biology outlines

8/12/2019 Biology Outlines

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CHAPTER 1 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; CELLULAR RESPIRATION

.2 WaterHydroly!" Add!t!o# o$ H2O to a %o#d to %rea& !t a'art. Mot (a)ro(ole)*le *e t+! 'ro)e to

d!e(%le.,e+ydrat!o#" Re(o-al o$ H2O to a %o#d to $or( !t. Mot (a)ro(ole)*le *e t+! 'ro)e to

ae(%le.

. L!'!d

A#y %!olo/!)al (ole)*le t+at ! +ydro'+o%!).E.G."

0atty a)!d" %*!ld!#/ %lo)& $or (ot )o('le l!'!d. CHCH23#COOHTr!/ly)er!de" $atty a)!d 4 /ly)erol. E#er/y tora/e.P+o'+ol!'!d" Tr!/ly)er!de 5!t+ o#e $atty a)!d re'la)ed %y '+o'+ate /ro*'. Cell (e(%ra#eGly)ol!'!d" Sa(e a '+o'+ol!'!d e)e't '+o'+ate /ro*' re'la)ed %y o#e or (ore

)ar%o+ydrate. 0o*#d !# (e(%ra#e o$ (yel!#ated )ell o$ t+e #er-o* yte(Stero!d" 6 r!#/ed tr*)t*re. Hor(o#e7 -!ta(!# ,7 )+oleterolTer'e#e" 8!ta(!# A $or -!!o#.

Tra#'orted -!a l!'o'rote!#. E.G. C+ylo(!)ro#7 8L,L7 L,L7 H,L.

.6 Prote!#C+a!# o$ AA l!#&ed %y 'e't!de %o#d. A9A 'oly'e't!de1: Ee#t!al AA %ody )a##ot y#t+e!


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Star)+" )o('oed o$ a(yloe a#d a(ylo'e)t!#.Cell*loe" %eta l!#&ed. A#!(al )a##ot d!/et !t.

.D N*)leot!de )o('o#e#t" )ar%o# */ar7 N!tro/e#o* %ae7 '+o'+ate /ro*'

Bae atta)+ to C17 '+o'+ate atta)+ to C7 C *ed to atta)+ to a#ot+er */ar,NA ! (!!#/ OH o# C2

. M!#eral

. E#*!l!%r!*(Co$a)tor" *ed %y (a#y e#


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Re>*!re oy/e#O))*r !# t+e (!to)+o#dr!aPyr*-ate $a)!l!tate d!$$*ed !#to (!to.Co#-ert Pyr*-ate !#to a)etyl CoA. 0or( CO2 a#d NA,H

.1D 9re% Cy)leA)etyl CoA ! a )oe#

Telo(erae" re'eated D #*)leot!de *#!t t+at 'rote)t )+ro(oo(e $ro( %e!#/ eroded t+ro*/+(*lt!'le re'l!)at!o#.

2.6 RNA 8S ,NA"U !#tead o$ TC2 +a OH !#tead o$ H o#lyS!#/le tra#dedCa# (o-e t+ro*/+ #*)lear 'ore

Ty'e"(RNA" del!-er ,NA )ode to %e tra#latedrRNA" )o(%!#e 5!t+ 'rote!# to $or( r!%oo(etRNA" tra#$er AA to r!%oo(e $or tra#lat!o#

2. Tra#)r!'t!o#


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Re>*!re a 'ro(oter" +ort '!e)e o$ ,NA tell RNA 'ol 5+ere to %e/!# tra#)r!'t!o#T+e te('late tra#d or =3 a#t!e#e tra#d ! tra#)r!%edT+e )od!#/ tra#d or 43 e#e tra#d 'rote)t !t 'art#er $ro( de/radat!o#Mo-e !# J to J d!re)t!o#7 %*t y#t+e!*e#)eMot re/*lat!o# o))*r at tra#)r!'t!o#. A)t!-ator or re'reor %!#d )loe to 'ro(oter $or re/*lat!oPro&aryot!) /e#e" T+e /e#et!) *#!t !#)l*d!#/ t+e o'erator7 'ro(oter7 a#d /e#e ! )alled t+e o'ero

2.D Pot=tra#)r!'t!o#al Pro)e!#/

I#!t!al (RNA e>*e#)e" 'r!(ary tra#)r!'tJ )a' addedJ 'oly A ta!l addedI#tro# e)!ed o*t

2. ,NA Te)+#olo/yRetr!)t!o# E#*!re #*)leol* to %e (a#*$a)t*red

!te" E e!t37 P 'e't!dyl3 7 a#d A a(!#o3; '+y!)ally lo)ated t+e a(e e>*e#)eTra#lat!o# te'"I#!t!at!o#" Met+!o#!#e ettle at t+e P !te. Bot+ *%*#!t Ko!# to/et+er.Elo#/at!o#" Net AA 5!t+ !t )orre'o#d!#/ tRNA ettle !# t+e A !te. Pe't!de %o#d $or(.

