomplished the kill-ing of a female bear and her cubs in 1997 afterthe bear accidentally caused serious personalinjuries to a human being.
An improvement of awareness regarding na-ture conservation has been accomplished in thelast decade by enhancing the awareness of theprotection of birds which, incidentally, largelyenjoy a positive emotional public response. Thispositive response is primarily accomplished bycampaigns aimed at broad population segments.For example, the campaign, run by DOPPS -BirdLife Slovenia and the company Mobitel, in-tended for mobile phone users). This originalapproach attracted people (e.g. a compact diskabout Slovenian birds aimed at schools andSlovenian birds being displayed on urban trans-port buses in Slovenian cities).
Indigenous cultivated plants and domesticanimal breeds are parts of biodiversity but thepublic has been aware of them only recentlythanks to the Convention on Biological Diversity.Issues regarding genetics are not usually per-ceived or viewed in the context of biodiversityconservation.
Activities aimed at publicawareness
In recent years, The Nature Conservation Au-thority of the Republic of Slovenia and RegionalInstitutes for the Protection of Natural and Cul-tural Heritage have published, on average, twobrochures annually, plus leaflets and posters. Forexample, a brochure on “Landscape Park Dra-gonja”, a leaflet on the banning of driving in thenatural environment, thematic posters about “Thepearls of the Slovenian natural environment” and“Richness is in diversity”, etc. The Nature Conser-vation Authority has also co-financed the produc-tion of some publications on the initiative of lo-cal communities or other institutions and non-governmental organisations. For example“Encountering the bear”, “Natural heritage in theČrnomelj municipality”, “Water richness of theHigh Karst”, “Pathways by mills”, etc.)
Public institutes that manage protected areasplay an important role in awareness raising. Oneof the primary objectives of parks is the task ofintroducing nature and nature conservation ac-tivities to their visitors. Messages that are con-(P
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Figure 196. Naturaltrails and descriptionof natural values canhelp raising theawareness of thegeneral public.
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veyed to visitors by park authorities have a sig-nificant influence on the general public sincelarge numbers visit these areas.
One of the most successful proponents ofpublic awareness raising and promoting natureconservation is the Triglav National Park, whichhas an exemplary information centre at Log inthe Trenta valley. This is visited by more than20,000 visitors per year, with school groups fore-most. Protected areas authorities publish bro-chures and leaflets. They co-operate with schoolslocated in the park regions and co-operation withlocal residents has been intensifying lately. Re-gardless of this success, however, there is stillinsufficient use of parks in promotion of natureconservation and biodiversity.
In addition to publications, there are specialnature conservation actions dedicated to publicawareness raising (for example, interpretation ofnatural monuments or other protected areas, na-ture trails like the Karst nature trail from Lebicato Krupa, the water trail along the Temenica river,and the natural science trail in Rakov Škocjan),observation points and information centres (forexample, the information centre in Paštba and inthe former school near Dovžanova soteska andthe presentation room in Jelševnik).
A number of important leaf lets aboutbiodiversity have been contributed to, or pub-lished by, highly active non-governmentalorganisations (thematic publications by DOPPS- BirdLife Slovenia, for example “Bee-keeper”,“Slovenian agriculture and birds”, thematic pub-lications of the Society for Ornithology and Na-ture Conservation like “Hedges in cultural land-scape”).
Campaigns and theme days
� European Nature Conservation Year:Non-governmental organisations, public in-stitutes and individual experts participatedin the European Nature Conservation Year.At the end of the campaign the Ministry ofthe Environment and Spatial Planning pub-lished a booklet gathering data on projectsthat have been carried out during this cam-paign.
� Geotrip: Since 1995 the Ministry of the En-vironment and Spatial Planning (Environ-mental Agency) has co-ordinated the “Geot-rip” campaign which was launched by TheEuropean Association for the Conservationof the Geological Heritage (ProGEO) andaims to make the public aware of the mean-ing of geology and need for conservationof the geological heritage as well as high-lighting the links with other nature conser-vation issues and sustainable development.The Geotrip campaign started in EuropeanNature Conservation Year.
� Europe, a common heritage campaign(Council of Europe 1999/2000) aimed tomake people aware of their natural and cul-tural heritage, strengthening the feeling ofcommon European citizenship and toler-ance towards different groups. One of theobjectives was to strengthen the status ofnatural and cultural heritage and to use theireconomical and social development poten-tial. Amongst other numerous projects andactivities were examples such as, a Pan-Eu-ropean network of natural heritage interpre-tation centres, a Landscape Award from theCouncil of Europe, an International photo-graphic competition, Industrial heritageevents, a Day of European Heritage, a Pan-European colloquium about tourism andenvironment (natural, cultural and socio-economic shares of sustainable tourism),an international conference entitled “Sus-tainable development and tourism”, etc.
� The International Year of Bats (Secre-tariat of the Eurobats agreement at the BonnConvention, 2001): the purpose of this cam-paign is to raise public awareness of bats,their significance and endangered status.
� European (World) Bird-Watching Day:the purpose of this campaign is to raise pub-lic awareness of the importance that birdshave for humans, as well as about the im-plementation of measures aimed at natureconservation.
� Theme days are dedicated to awarenessraising as well, concentrating on a specificissue. For example, the International Day onBiodiversity, Wetlands World Day, Earth Day,World Water Day, and European Park Day.
� Some institutions organise traditionaldays or “open door” days. The forestrysector, for example, prepares an annual for-estry week which is primarily intended tointroduce forestry themes to schoolchil-dren. Schools have as part of their regular
Figure 197. KočevskiRog on Kopa. In thecentre of a large forestarea a natural stand ofAbieti-Fagetum, an oldgrowth forest, has beenprotected as a forestreserve. It is importantfor research andeducation purposes.
