biology 2121 chapter 2. biochemistry 1. introduction biochemistry 2. macromolecules contain carbon...
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Biology 2121Chapter 2
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Biochemistry Biochemistry 1. Introduction
Biochemistry
2. Macromolecules contain carbon Valance = 4 Bonds with oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen
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Carbohydrates
1. General characteristicsSoluble in water (decreases with size)Sizes – small single units to larger compounds
2. Function (s)Energy – 4 kcal/gCell membrane – cell to cell recognition
3. Structure Monomer – monosaccharidePolymer – polysaccharide
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Carbohydrates
1. MonosaccharidesC6H12O6 - isomers
2. Disaccharides Formed by
dehydrationSplit-up by
hydrolysis
3. PolysaccharidesStarch, Glycogen
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1.Glycogen – STORED IN THE LIVER
2.Starches – plants
3.Cellulose - roughage
1.Glycogen – STORED IN THE LIVER
2.Starches – plants
3.Cellulose - roughage
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1. General Characteristics Insoluble in water – soluble in other nonpolar
substances (alcohol) Non-polar structure
2. Function(s) Energy – 9 kcal/g Cell membrane, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins
3. Structure Most – fatty acid tail (H-C chain) that is non-
polar
Lipids
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STRUCTURE OF A TRIGLYCERIDE
1.Formation – dehydration synthesis
2.Single bonding between carbons – ‘saturated’
• Long FA chains – solid at room temperature
3.CH2 – fatty acid tails
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1. Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated TriglyceridesDouble bonding between the carbonsChains ‘bend’ or form kinks
Plant lipids; olive, corn, safflower oil Chains are shorter than saturated fatty acid
triglycerides
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PHOSPHOLIPID
1.BILAYER OF A PLASMA MEMBRANE
2.Two FA tails; glycerol; phosphate (polar)
3.Amphipathic – polar and non-polar nature
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CHOLESTEROL IS CLASSIFIED AS A STEROL – LIPID. MADE UP OF ‘FUSED’ CARBON RINGS AND SIDE CHAINS OF MOLECULES
A ‘PRECURSOR’ TO OTHER STEROIDS – TESTOSTERONE, VITAMIN D
Side-chains made each steroid different
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Proteins1. General Characteristics
Basic structural component of the body C, H, O and Nitrogen!
2. Function(s) Cell functions – transport of material across cell
membrane; hemoglobin; muscle contractile protein Biological Catalysts - enzymes
3. Structure Monomer: amino acids
Peptide bonding via dehydration Polymer: Polypeptide
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Formation of a protein
1.Primary Structure• As amino acid form straight
chains via peptide bonding• Occurs during ‘protein
synthesis’ - ribosomes of the cell
2.Secondary Structure• Twist or bends after primary
formation • Hydrogen bonds stabilize
• Between NH and CO
3.Two forms• Beta and alpha-helix
A polypeptide chain may contain both secondary structures!
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Other Structures
1.Secondary structures fold up on themselves.
2.Adjacent amino acids interact or form covalent and hydrogen bond. Forms a 3-D Tertiary structure
• Enzymes
3.If two or more tertiary structures (polypeptides) interact – quaternary structure
• Hemoglobin (blood) or myoglobin (muscles)
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Proteins – Structural Types
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Fiberous – only secondary; insoluble and stable; collagen; keratin
Globular – tertiary structure; soluble; enzymes, antibodies
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Enzymes1. What are enzymes?
Biological catalystsSpecific tertiary structure
2. Substrate and active sites
3. Function(s)Drive chemical reactions in cells!
4. How enzymes work (Lowering of energy activation)Activation Energy (animation)
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1. “HOW ENZYMES WORK” – ANIMATION (Chapter 12 – Alternate)
2. Biochemical pathways (enzyme mediated)
3. Feedback in Biochemical Pathways
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Enzyme Denaturation
1.When enzymes (proteins) stop working.
2.Why?
• Temperature; pH changes
• Bonds and interactions between amino acids fail – unravels and loses 3D shape
Animation1.Denaturation
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Activation Energy and Enzymes Activation Energy and Enzymes
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Nucleic Acids1. General Characteristics
C, H, O, N and Phosphorus
2. Function(s) DNA – genes – heredity RNA – important in production of proteins
3. Structure Monomer: nucleotide (phosphate - 5 carbon
sugar – nitrogen base Polymer: Deoxyribonucleic Acid and
Ribonucleic Acid
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Nucleotides and DNA
1. Phosphates bonded to 5–C deoxyribose sugar via covalent bonding
2. Sugar bonded to nitrogen base (green and yellow) via covalent bonding
3. Bases bonded via hydrogen bonding (weak; unzips)
4. Base pairing rules: A-T; G-C
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• Hydrogen bonding between bases
• Base pairing
• Sugar-Phosphate backbone
• Double Helix
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ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate 1. Glucose is the fuel that
powers the cell.
2. As glucose is oxidized (anabolic), ATP is built up in the process of cellular respiration – mitochondria of the cell
3. Energy is stored in the bonds of ATP
4. Contains ribose sugar (RNA) and adenine base.
5. Three phosphates – two have unstable bonds and negative charges – repel
6. Bonds are broken – energy released – drives cellular work