(RNA +!$t 'e't!de do5#.Ter(!#at!o#" Sto' )odo# rea)+e A !te. Pe't!de ! $reed $ro( tRNA a#d r!%oo(e.

Pot tra#lat!o#al 'ro)e!#/ (ay o))*r. S*/ar7 l!'!d or '+o'+ate /ro*' (ay %e addedProte!# det!#at!o#"

Ro*/+ ER" 2: AA !/#al 'e't!de e>*e#)e #ear t+e $ro#t o$ t+e 'oly'e't!de ro*te t+e!%oo(e o#to t+e ro*/+ ER. Prote!# (ade at t+e ro*/+ ER ! to %e e)reted or (e(%ra#e %o*#d.

Cytool $ree $loat!#/ r!%oo(e y#t+e!*e#)

o$ a /e#e. May or (ay #ot alter AA e>*e#)e o$ a 'rote!#I#ert!o# or delet!o#" (ay re*lt !# $ra(e +!$t (*tat!o# !$ delet!o# or !#ert!o# o$ 'e't!de ot+

+a# #.No#e#e (*tat!o#" to' )odo# )reated $ro( a (*tat!o#. Prote!# ! tr*#)ated.Tra#lo)at!o#" o#e )+ro(oo(e !#erted !#to a#ot+er


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I#-er!o#" or!e#tat!o# o$ a e)t!o# o$ ,NA ! re-ered o# a )+ro(oo(eTra#'o!t!o#" a e/e(e#t o$ ,NA )alled tra#'oa%le ele(e#t (ay (o-e $ro( o#e lo)at!o# to

a#ot+er o# a )+ro(oo(e0or5ard?%a)&5ard (*tate" (*tat!o# t+at lead a5ay?to5ard t+e 5!ld ty'e

2.11 Ca#)erU#retra!#ed a#d *#)o#trolled /ro5t+ o$ )ell.Proto=o#)o/e#e" /e#e t+at t!(*late #or(al /ro5t+ !# +*(a# )ellO#)o/e#e" )o#-erted $ro( 'roto=o#)o/e#e t+at )a*e )a#)er.

2.12 C+ro(oo(eH!to#e" 'rote!# t+at 5ra' ,NA aro*#d !tel$ to )o('a)t !t !


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Ge#et!) (ater!al" e!t+er !#/le or do*%le tra#ded ,NA or RNA7 %*t #ot %ot+ )a# %e e#e a#t!=e#e3

E#-elo'e" o*ter 'rote)t!-e )o-er!#/ %orro5ed $ro( +ot )ell or (a#*$a)t*red. Pree#t !# (oa#!(al7 o(e 'la#t7 a#d $e5 %a)ter!al -!r*e.

Ba)ter!o'+a/e" ta!l7 %ae 'late7 ta!l $!%erNot )o#!dered l!-!#/ %e)a*e -!r* re>*!re +ot )ell $or ATP a#d (a)+!#ery to re'l!)ate. Ca# %e

)rytall!


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U*ally !#/le do*%le tra#ded )!r)*lar ,NA. Ao)!ated 5!t+ +!to#e !# Ar)+aea a#d !(!lar 'rote# Ba)ter!a.

No #*)le*. I#tead7 ,NA7 RNA7 a#d 'rote!# $or( #*)leo!d. Not %o*#d %y (e(%ra#e.No )o('le7 (e(%ra#e %o*#d or/a#ell. B*t t+ey do +a-e or/a#ell *)+ a r!%oo(e7

(eoo(e7 et)7 %*t #ot (e(%ra#e %o*#d a#d )o('le.Ba)ter!al +a'e" %a)ter!al #a(!#/ **ally )o#ta!# +a'e !#$or(at!o#. E.G. ta'+ylo)o))*7

'!ro'la(a.Co))!" ro*#dBa)!ll!" rod +a'ed

S'!r!lla" '!ral7 r!d/!dS'!ro)+ete" '!ral7 #o#=r!d/!d

. Me(%ra#ePla(a (e(%ra#e" Cytool o$ %a)ter!a ! *rro*#ded %y a '+o'+ol!'!d %!=layer )alled 'la(a

(e(%ra#e.Prote!# $o*#d o# 'la(a (e(%ra#e"

I#te/ral !#tr!#!)3 'rote!#" Prote!# t+at tra-ere t+e 'la(a (e(%ra#eEtr!#!) 'er!'+eral3 'rote!#" Prote!# t+at ! $o*#d o# t+e *r$a)e o$ t+e 'la(a (e(%ra#,o #ot ea!ly $l!' or!e#tat!o# o# t+e 'la(a (e(%ra#e.