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222 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
curriculum the “Environmental EducationDay” and a number of environmental organ-isations participate in an annual week of“general life studies”, etc.
� Non-governmental organisations playan active role in public awareness raisingeither through organising field trips, publiclectures and activities or by co-operatingwith companies such as Mobitel (stagingcompetitions such as “Bird of the year” andphotographic contests), the Natural ScienceSociety of Slovenia (promoting the plant ofthe month/year, animal of the month/year,and biotope of the month/year) and the So-ciety of Biology Students’ section for batstudies (preparing various activities and co-ordinating European Bat Night in Slovenia).
Key capacity constrainsin the field of awareness raising
The most significant constrains are:
� Lack of public awareness programs and ofmanagerial experience in biodiversityawareness campaigns;
�
� Lack of qualified environmental journaliststo cover nature conservation issues and in-vestigative reporters in the field of biodiver-sity;
� Insufficient promotion of positive demon-stration biodiversity and sustainable devel-opment projects;
� Lack of available data regarding biodiversi-ty and natural values. .
BIODIVERSITY EDUCATION
Biodiversity is a complex of large systems,natural, human or a combination of both, withmany elements and processes, often complex anddifficult to comprehend. Most people have in-sufficient or no training to handle these issues asa whole (even at the ‘expert’ level). The most ef-fective way to address all these issues is throughteamwork which is not practiced sufficiently.
An important message that should be inte-grated into the educational and communicationsystem more often is the fact that our existencehighly depends on the condition of natural di-versity and natural resources. Values and attitudesare direct results of experience and learning,while education and communication are themeans that allow this process to be guided.
Target groups range from highly specialisedgroups to the general public, while the learningcontexts for biodiversity education are home,
community, formal education, post-school edu-cation, workplace, and recreation and leisure.
One of the firm attempts to have active andcontinuous co-operation between the Ministryof the Environment and Spatial Planning and theMinistry of Education, Science and Sport was theconference entitled “Environmental Education -a Way Towards a Change”. The Ministry of Edu-cation, Science and Sport has also organisedsome other conferences and round table discus-sions in the field of environmental education,such as “Trends in environmental education”.
Formal education allows the acquisition ofelementary knowledge and the understanding ofphysical, chemical and biological links that existbetween complex ecosystems and their responseto human intervention at local, regional and glo-bal levels. Individual agendas on biological di-versity exist in curricula relating to environmen-tal upbringing and education as follows.
Definitions of Environmental Education
IUCN 1970: Environmental Education is theprocess of recognising values and clarifyingconcepts in order to develop skills and atti-tudes necessary to understand and appreciatethe inter-relatedness among humans, his cul-ture and his biophysical surroundings. Envi-ronmental education also entails practice indecision making and self-formulation of acode of behaviour about issues concerningenvironmental quality.
UNESCO 1977: To foster clear awareness of,and concern about, economic, social, politi-cal and ecological interdependence in urbanand rural areas; to provide every person withopportunities to acquire the knowledge, val-ues, attitudes, commitment and skills neededto protect and improve the environment; tocreate new patterns of behaviour of individu-als, groups and society as a whole towards theenvironment.
Recently in international terminology we canalso meet terms like “biodiversity educationand public awareness”, “learning for sustaina-bility”, “education and sustainable develop-ment”, “education for sustainability”.
Elementary schools
Environmental issues in elementaryschools are entirely represented and imple-mented in the subjects of natural history and bi-ology and partially in the subjects of chemistry,physics and geography. Topics related to envi-ronmental education are discussed also by studygroups of teachers teaching the subject “ethicsand society”.
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Environmental issues in the new nine-year elementary school curriculum: environ-mental education is defined as having a univer-sal character, represented in all subjects. The cur-ricular team responsible for environmentaleducation has proposed its formal representationin the curriculum.
Subjects that are linked to environmental edu-cation are introduction to the surroundings, natu-ral and technical science, natural science, biol-ogy, physics, chemistry and geography.
The above subjects, biology in particular butwith physics and chemistry contributing substan-tially, provide the basic knowledge necessary foridentification, understanding and addressing ofenvironmental problems.
Secondary schools
Gymnasiums. Environmental education isdefined as cross-curricular program representedin all subjects. The curricular team responsiblefor environmental education has reviewed itsformal representation in the curriculum. In addi-tion, the optional subject of environmental re-search has been confirmed. Even at this educa-tional level, biology and other natural sciencesubjects play an important role. Equally impor-tant are the subjects of geography and sociology,which cover certain environmental topics. Envi-ronmental issues are formally covered in differ-ent documents, but precise data on the imple-mentation of environmental education is not yetavailable.
Vocational schools. In the vocational edu-cation system the required number of biologyand other natural science classes has either beenreduced or eliminated after curricula reform. Thisaction is decreasing the level of basic knowledgerequired for identification, understanding andaddressing of environmental problems, whilesome renewed educational programmes do noteven provide the basic knowledge. All this re-duces or, in some cases, even eliminates thegroundwork that has been designed to achievethe objective - environmental awareness in voca-tional behaviour.
Project work. In the framework of differentprojects, one of the most noticeable and widelyaccepted was the project named “The eco-schoolas way of life” (FEEE) which unfortunately re-ceived insufficient support from both the Minis-try of the Environment and Spatial Planning andthe Ministry of Education, Science and Sport.
Undergraduate study
Nature conservation issues are representedin a few individual subjects in undergraduate stud-
ies on landscape (for example natural heritageprotection) and forestry (for example protectedareas). Particular conservation issues are in-cluded in different subjects within biologicalstudies, for example, ecology, eco-sociology, tax-onomy, etc.
Postgraduate study
Postgraduate study in protection of natu-ral heritage at the Biotechnical Faculty, startedin 1996/1997, is the only comprehensive and ori-ented postgraduate study programme on naturalheritage protection in Slovenia. The purpose ofthis study programme is to raise awareness ofnatural heritage issues and to integrate natureconservation principals in all activities that in-fluence it. It includes natural science and socio-logical content. Strengthening ties to economicaspects might be considered more as well.
Postgraduate studies in environmentalprotection are organised through the Facultyfor Environmental Science in Gorica. The pur-pose of these studies is interdisciplinary educa-tion in areas of basic and applied environmentalresearch. Interdisciplinary study on environmen-tal protection is organised at the Faculty of Civiland Geodetic Engineering since the basic pur-pose of the study programme is to provide de-tailed education on environmental issues in theframework of natural sciences, technology, physi-cal planning, pollution standards, managementtraining, public relations, processing complexprojects and environmental impact assessment.
In the area of education about the environ-ment and biological diversity the followingweaknesses and negative trends can be iden-tified:
� The cross-curricular programme on environ-mental education covers only a narrow partof the environmental protection subject, bi-
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Figure 198. A groupof post-graduatestudents on their field-work at Sv. Kirik aboveSočerba.
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224 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ological diversity and wider nature conser-vation content is not evident;
� The optional subject of ‘environmental ed-ucation’ formally indicates the usage of thistopic, but it is still not being confirmed inpractice. This activity requires teamwork,not only from natural science teachers butfrom sociology teachers as well, and this isnot sufficiently developed or stimulated.Not a single school carries the subject yet;
� Pressure on reducing the number of hoursof the natural science curriculum or evenits elimination, particularly in vocationalschools;
� Biological diversity and its significance onnature conservation and its sociologicalimportance as well as the relation to humanhealth and quality of life have been insuffi-ciently addressed, with a few exceptionsrelated to biology;
� Excessive emphasis and ‘intrusion’ of ‘envi-ronmental education’ causes negative con-sequences, as it deals with a sensitive envi-ronment where goals are in correlation withpersonal decisions made by each individu-al in a certain cultural and social milieu (inthe area of transformation of values, ethics,acknowledgement of personal rights, etc.).The same goes for teachers and their moti-vation in emphasising environmental edu-cation goals. Existing documents formallycontain an environmental agenda, but thereis no data on whether this agenda is beingimplemented;
� The interdisciplinary approach of under-graduate and postgraduate studies insuffi-ciently incorporates sustainable develop-ment issues;
� The relation between biological diversityand economic and social development isinsufficiently emphasised;
� Lack of strategy and systematic support forprojects such as “The eco-school as way oflife”; an integral part of this complex agen-da is played by the modest supply, demandand interest demonstrated for specific train-ing in this area;
� Lack of adequate literature.
Training
In-service training in natureconservation organisations
Employees currently working in the natureconservation field mostly have qualifications inthe natural sciences. The number of legal expertsis insignificant while there are no sociologists or
economists in positions relating to nature con-servation.
Training of employees in nature conservationorganisations is basically limited to computer andlanguage-related courses. However, training isnot sufficient in the other skills required for na-ture conservation. There is a particular deficiencyin skills training for: project management, imple-mentation of statutory duties, planning, econom-ics and financial matters, and stakeholder com-munication, etc.
In practice there is an increasing deficiencyof training in the following fields:
� Integrated planning;
� Project management;
� Strategic and planned communication - useof communication as a tool to achieve na-ture conservation goals. This should be in-tegrated into projects from the very begin-ning of all nature conservation work;
� Communication with the stakeholders;
� Crisis management, negotiation skills andlobbying;
�
External training
The role of the state is increasingly commit-ted to co-ordinating and steering actions, whiletheir implementation is contracted out to differ-ent professional institutions, non-governmentalorganisations, individuals, etc. Due to this, dif-ferent types of training programs are necessary.For example, for mapping, for campaigns aimedat boosting the popularity of nature and environ-mental protection for management of directmeans of communication, for education relatedto the environment and biological diversity, andadequate training of different target groups suchas teachers, tourist services, agricultural advis-ers and farmers, water management services,etc. The nature conservation service has no in-dependent organisation covering this field, nordoes such exist elsewhere, therefore all activi-ties concerning planned training about the pres-ervation of biological diversity and nature in gen-eral, remain only coincidental. One of these ac-tivities was a seminar designed for teachers onthe subject of “Environmental Education - meth-ods and techniques for teachers” organised bythe Slovenian Nature Protection Authority andField Study Centre Losehill Hall, Peak DistrictNational Park in Great Britain.
All other activities are solely based on the per-sonal initiative of nature conservation profes-sionals , who respond to invitations of individualschools and the Institute for Education of theRepublic of Slovenia or participate in campaignsand theme days.
225
Teachers are one of the most important me-diators of knowledge and values; therefore theyare one of the principal target groups for trainingon nature conservation. Another significant tar-get group consists of non-governmental organi-sations as they have, at least in principle, a goodknowledge of local environments.
It is widely thought that environmental andbiological diversity education lies solely withinthe remit of educational institutions, yet accord-ing to the natural conservation service, interdis-ciplinary collaboration is essential. An institu-tional form of collaboration is essential and inparticular, one that focuses on the education andtraining of different target groups - decision mak-ers, lawyers, border control authorities, prosecu-tion bodies, inspectors, reporters, nature conser-vation supervisors, teachers and instructors, fieldtrip organisers and other employees in tourism,etc. Furthermore, specialised nature conserva-tion organisations are considered to beappropriate fora to convey nature conservationideals to experts, whose basic education hasinsufficiently considered nature conservationissues. The Biotechnical Faculty co-operates inthe European project LEONARDO (TOPAS),dedicated to nature conservation trainingintended for employees working in protectedregions.
OTHER FORMS OFCO-OPERATION AND
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Environmental communication is a dialoguebetween people who are interested or affectedby environmental or nature conservation issuesenabling them to understand key elements andthe co-dependency thereof.