0l*!d (oa!) (odel" e-eryt+!#/ o# t+e 'la(a (e(%ra#e7 !#)l*d!#/ t+e (e(%ra#e !tel$7 ! $l*!d=l!&E-eryt+!#/ (o-e laterally !# a ra#do( $a+!o#. C+oleterol (oderate $l*!d!ty.

.D Me(%ra#e Tra#'ortPa!-e d!$$*!o#" No e#er/y ! *ed. Mole)*le d!$$*e do5# )o#)e#trat!o# /rad!e#t. ,e'e#d *'o

'!d ol*%!l!ty0a)!l!tated d!$$*!o#" Tra#'ort 'rote!# a!t !# t+e d!$$*!o# o$ (ole)*le do5# t+e )o#)e#trat!o#

/rad!e#t. E.G. /l*)oe !#to )ellA)t!-e tra#'ort" E#er/y *ed to tra#'ort (ole)*le a/a!#t ele)tro=)+e(!)al /rad!e#t

. Ba)ter!al E#-elo'eE#-elo'e *rro*#d!#/ %a)ter!al 'la(a (e(%ra#e.0*#)t!o#" Pre-e#t +y'erto#!) %a)ter!a 'la(a $ro( %*rt!#/.

Co('o!t!o#" Pe't!do/ly)a#. More $le!%le t+a# )ell*loe. Poro*.Gra( ta!#!#/"Gra( 'o!t!-e" t+!)& %a)ter!al e#-elo'e. P*r'le.Gra( #e/at!-e" t+!#& %a)ter!al e#-elo'e. P!#&. O*t!de o$ e#-elo'e7 a#ot+er '+o'+ol!'!d

%!layer e!t. T+! (e(%ra#e 'oe 'olya))+ar!de to re!t a#t!%!ot!).0la/ella"

Lo#/7 rotate $or (o-e(e#t7 (ade $ro( $la/ell!#.

. Ba)ter!al Re'rod*)t!o#MaKor re'rod*)t!o# (et+od" B!#ary $!!o#. 1 )ell = 2 !de#t!)al )ellGe#et!) re)o(%!#at!o# (et+od"

Co#K*/at!o#" O#e %a)ter!a )o#ta!# a 'la(!d )alled e '!l*. Se '!l* ! a +ollo5 t*%e t+at)o##e)t t5o %a)ter!*( $or e)+a#/!#/ ,NA (ater!al. O#)e t5o %a)ter!*( )o##e)t7 t+ey e)+a#/e'la(!d ,NA.

I('orta#t 'la(!d"0 'la(!d" $ert!l!ty 'la(!dR 'la(!d" Re!ta#)e 'la(!d. Pla(!d t+at )ode $or a#t!%!ot!) re!ta#)e.

Tra#$or(at!o#" %a)ter!a !#)or'orate ,NA $ro( eter#al e#-!ro#(e#t.Tra#d*)t!o#" -!r* a!ted ,NA tra#$er !#to %a)ter!*(

.F E#do'oreBa)ter!a !# a +!/+ly re!ta#t dor(a#t ta/e t+at )a# *r-!-e $or +*#dred o$ year.


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.1: 0*#/!E*&aryot!) +eterotro'+

A%or% #*tr!e#t %y e)ret!#/ d!/et!-e e#

S+a'e l!&e $latte#ed a)&.Sy#t+e!


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Tay=Sa)+ d!eae a*too(al re)e!-e $or (!!#/ 'rote!# !# lyoo(e7 a))*(*lat!o# o$l!'!d !# %ra!#.

Pero!o(e"el$=re'l!)ate. Prod*)e a#d %rea& do5# o$ +ydro/e# 'ero!de.I#a)t!-ate to!) )+e(!)al *)+ a al)o+ol.Play role o$ y#t+e! a#d %rea&do5# o$ l!'!d.Meta%ol!( o$ #!tro/e#o* %ae a#d )ar%o+ydrate.

6. Cell*lar 0!la(e#t

Cyto&eleto#"re'o#!%le $or tr*)t*re a#d (o%!l!ty o$ )ell.

A#)+or o(e 'rote!# a#d )ell )o('o#e#t.Mo-e )ell )o('o#e#t a#d )ell !tel$. T5o (aKor ty'e"M!)ro$!la(e#t"

A)t!# 'oly(er!

M!)rot*%*le"Lar/er t+a# (!)ro$!la(e#t.Hollo5 t*%e (ade $ro( al'+a a#d %eta t*%*l!#.

M!tot!) '!#dle7 0la/!lla7 )!l!a.= e#d atta)+ to (!)rot*%*le or/a#!

6.6 Cell*lar *#)t!o#T!/+t *#)t!o#"

Watert!/+t eal %lo)& 5ater7 !o#7 a#d ot+er (ole)*le $ro( (o-!#/ 'at )ell. Co('lete $l*%arr!er

E'!t+el!al t!*e *)+ a %ladder7 !#tet!#e7 &!#,e(oo(e"

S'ot 5eld %t5# )ell0o*#d !# t!*e t+at e'er!e#)e tre *)+ a &!# a#d !#tet!#al e'!t+el!*(

Ga' K*#)t!o#"S(all t*##el )o##e)t!#/ )ell. Allo5 (all (ole)*le a#d !o# to $lo5 %et5ee# )ell. A)t!o#'ote#t!al 'ro'o/at!o#.

Pla(ode(a"Narro5 )+a##el %et5ee# 'la#t )ell. Co#ta!# #arro5 t*%e o$ ER *rro*#ded %y )yto'la(

6. M!to)+o#dr!aE#doy(%!o#t t+eory" y(%!ot!) relat!o#+!' %et5ee# a#)!e#t e*&aryot a#d 'ro&aryot.O5# )!r)*lar ,NAI#de'e#de#t re'l!)at!o#7 $ro( (ot+erJ !de o#lyO5# (!to)+o#dr!a

Str*)t*re",o*%le '+o'+ol!'!d layer.I##er layer $or( !#-a/!#at!o# )alled )r!taeI#ter(e(%ra#e 'a)e" 'a)e %et5ee# o*ter a#d !##er (e(%ra#e 5+ere ele)tro# tra#'ort

)+a!# ta&e 'la)e

6.D T+e Etra)ell*lar (atr!,e$!#!t!o#" elat!# a#d )olla/e# e)reted %y $!%ro%lat t+at $or( a (ole)*lar #et5or& t+at +old

*e )ell !# 'la)e.,!$$ere#t t!*e $or( drat!)ally d!$$ere#t (atr!. E.G. l!>*!d !# %lood or ol!d !# %o#e0*#)t!o#"

May 'ro-!de *''ort


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May +el' deter(!#e )ell +a'e a#d (o%!l!tyMay a$$e)t )ell /ro5t+

6. Or/a#!2

#d

" Na )+a##el )loe7 9 )+a##el o'e#7 9 $lo5 o*t7 +y'er'olar!


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6. a)t!-ate /e#e tra#)r!'t!o#.

6.1 S*''ort CellD ty'e" (!)ro/l!a; e'e#dy(al )ell; atell!te )ell; atro)yte; ol!/ode#dro)yte; a#d

#e*role((o)yte or S)+5a## )ellS)+5a## )ell" )ell t+at 5ra' aro*#d ao# to $or( (yel!# !# t+e PNS.Ol!/ode#dro)yte" )ell t+at 5ra' aro*#d ao# to $or( (yel!# !# t+e CNS.

6.16 Str*)t*re o$ Ner-o* Syte(

T+ree $*#)t!o#"1. Se#ory a$$ere#t3 #e*ro#" (#e(o#!)" Arr!-e3 Lo)ated dorally to5ard t+e %a)&32. I#ter#e*ro#" Tra#$er !/#al $ro( #e*ro# to #e*ro#. F: o$ all #e*ro#. Motor e$$ere#t3 #e*ro#" (#e(o#!)" E!t3 Lo)ated -e#trally to5ard t+e $ro#t3

CNS" I#ter#e*ro#. I#te/rate !/#al %et5ee# t+e e#ory a#d (otor #e*ro#. Bra!# a#d '!#al )oPNS" e-eryt+!#/ #ot !# CNS. ,!-!ded !#to"

So(at!) #er-o* yte("8ol*#tary.Pr!(ar!ly re'o#d to eter#al e#-!ro#(e#t.Co#ta!# e#ory a#d (otor #e*ro#.Motor #e*ro# e#er-ate o#ly &eletal (*)le.

Cell %od!e o$ o(at!) (otor #e*ro# lo)ated !# -e#tral +or# o$ '!#al )ord.Ue a)etyl)+ol!#e a#d y#a'e d!re)tly o# e$$e)tor.Se#ory #e*ro# )ell %od!e are lo)ated !# doral root /a#/l!o#

A*to#o(!) #er-o* yte("Se#ory #e*ro# re)e!-e !/#al $ro( -!)era or/a# !#!de -e#tral %ody )a-!ty3.Motor #e*ro# e$$e)t (oot+ (*)le7 )ard!a) (*)le7 a#d /la#d.I#-ol*#tary.,!-!ded !#to t5o yte(" Mot or/a# are !##er-ated %y %ot+.