Co-operation and partnershipPerhaps the main value of the Convention on
Biological Diversity is that it directly linksbiodiversity conservation to other human activi-ties such as farming, public health, energy, edu-cation, recreational activities and tourism. Effi-cient conservation depends on adequate publicunderstanding and support for the implementa-tion of particular policies and on their individualinvolvement in these events.
Companies play a crucial role in dealing withproblems relating to nature and environmentalprotection. People are dependent on companiesas they provide them with income, while on theother hand the state is interested in economicgrowth. This is why companies play an impor-tant role in society and are considered as being apotential partner in striving to preserve biologi-cal diversity. Both government and non-govern-
mental organisations have to communicate withcompanies and an increasing number of compa-nies in Slovenia are becoming aware of the ne-cessity for nature and biological diversity pres-ervation making them actively participate in dif-ferent programmes relating to this matter.Companies, which are aware of the fact that theirproduction is more competitive by applying na-ture conservation standards, are becoming par-ticularly active. Some of them financially supportthe activities of non-governmental organisations,thus exercising a direct influence on a higherdegree of environmental and biological diversityawareness.
Inter-institutional co-operation
In the opinion of some experts who have beenreviewing the state of affairs in individual areasof biological diversity, there is a lack of interestin co-operation in projects of a more intra- andinter-disciplinary nature. Scattered data locatedin different institutes represents another hinder-ing factor with access to this data being difficult,sometimes even impossible.
COMMUNICATING, PUBLIC AWARENESS, ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
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The following reasons are given:� Fear that data, once conveyed to the central
database, might be misused;
� Mistrust about the agreed distribution of fi-nances;
� Fear of being in a subordinated position ina larger group and lack of democratic pro-fessional dialogue;
� Insufficient international recognition;
� Bureaucratic obstacles;
� Complications often arising, as the legal sta-tus of data ownership is not clearly defined.Data obtained through projects financed bystate budget funds should be available atleast to all interested parties in the publicsector.
Figure 199. Manyproblems in natureconservation are dueto lack of communica-tion. A workshop oncommunicationorganised at Brdo in1998, as part of anIUCN project in theframework of theEuropean Biologicaland LandscapeDiversity Strategy(PEBLDS).
226 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Public participation
Public participation is essential for satisfac-tory and efficient preservation of biological di-versity as well as for wider nature and environ-mental protection, as in this way people can iden-tify themselves more with proposed solutions.People have the right to co-operate in decisionmaking regarding every topic that affects theirlifestyle and their environment - legislature for-mation, private initiatives, infrastructure con-struction, etc. (Hesselink et al., 2001). In this con-text, nature conservation policy should includea communication strategy on problem solving,stipulating adequate methods and implementa-tion timetables. Such planning, focused prepara-tion and implementation of a particular natureconservation policy is poor, problems raised, forexample, during the establishment of natureparks are tackled more or less on a ‘crisis’ basis.
� Insufficient role of non-governmental organ-isations in bridging the gaps in knowledgeand finding solutions through education,awareness, public debates, etc.;
� Lack of financial funds at state level, insuf-ficient use of international financial funds;
� The belief that the costs of nature and envi-ronmental protection provisions representan unacceptable burden to industry andcompanies;
� Inadequate recognition of the benefits ofsuch an approach offers by preventing ac-cumulation of unsolved problems and theirfinal, unmanageable proliferation;
� Fear of conflict with local inhabitants andother concerned parties;
� Inadequately trained staff for planning andmanaging different types of communicationactivities, including suppression of crisissituations;
� The influence of citizens and non-govern-mental organisations that are familiar withlocal areas and local conditions is often ig-nored while signals sent from the field arenot taken seriously;
� Insufficient interest and qualifications ofthe non-governmental public in the plan-ning process, due to the lack of knowledgeon the legislature and consequently the in-significant influence on these matters;
� Insufficient endeavour in what concerns rat-ification and implementation of the AarhusConvention on Access to Information, Pub-lic Participation in Decision Making andAccess to Justice in Environmental Matters;
� Insufficiently profiled structure of non-gov-ernmental organisations in the social envi-ronment and at times their imprecise role,although they represent a strong ally inachieving nature conservation goals;
� Neglect of the communication aspect in im-plementation of nature conservation pro-jects.
(Ph
oto
: Mar
ko S
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)
The reasons that public participation is notsufficiently used as a potentially efficient instru-ment are:
� Lack of tradition in the field of participativedemocracy; lack of practical models forpublic participation;
� The complexity of nature conservation is-sues and lack of adequate training for solv-ing problems;
Figure 200. DolenjeJezero. Vekoslav Kebehas made a model of theCerknica lake whichrepresents the complexsystem of the intermit-tent lake.
227
(Ph
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The Convention on Biological Diversity fos-ters the research which contributes to the con-servation of biodiversity and the sustainable useof its components and taxonomic research. Therelevance of cooperation between the researchand expert training of other participants has beenemphasised.
In Slovenia, research on biodiversity is facili-tated by the state through the financing of re-search staff and the relevant projects. The bud-get funds are primarily allocated by the Ministryof Education, Science and Sport, in cooperationwith other ministries when the multidisciplinaryresearch is concerned. The Slovenian researchinstitutions which have been granted funds inthe last five years are listed in table 66. The num-ber of institutions which conduct research andstudies in the field of biodiversity and sustain-able use of its components is undoubtedly higherthan indicated in the table but the complete cen-tral register has not yet been completed. The in-stitutions which participated in the drawing upof this publication are listed at the CHM homepage. In part, the funds intended for the researchinto biodiversity are acquired from abroad andfrom certain development oriented undertakings.The manner in which the research and studiesare financed has changed substantially over theyears.
Since 1999/2000 the major part of the Statefunds for the financing of the research has beenintended for research programmes conducted bythe programme groups of the research institu-tions. A research programme covers a certain fieldwhich is expected to be globally topical for atleast another decade and is relevant to Slovenia,and for which the interest at the national level issuch that the programme group operates on along-term basis.
Many researchers participated in the prepara-tion of this publication, and as a result many newproposals for the future research projects havebeen presented. Globally speaking, there are not
many efficient approaches to the biodiversityconservation, and the fact that the funds are ex-tremely limited inevitably leads to the selectionof discoveries needed for its conservation.Knowledge is essential to formulating the meth-ods applied in the conservation of biodiversityand the sustainable use of its components and inthe study of the characteristics of biodiversitycomponents (species and ecosystems).Multidisciplinary knowledge is becoming moreand more important. However, certain basic re-search works and studies still have to be con-ducted:
� basic research in the field of systematics,evolution biology, biogeography, ecologyand genetics;
� research into factors which affect biodiver-sity (time and spatial changes in communi-ties, ecological demands of endangered spe-cies; successional stages with the highestnumber of endemic and characteristic spe-cies);
� research and studies on in situ biodiversityconservation;
BIODIVERSITY
RESEARCH
Figure 201. Flora andfauna of the Sloveniansea need furtherdetailed research.
228 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
Project Research institution Period
Biodiversity of microfungi in the saltpan water Kemijski inštitut, UL-Faculty of Medicine 1998-2001Biodiversity of the polyploid complex Dactylis UL-BF-Dept of Biology, NIB 1999-2001glomerata in SloveniaBiotope and biocenosis valuation of the river Mura ZRC SAZU, UM-PF 1998-2003and its surroundingsFlora, fauna and vegetation of the Škocjanske jame ZRC SAZU 2000-2002Regional ParkGrassland management, floristic diversity and plant durability UM-Faculty of Agriculture, 1999-2001
UM-PFTaxonomy, evolution biology and biodiversity of the PMS 1996-2001selected animal groupsBiodiversity and phylogenetic and biogeographical UL-BF- Dept of Biology 1997-1999samples in karstThe biodiversity of fungi endophytes in biochemically UL-BF-Dept of Forestry, GIS*, 1997-1999defined spruces, their ecophysiological characteristics ZRC SAZUand antagonistic activitiesThe recording, evaluation and management of natural ZRCRS, Koper 1996-1999heritage outside protected areasThe natural heritage of threatened wetland habitats NIB 1998-2002Computer system for the evaluation of ecological NIB 1997-1999factors on the aquatic environmentForest sustainability and biodiversity UL-BF- Dept of Forestry
UL-BF- Dept of Biology 1998-2001The implementation of the spatial aspects of habitats Urbanistični inštitut RS 1998-2000agenda in Slovenia (Planning Institute)Geographic microregionalisation of Slovenia ZRC SAZU 1996-2000The landscape heritage of Slovenia and its contribution UL-BF-Dept of Agronomy 1996-2000to the national spatial identityThe impact of the quality of the environment and Inštitut za geografijo 1997-1999environmental awareness on the balanced development (Institute of Geography)of urban landscape
Programme Period
Genetics, varietal selection and testing of technologies in agriculture KIS 1999-2003Forestry and renewable forest resources UL-BF- Dept of Forestry 1999-2003Ecology and the protection of the environment UL-BF- Dept of Biology 1999-2003Ecotoxinology and ecotoxicology NIB 1999-2003Forest biology, ecology and technology GIS* 1999-2003Interdisciplinary aspects of the Mediterranean Slovenia ZRSRS, Koper 1999-2003and the European contact areasResearch on the sea and coastal area NIB 1999-2003Plant production UM- Faculty of Agriculture 1999-2003Applied botanics, genetics and ecology UL-BF- Dept of Agronomy 1999-2003Bioreactor engineering and fungi biotechnology KIS 1999-2003The composition and functioning of ecosystems NIB 1999-2003Zoological and speleobiological research UL-BF- Dept of Biology 1999-2003Landscape planning and environmental protection UL-BF- Dept of Agronomy 1999-2003
Abbreviations:ZRSRS, Koper The Science and Research Centre of the Republic of Slovenia, Koper
ZRC SAZU The Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
UL University of Ljubljana
UM University of Maribor
NIB National Institute of Biology
GIS* Slovenian Forestry Institute
BF Biotechnical Faculty
PF Pedagogical Faculty
Table 66: Overview ofthe research projectsand programmes onbiodiversity and itscomponents fundedfrom the State budget(Source: IZUM,Ministrstvo za šolstvoin znanost; 2001)
229
� research and studies on the methods ap-plied for the sustainable use of biodiversi-ty;
� research on the pressures caused by eco-nomic activities on biodiversity;
� social and economic advantages of biodi-versity conservation;
� research on the legal, economic and socio-logical mechanisms for solving nature con-servation issues and their increased effi-ciency;
� research on the landscape features, the re-lation between landscape composition andthe comprehension of its diversity.
It has often been difficult to acquire the re-search results which would fit the needs of thenature conservation service, in particular forcorrect interpretation of the data. The applicabil-ity of the research data will improve with theiradequacy in the planning of environmental pro-tection or development directions for specificareas.
BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH
230 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
231
In general, monitoring is defined as a periodicand standardised observation of the state of theselected indicators at the sampled areas whichshows the changes in the country. The monitor-ing results are fundamental for the formulationof activities to be carried out and measures to betaken to meet the relevant objectives. Subse-quently the results measure our success in theattainment of the objectives. Monitoring is thus ameans of improving the efficiency of activitiesand measures focused on the attainment of theobjectives. The main goal of the Convention onBiological Diversity is biodiversity conservation,and the measures needed to meet this goal formits constituent part. In order to increase the effi-ciency of these measures, the decisions and rec-ommendations of the Convention stipulate theselection of indicators which give the state ofbiodiversity and the indicators which show theprocesses and activities with adverse effects onbiodiversity conservation.