Sy('at+et!)" $!/+t or $l!/+tCell %od!e lo)ated !# '!#al )ordSy('at+et!) 'ot /a#/l!o# %od!e are lo)ated !# 'ara-erte%ral /a#/l!o#

Pre/a#/l!o# *e A)etyl)+ol!#ePot/a#/l!o# *e e'!#e'+er!# or #ore'!#e'+er!#e a&a adre#al!# or#oradre#al!#3Paray('at+et!)" ret or d!/et

Cell %od!e lo)ated !# %ot+ '!#al )ord a#d %ra!#Paray('at+et!) 'ot /a#/l!o# %od!e are lo)ated #ear t+e!r e$$e)torPre/a#/l!o# AN, 'ot/a#/l!o# *e A)etyl)+ol!#e

6.1 T+e Ce#tral Ner-o* Syte(H!#d%ra!#"

Po# = relay %et5ee# )ere%r*( a#d )ere%ell*(

Cere%ell*( )oord!#at!o#7 t!(!#/7 %ala#)eMed*lla %reat+!#/7 +eart rate7 GI a)t!-!tyM!d%ra!#"

o!# $ore%ra!# 5!t+ '!#al )ordMot!-at!o#7 (otor )o#trol7 -!*al?a*d!tory !('*le

0ore%ra!#"Cere%r*( )ere%ral )orte3 t+o*/+t7 )o#)!o*#e7 (e(oryOl$a)tory %*l%Hy'ot+ala(* 5ater %ala#)e7 %lood 're*re7 a#d te(' re/*lat!o#T+ala(* = relay $or )ere%ral )orte ? '!#al )ord

6.1D Se#ory Re)e'tor" #ot !('orta#t to lear# $or ,AT


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6.1 T+e EyeL!/+t 'at+" )or#ea = le#e = ret!#aLe#e" atta)+ed %y )!l!ary (*)le. Co#tra)t!o#relaat!o# )a*e t+e le#e to t+!)&e#$latte# 5+!)+

)a*e t+e $o)al 'o!#t to +orte#le#/t+e#. A/e )a*e elat!)!ty to de)reae7 )a*!#/ d!$$!)*lty to $o)* o##ear%y o%Ke)t

Ret!#a" Rod Q l!/+t?dar&. Co#e Q ty'e7 red7 %l*e7 /ree#.Ir!" I#)reae?de)reae '*'!l !


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ACTH" adre#o)ort!)otro'!) +or(o#e t!(*late adre#al )orte to releae /l*)o)ort!)o!d e./.)ort!ol3

TSH" t+yro!d t!(*lat!#/ +or(o#e t!(*late t+yro!d to !#)reae !# !


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Ta!l"Se(e# )o('o!t!o#"

S'er(ato


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S5allo5!#/ alo#/ 5!t+ 'er!talt!) a)t!o# (o-e $ood !#to to(a)+.

D. Sto(a)+Be/!# 'rote!# d!/et!o# -!a 'e'!#Store $ood $or /rad*al d!/et!o#Lo5 PH &!ll %a)ter!a a#d de#at*re 'rote!# $or d!/et!o#6 )ell ty'e"

M*)* )ell" 'rod*)e (*)*C+!e$ 'e't!)3 )ell" Pe'!#o/e#

G=Cell" 'rod*)e /atr!# 5+!)+ t!(*late 'ar!etal )ell to 'rod*)e HClPar!etal )ell" Prod*)e HCl !#to to(a)+ a#d %!)ar%o#ate !#to %lood.

D.6 S(all !#tet!#eF: a%or't!o# ta&e 'la)e,*ode#*(" (ot d!/et!o# ta&e 'la)eIl!*( eK*#*(" (ot a%or't!o# ta&e 'la)eWall o$ (all !#tet!#e"

8!ll!" $!#/er=l!&e 'roKe)t!o# t+at !#)reae *r$a)e area.M!)ro-!ll!" (aller $!#/er=l!&e 'roKe)t!o# o# -!ll!. 0*


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Urea" A((o#!a ! 'rod*)ed a a %y='rod*)t o$ /l*)o#eo/e#e! $ro( a(!#o a)!d 5+!)+ ! )o#-er#to Urea %y l!-er.

D.11 0at A%or't!o# a#d tora/eMot e#er/y de#e #*tr!e#tTr!/ly)er!de d!/eted !#to (o#o/ly)er!de a#d $atty a)!d. S+*ttled -!a %!le (!)elle !#to e#tero)ytS(oot+ ER )o#-ert %a)& !#to tr!/ly)er!deGol/! 'a)&a/e tr!/ly)er!de alo#/ 5!t+ ot+er 'rote!# !#to /lo%*le )alled )+ylo(!)ro#Eo)yto! o))*r a#d tra#'ort t+e( !#to la)teal 5+!)+ e('t!e !#to t+e lar/e -e!# at t+e #e)&.