MONITORING OF THE STATUSOF BIODIVERSITY
Monitoring of the status of biodiversity in acertain country is based on the knowledge aboutthe components of biodiversity (ecosystems,habitats, species, populations, genes) and theavailability of human resource and funds. In mostcountries the funds are extremely limited, whichhinders the establishment of wide monitoringnetworks. In its accompanying documents theConvention recommends the collection of datawhich form a basis for the introduction of therelevant activities and measures and their moni-toring. Within the process of the monitoring ofspecies the main indicators are the endangeredand endemic species and the species which areof medicinal, agricultural and other economic,social, scientific or cultural importance. Themonitoring of ecosystems should be orientedtowards: ecosystems with high biodiversity;those with numerous endemic or endangered
species; ecosystems which support migratoryspecies; ecosystems of social, economic, culturalor scientific importance; ecosystems which arerepresentative and unique, or where the key evo-lutionary or other biological processes arepresent. The genetic monitoring should be fo-cused on the described genomes and the genesof social, scientific or economic importance.
In general, the species and ecosystems are notlimited to a certain country, and it is necessarythat the monitoring results be comparable at theinternational level.
Monitoring of species
In the past, the monitoring of species wasspontaneous. It reflected the interest of the na-
BIODIVERSITY
MONITORING
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Figure 202. Papaverrhoeas, its survivaldepends on compatibleagricultural practices.
232 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ture scientists who conduct research on specificspecies, or of nature lovers, individuals andorganised groups. It is considered that a speciesis monitored if that species had been invento-ried at least twice while taking into account itsdistribution pattern, and if the population den-sity and the relevant trends can be assessed. Thedata enable scientists who are familiar with thebiology of the species to assess its endangerment.Monitoring is a useful tool for determining thespecies’ area of distribution and the populationsize or density. In Slovenia the monitoring ofpopulation density is carried out for one bat spe-cies, game species, in particular hoofed game,certain endangered bird species, certain fresh-water species, plankton, nekton and benthic ma-rine organisms (summarised according toKryštufek, 1999 and Lipej, 1999; supplemented bythe monitoring reports for CHM, 2001). The na-tional data on species’ area of distribution canform a basis for conclusions about the changesin the size of the territory occupied by a specific
species. In Slovenia the species’ areas of distri-bution (point data or data according to the UTMsystem) have been defined for mammals, birds,reptiles, odonates and endangered butterfly spe-cies (source in Kryštufek, 1999), endangered flow-ering plants and the ferns (Wraber & Skoberne,1989), tree species (Research report on Slovenianforestry and wood technology, No. 52) and otherspecific species or lower taxa.
The status is similar in other European coun-tries, and the main reasons are the shortage oftrained and organised surveyors and the lack offunds. In comparison to the environmental moni-toring, the monitoring of biodiversity can not beautomated by the use of various automated mea-suring stations. For this reason the Europeancountries (for example Great Britain, Finland,Hungary, the Netherlands) apply only a few indi-cators in the monitoring of the status ofbiodiversity. These are usually the species ortaxonomic groups which clearly indicate thestatus of biodiversity in a certain ecosystem orhabitat and which are monitored by manyamateurs or professionals (species of mammals,birds, fish, butterflies, beetles, dragon flies,higher plants).
Monitoring of ecosystems
The monitoring of ecosystems should be fo-cused on the indicators which provide informa-tion about the ecosystem’s surface area in thecountry, its use categories, the changes in thestructure of the leading species and the quality(degradation or conservation) of an ecosystem.
In Slovenia similar monitoring activities havebeen carried out in some protected areas, for ex-ample in the Triglav National Park and theŠkocjanski zatok Nature Reserve. The status of aspecific ecosystem within the entire protectedarea and the presence or density of a selectedspecies are being monitored (Source: the moni-toring reports for the CHM, 2001).
In the monitoring of the dry and semi-drygrasslands in North-East Slovenia and of theTriglav lakes those indicators are applied whichshow the quality of the ecosystem and the pres-ence of selected species (Source: the monitoringreports for the CHM, 2001).
The quality of surface waters is monitored atthe national level at more than 100 samplingpoints (Source: the Hydrometeorological Insti-tute). Although the indicators used in this moni-toring have not been selected to implement theConvention, they do partly indicate the qualityof an ecosystem (the basic physical, chemicaland bacteriological parameters, saprobiologicalparameters, the content of selected metals inwater, suspended particulates and sediment, thecontent of the selected organic compounds, wa-(P
ho
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arko
Sim
ić)
(Ph
oto
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Figure 203. Researchand monitoring isurgently needed on thelarge and ecologicallymost importantgrasslands wherevegetation encroach-ment is causingconsiderable and rapidchanges.
Figure 204. Agrassland underMorež in the JulianAlps. Due to the shortgrowing season, thealpine grasslands arethe most colourful inearly summer.
233
ter levels and flows) and the composition for thesaprobe index of the indicator species. Some ofthese may be defined as leading species. For themonitoring of Blejsko jezero and Bohinjsko jezero,those indicators are used which show the pro-cess of eutrophication and determine the lakes’productivity and the structure of the planktonspecies. In addition, Cerkniško jezero and somelarge reservoirs are regularly monitored. The in-dicators used in the monitoring of the under-ground water and karst springs show the qualityof an ecosystem but they are merely abiotic(physical and chemical indication, heavy metals,organic micropollutants and selected organiccompounds). In the national monitoring of theSlovenian sea and coastal habitats, those bioticand abiotic indicators are included which showthe quality of an ecosystem to a certain point.