MaKor!ty a%or%ed %y l!-er7 a#d o(e %y ad!'o!te.

D.12 L!-erHe'at!) 'ortal -e!# re)e!-e %lood d!re)tly $ro( !#tet!#e7 'lee#7 to(a)+7 a#d 'a#)reae a#d

'ro)eed.He'at!) artery *''l!e e)o#d %lood *''lyHe'at!) -e!# )olle)t all 'ro)eed %lood a#d 'a !#to -e#a )a-a0*#)t!o#"

Blood tora/eBlood $!ltrat!o#" P+a/o)yt!

)o('oed o$ )a'!llary %ed /lo(er*l*3 a#d %o5(a#J )a'*le *rro*#d!#/ )a'*le3.Hydrotat!) 're*re $or)e (all !o#7 5ater7 (ole)*le7 'rote!# $ro( /lo(er*l* !#to

%o5(a#J )a'*lePro!(al t*%*le"

MaKor!ty o$ reor't!o# ta&e 'la)e. A)t!-e reor't!o# o$ 'rote!# a#d /l*)oe.,r*/ a#d ot+er to!# e)reted !#to t*%*le.C+a#/e ol*te )o('o!t!o# %*t doe #ot )+a#/e o(olar!ty

Loo' o$ He#le,e)e#d!#/" Per(ea%le to 5ater. Water $lo5 o*t7 )o#)e#trat!#/ *r!#e

A)e#d!#/" Per(ea%le to !o#. Io# a)t!-ely $lo5 o*t7 d!l*t!#/ *r!#e,!tal t*%*le"

Rea%or% Na Ca. Se)rete 97 H7 HCOAldotero#e !#)reae Na 9 tra#'ort 'rote!#. Net e$$e)t ! to de)reae $!ltrate o(olar!ty.

Colle)t!#/ d*)t"A,H !#)reae 5ater rea%or't!o#7 )o#)e#trat!#/ *r!#e.

*ta/lo(*er*lar a''arat*"


17/21

Se#e $!ltrate 're*re !# d!tal t*%*le.

CHAPTER CAR,IO8ASCULAR SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

.1 )ard!o-a)*lar a#ato(yPat+" L Atr!*(7 L -e#tr!)le7 aorta7 arter!e7 arter!ole7 )a'!llar!e7 -e#*ole7 -e!#7 *'er!or a#d !#$e

-e#a )a-a7 R atr!*(7 R -e#tr!)le7 P*l(o#ary artery7 P*l(o#ary -e!#Heart ele)tr!)al 'at+"

SA #ode = atr!*( = A8 #ode = B*#dle o$ +! = '*r&!#Ke $!%er = -e#tr!)le

SA #ode" A*toryt+(!). lo)ated !# R atr!*(. 8a/* #er-e !##er-ate SA #ode7 SLOWING !tdo5#

A8 #ode" Lo)ated !# t+e 5all %et5ee# t+e aorta. Slo5er7 )reate a t!(ed delay.B*#dle o$ +!" %*#dle o$ $!%er lo)ated %et5ee# t+e -e#tr!)leP*r&!#Ke $!%er" $!%er %ra#)+!#/ o*t o$ t+e %*#dle o$ +!. Pro'o/ate a)t!o# 'ote#t!al (ore

!(*lta#eo*ly to all )ell o$ t+e -e#tr!)le7 allo5 $or (ore *#!$!ed a#d tro#/er )o#tra)t!o#.Arter!e" elat!). Wra''ed !# (oot+ (*)le t+at ! ty'!)ally e#er-ated %y y('at+et!) #er-o*

yte(. Lar/e7 o -aod!alat!o# do #ot a$$e)t (*)+.Arter!ole" 8ery (all7 o -aod!alat!o# (ay %e *ed to rero*te %lood.Ca'!llar!e" (!)ro)o'!). S!#/le RBC 'a t+ro*/+. O#e )ell t+!)& 5all. N*tr!e#t e)+a#/e o))*r

+ere o#ly.

Arter!ole !de" +ydrotat!) 're*re do(!#ate7 $l*!d $lo5 o*t8e#*le !de" o(ot!) 're*re do(!#ate7 $l*!d $lo5 !#Net" 1: $l*!d lo !#to !#tert!t!*(

.2 Re'!ratory Syte(Pat+" Noe7 P+ary#7 Lary#7 Tra)+ea7 Bro#)+!7 Bro#)+!ole7 Al-eol!Lary#" -o!)e %oE'!/lott!" )art!la/!#o* (e(%er t+at 're-e#t $ood $ro( e#ter!#/ t+e tra)+ea 5+e# 5allo5!#/Tra)+ea" l!e !# $ro#t o$ t+e eo'+a/*

. C+e(!try o$ Ga E)+a#/e

F O2 %!#d to +e(o/lo%!#.He(o/lo%!# ! )o('oed o$ 6 *%*#!t 5!t+ o#e +e(e )o$a)tor a#d o#e !ro# !# t+e (!ddle. E+!%!t)oo'erat!-!ty 5+e# %!#d!#/ AN, relea!#/ O2.