The national monitoring of the status of for-ests at the habitat level is one of the monitoringprocesses which has lasted longest and includesthe highest number of selected sample areas cov-ering the entire territory of the country. Its pur-pose is to monitor the effects of the air pollutionand other environmental factors on forests andto obtain information on the development of for-ests. In order to implement the Convention themonitoring data include the data on the surfacearea of forests, different use of forests, thechanges in the structure of the leading species(the indicator is a population density of approxi-mately 50 tree species) and the quality of the eco-system.
Monitoring of genetic diversity
The Convention is focused primarily on themonitoring of the species of economic impor-tance, mainly those used in agriculture, forestryand medicine.
LISTING THE STATUSOF BIODIVERSITY
The accompanying documents of the Con-vention stipulate that the lists of species, the listsat the ecosystem level, and the lists of genes haveto be kept as the next level of data which facili-tate the establishment and monitoring of the ac-tivities and measures. The list of species whichare distributed in Slovenia is almost completewith regard to vertebrates, echinoderms, mostgenera of insects, myriapodes, crustaceans, mol-luscs, cnidarians, sponges, flowering plants,ferns, algae and blue-green algae (summarisedaccording to Mršić, 1997 and Kryštufek, 1999) andlichens (Suppan et al., 2000). The gap betweenthe number of the recognised and expected spe-
cies is widest with regard to the mosses, numer-ous lower taxones of Diptera and Hymenoptera,Lingua tulida, Nemerteans, Aschelminthes, Proto-zoa and Bacteria (Mršić, 1997).
The list of ecosystems present on the terri-tory of Slovenia has been compiled. The com-munities which form the basic types of ecosys-tems are classified in detail by the PHYSIS classi-fication of habitats. The ecosystems in Sloveniahave been reviewed (Dobravec et al., 2001). TheEuropean Union has defined habitats with manyendemic and endangered species, and the rel-evant overview has also been conducted inSlovenia (Skoberne 2000).
The list of genetic variability is focusedprimarily on the monitoring of species of eco-nomic importance, mainly those used in agricul-ture, forestry and medicine. The genetic variabil-ity has been described for several species usedin the mentioned sectors (forest trees, agriculturalcultural plants, domestic animals, medicinalplants, marble trout).
MONITORING OF THEIMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY
In order to formulate appropriately the objec-tives of the biodiversity conservation and thesustainable use of its components it is of utmostimportance to be familiar with the processes andactivities whose impact on biodiversity is detri-mental. Together with the monitoring of the se-lected indicators the fulfilment of the stipulatedobjectives is monitored.
BIODIVERSITY MONITORING
(Ph
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)
As the first step towards obtaining the relevantdata, the Convention proposes drawing up theinventory of the activities with a detrimen-tal impact on biodiversity. The activitieswhich cause the decrease in biodiversity are listedin Beltram and Skoberne, 1997 and Pirc-Velkavrh,1998. Certain indicators showing the develop-
Figure 205. The Savariver at Hotiče formedthis magnificentmeander - a naturalvalue in itself - while theriver dynamics supportrich habitat diversity.
234 PART 3: MECHANISMS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE
ment of main polluters which are listed in Pirc-Velkavrh, 1998, may also be used to monitor theprocesses and activities with a negative effect onbiodiversity. The development of specific indi-cators concerning biodiversity and its monitor-ing is closely related to the attainment of the ob-jectives. These indicators must be clearly formu-lated when the strategic and action objectives ofthe conservation of biodiversity and the sustain-able use of its components have been defined.
In Slovenia the keeping of lists and monitor-ing results has not been organised, thus the pub-lic does not have free access to the relevant data.This weakness is partially remedied by publica-tions which are accessible to the public (techni-cal magazines, books, occasional publications)and in which such data are published (the over-view of the zoological contents can be found inKryštufek, 1999).
235LITERATURE
APP - Agencija za plačilni promet (Agency for PaymentsTransactions)
BF - Biotehniška fakulteta (Biotechnical Faculty)
BS - Banka Slovenije (Bank of Slovenia)
GDP - gross domestic product
CAP - Skupna kmetijska politika EU (Common AgriculturePolicy of the European Union)
CEC - Komisija za okoljsko komuniciranje in izobraževanjepri IUCN (IUCN Comission on Education and Commu-nication)
CHM - posredovalnica informacij Konvencije o biološkiraznovrstnosti (Clearing House Mechanism)
CITES - The Convention on International Trade in Endan-gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CKFF - Center za kartiranje favne in flore (Centre for theMapping of Fauna and Flora)
CORINE - Co-ordination of Information on the Environ-ment
CWEU - Conventional Wisdom Scenario of the EU
DABA - database of algae species
DOPPS - Društvo za opazovanje in proučevanje ptic Slo-venije (DOPPS - BirdLife Slovenia)
ECP/GR - European Cooperative Programme for CropGenetic Resources Networks
EEA - European Environmental Agency
EECONET - European Ecological Network
EAGGF - European Agricultural Guidance and GuaranteeFund
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EIONET - European Environment Information and Ob-servation
EPO - ekološko pomembno območje (ecologically im-portant area)
EUFORGEN - European Forest Genetic Resources Pro-gramme
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
FGG-IZH - Fakulteta za gradbeništvo, Inštitut za zdrav-stveno hidrotehniko (Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engi-neering, Institute of Sanitary engineering)
FGG-LMTE - Fakulteta za gradbeništvo, Laboratorij zamehaniko tekočin (Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engi-neering, Laboratory for the mechanics of fluids)
GEF - Global Environment Facility
GIS - Geographic Information System
GIS* - Gozdarski inštitut Slovenije (Slovenian Forestry In-stitute)
GMO - genetically modified organisms
GSI - Genuine Savings Index
IBA - Important Bird Areas
IDA - Internationaly Depositary Authority