Oy/e# d!o)!at!o# )*r-e" O2 at*rat!o# - O2 te#!o# (( H/3. I#) H47 te('7 PCO2 = +!$t!/+t de)reae O2 a$$!#!ty3

CO2" By $ar )arr!ed !# %lood a %!)ar%o#ate. Ot+er" '+y!)al ol*t!o#7 )ar%a(!#o )o(%!#ed 5!t++e(o/lo%!# a#d ot+er 'rote!#3

Car%o#!) a#+ydrae" e#


18/21

Red %lood )ell eryt+ro)yte3" tra#'ort O2 a#d CO2. L!-e 12: day.Ser*(" 'la(a 5!t+ $!%r!#o/e# re(o-edPlatelet" (e(%ra#e %o*#d )yto'la( 'l!t $ro( (a/a&aryo)yte. St!)& to !#K*red e#dot+el!*( t+e

5ell a#d a)t!-ate ot+er 'lateletClott!#/" Platelet a//re/ate7 (a&!#/ a looe 'l*/. Prot+ro(%!# )o#-ert to t+ro(%!#. T+ro(%!#

)o#-ert $!%r!#o/e# to $!%r!# atta)+e to 'latelet to $or( t!/+t 'l*/.

.D I((*#e yte(T5o ty'e"

I##ate" &!#7 to(a)+ a)!d7 '+a/o)yt!) )ell7 )+e(!)al !# %loodA)>*!red" T5o ty'e"

H*(oral B=)ell !((*#!ty3"Ma)ro'+a/e 'ree#t a#t!/e# to B ly('+o)yte.I$ re)o/#!

Sar)o(ere" $*#)t!o#al *#!t o$ &eletal (*)le 5!t+ (a#y tra#d o$ (yo!# a#d a)t!#Myo$!%r!l" ar)o(ere 'o!t!o#ed e#d to e#dSar)o'lat!) ret!)*l*(" *rro*#d (yo$!%r!l. Co#ta!# Ca44 !o#Sar)ole((a" (e(%ra#e t+at 5ra' e-eral (yo$!%r!l to/et+er to $or( a (*)leM*lt!#*)leated

Co#tra)t!o#"


19/21

Ca44 releaed $ro( SR.Tro'o#!# '*ll tro'o(yo!# %a)&7 e'o!#/ %!#d!#/ !te o# a)t!#Myo!# %!#d to a)t!#

A,P releae7 (yo!# +ead (o-e7 )o#tra)t!#/ (*)leATP %!#d to (yo!#7 relea!#/ /r!' o# a)t!#Tro'o#!# (o-e %a)& to )o-er %!#d!#/ !te

ATP = A,P. Myo!# +ead )o)&ed a#d ready to /oA)t!o# 'ote#t!al t+at lead to )o#tra)t!o#"

A)etyl)+ol!#e releaed !#to t+e #e*ro(*)*lar y#a'e

Io# )+a##el o'e#7 'ro'a/at!#/ a)t!o# 'ote#t!al alo#/ t+e tra#-ere t*%*le t+at )arr!e t+ea)t!o# 'ote#t!al dee' 5!t+!# t+e t!*e a#d allo5 $or e-e# )o#tra)t!o#

A)t!o# 'ote#t!al 'ro'a/ate !#to SR7 relea!#/ Ca44 !o#

.6 A Motor U#!tU#!t o$ (*)le $!%er !##er-ated %y o#e #er-e. Ca# %e 2 to 2::: $!%er !# o#e (otor *#!t.0or)e o$ )o#tra)t!o# $or a (*)le /ro*' de'e#d o# #*(%er a#d !


20/21

.F Bo#e 0*#)t!o# !# M!#eral Ho(eota!Ca44 tored a +ydroya'at!teHydroya'at!te )rytal l!e alo#/!de )olla/e# $!%er to /!-e %o#e +!/+ )o('re!o# tre#/t+Store a#d releae Ca44 a#d HPO6 ==

.11 Cart!la/e0le!%le re!l!e#t )o##e)t!-e t!*reCo('oed 'r!(ar!ly o$ )olla/e#

.12 o!#t0!%ro* Ko!#t" )loe a#d t!/+tly +eld to/et+er 5!t+ l!ttle or #o (o-e(e#t. E.G &*llCart!la/!#o* Ko!#t" allo5 $or l!ttle (o-e(e#t. E.G. R!%7 ter#*(Sy#o-!al Ko!#t" Ko!#t 5!t+ y#o-!al $l*!d !# %et5ee#. Allo5 $or 5!de ra#/e o$ (o-e(e#t

.1 S&!#0*#)t!o# o$ &!#"

T+er(ore/*lat!o#" Heat d!!'at!o#Prote)t!o#" '+y!)al %arr!er to t+e o*t!de 5orldE#-!ro#(e#tal e#ory !#'*t" Pre*re7 'a!#7 to*)+

E)ret!o#" 5ater a#d alt loI((*#!ty" S'e)!al!*!re U8 l!/+t to y#t+e!