IMD - International Institute for Management Develop-ment
IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
IZUM - Inštitut informacijskih znanosti (Institute of Infor-mation Science)
IUCN - World Conservation Organisation
IZRK - Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa (Karst Research Insti-tute)
KIS - Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije (Agriculture Institute ofSlovenia)
LJM - Herbarij Prirodoslovnega muzeja Slovenije (Her-barium Collection at the Slovenian Museum of NaturalHistory)
LJU -Herbarij Biološkega oddelka Biotehniške fakulteteUniverze v Ljubljani (Hrbarium Collection at the Depart-ment of Biology of the Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty)
MAB - UNESCO Man and Biosphere programme
MF - Ministrstvo za finance (Ministry of Finance)
MOP-ARSO - Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Agencija RSza okolje (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning,Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia)
MOP-ARSO, Urad za monitoring - Ministry of Environ-ment and Spatial Planning, Environmental Agency of theRepublic of Slovenia - Monitoring Office
MOP-ARSO, Urad za meteorologijo - Ministry of Environ-ment and Spatial Planning, Environmental Agency of theRepublic of Slovenia - Meteorological Office
MZKI - Mikrobiološka zbirka Kemijskega inštituta (Micro-biological Collection of the Chemicals Institute)
NEAP - National Environmental Action Programme
NIB - Nacionalni inštitut za biologijo (National Instituteof Biology)
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
OECD - Organisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment
PHARE - Trade Agreement of the European Union andCentral and East Europe
PHYSIS - Database of Palaearctic Habitats
PMS - Prirodoslovni muzej Slovenije (Slovenian Museumof Natural History)
EXPLANATION OFABBREVIATIONS ANDPARTICULAR TERMS
236 LITERATURE AND REFERENCES
RTG - Road transport of goods
SGGB - Slovenska gozdna genska banka (Slovene ForestGene Bank)
SGRS - Strategija gospodarskega razvoja Slovenije (Strate-gy of Economic Development of Slovenia)
SKOP - Slovenski kmetijsko okoljski program (Agri-Envi-ronmental Programme of Slovenia)
CAP - Common Agricultural Policy
SAC - Special Area of Conservation
SNH - Scottish Natural Heritage
SPA - Special Protection Area
SSC - IUCN Species Survival Commission
SURS - Statistični urad Republike Slovenije (Stistical Of-fice of Republic of Slovenia)
TEMPUS - Trans European Mobility Sheme for HigherEducation
UMAR - Urad za makroekonomske analize in razvoj (In-stitute for Macroeconomic Analysis and Development)
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
URSVN - Uprava RS za varstvo narave (Nature Conserva-tion Authority or Republic of Slovenia, since 2001 Environ-mental Agency of Republic of Slovenia)
UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinates
VGI - Vodnogospodarski inštitut (Water Management In-stitute)
WB - World Bank
WCMC - World Conservation Monitoring Centre
ZGS - Zavod za gozdove Slovenije (Slovenian ForestryService)
ZIM - Zbirka industrijskih mikroorganizmov (Collectionof Industrial Micro-organisms)
ZON - Zakon o ohranjanju narave (Nature ConservationAct)
ZRC SAZU - Znanstveno raziskovalni center pri Slovenskiakademiji znanosti in umetnosti (The Scientific ResearchCentre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts)
ZRSRS - Znanstveno in raziskovalno središče RepublikeSlovenije, Koper (The Science and Research Centre ofthe Republic of Slovenia, Koper)
ZVO - Zakon o varstvu okolja (Environmental ProtectionAct)
anoxia - lack of oxygen
boreal - northern biogeographical region; post-glacial agewith a continental type of climate
disjunction - geographical distribution in discontinousareas
ectomycorrhiza - typeof mycorrhiza in which the fungalhyphae form a superficial covering and do not extensive-ly penetrate the root
endolithic - burrowing or existing in a stony substratum,as algal filaments
epilitic - attached on rocks
epiphyte - plant that lives on the surface of other plantsbut does not derive water or nourishment from them
eutrophication - the enrichment of bodies of fresh waterby inorganic plant nutrients (e.g. nitrate, phosphate)
herbarium - a collection of dried or preserved plants, orof their parts, and the place where they are kept
heterothallic - cells, thalli or mycelia of algae or fungiwhich can only undergo sexual reproduction withmembers of a physiologically different strain
horological - flowers opening and closing at a particulartime of day and night
ihtiofauna - fauna od fishes
interstitial - flora and fauna living between san grains orsoil particles
lichenization - production of a lichen by alga and fungus;spreading or coating of lichens over over a substrate;effect of lichens on their substrates
lignicole, lignicolous - growing or living on or in wood
mesotrophic - having partly autotrophic and partly sapro-bic mutrition; providing of moderate amount of nutrition
‘mrazišče’ (pl. ‘mrazišča’) - an extreme habitat where thecold air trapped in a depression results in temperatureand vegetation inversions; these habitats clearly differfrom the immediate
surrounding and are a result of specific micro- and meso-climatic conditions
oligotrophy - the ability to live in a nutrient-poor environ-ment, as e.g. many soil actinomycetes
ombrogenous - wet habitats arising from precipitationrather than from water of the ground
ornitofauna - fauna of birds
Pangea - the supercontinent made up of all the presentcontinents fitted together before their separation bycontinental drift
parthenogenesis - reproduction from a female gametewithout fertilization by a male gamete
regression - the retreat of the sea from land areas
rhizosphere - area of soil immediately surrounding andinfluenced by plant roots
ruderal - applied to plants that inhabit old fields, waysidesor waste land
sp. - abbreviation of species
ssp. - abbreviation of subspecies
stenoendemic - narrow endemic
terrestrial - living or found on land, as opposed to in riv-ers, lakes or oceans or in the atmosphere
transgression - the incursion of the sea over land areas, ora change that converts initially shallow-
water conditions to deep-water conditions
zoocoenosis - an animal community whose occurence,composition and number depend on a series of ecologicalfactors
EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS AND PARTICULAR TERMS
237LITERATURE
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