21/21

Se=l!#&ed tra!t" Carr!ed o# t+e )+ro(oo(e; t+ere$ore7 e'reed !# (ale 5+et+er or #ot !t !do(!#a#t. T+ere$ore7 a )arr!er $e(ale )roed 5!t+ #or(al (ale 5!ll 'rod*)e : e'reed (ale. O#e(ale7 #or(al do(!#a#)e o))*r %e)a*e o$ t5o )+ro(oo(e.

F.2 E-ol*t!o#Ge#e 'ool" total o$ all allele !# a 'o'*lat!o#. E.G. : B : %9!#/ P+!l!' )a(e o-er $or /ood o*'S'e)!e" *%et o$ all or/a#!( t+at )a# 'rod*)e $ert!le o$$'r!#/N!)+e" t+e 5ay !# 5+!)+ a 'e)!e e'lo!t t+e e#-!ro#(e#t

S*r-!-al o$ t+e $!ttet" t+e (ot *))e$*l 5!ll (ate t+e (ot t!(e7 t+ere$ore7 %e (ore *))e$*l a'ro'a/at!#/ !t /e#e

R=ele)t!o#" (a#y o$$'r!#/7 l!ttle or #o )are. E'o#e#t!al /ro5t+. ,o 5ell !# de#!ty !#de'e#de#ta)tor. E.G. $lood7 te(' $l*)t*at!o#7 et).

9=ele)t!o#" $e5 o$$'r!#/7 +!/+ e#er/y 'e#t o# o$$'r!#/. S!/(o!dal )*r-e t+at 'ea& at )arry!#/)a'a)!ty. ,o 5ell !# de#!ty de'e#de#t $a)tor

S'e)!at!o#" 'ro)e 5+!)+ #e5 'e)!e ! $or(edAda't!-e rad!at!o#" e-eral 'e)!e ar!e $ro( !#/le a#)etral 'e)!e,!-er/e#t e-ol*t!o#" 'ro)e !# 5+!)+ a )o((o# tr*)t*re d!-er/e !#to d!$$ere#t $or(. E.G. le/ o$

+*(a# a#d $l!''er o$ 5+aleCo#-er/e#t e-ol*t!o#" d!$$ere#t 'e)!e e-ol-e !(!lar tr*)t*re. E.G. 5!#/ o$ %at a#d %!rd

Poly(or'+!(" P+e#oty'e !# 5+!)+ d!t!#)t $or( are 'ree#t a o''oed to )o#t!#*al )+a#/e. E.5+!te a#d red $lo5er )olor - +e!/+t.

F. Sy(%!o!M*t*al!(" Bot+ or/a#!( %e#e$!t.Co((e#al!(" O#e or/a#!( %e#e$!t 5+!le t+e ot+er ! #e!t+er +ar(ed #or %e#e$!t.Para!t!(" O#e or/a#!( %e#e$!t 5+!le t+e ot+er ! +ar(ed

F.6 Hardy=We!#%er/ E>*!l!%r!*(Hardy=We!#%er/ e>*!l!%r!*(" #o )+a#/e !# all!el $re>*e#)y !$ t+e $ollo5!#/ )o#d!t!o# +old1. lar/e 'o'*lat!o#

2. (*tat!o#al e>*!l!%r!*(. !((!/rat!o# or e(!/rat!o# (*t #ot )+a#/e /e#e 'ool6. ra#do( (at!#/. #o ele)t!o# o$ t+e $!ttetGe#et!) dr!$t" O))*r !# (all 'o'*lat!o# 5+ere deat+ o$ o#e *%et o$ 'o'*lat!o# +a-!#/ %!a a/a!

o#e all!el )a*e d!t*r%a#)e o$ t+e /e#e 'ool. Ra#do( e-e#t.B!#o(!al t+eore(" '2 4 2'> 4 >2 Q 1 '4>Q1 0re>*e#)!e o$ all!el *( to o#e.

F. Or!/!# o$ L!$eUrley=M!ller e'er!(e#t" a*toy#t+e! o$ %a!) (ole)*le $ro( 'r!(ord!al o*' o$ (et+a#e7

a((o#!a7 *l$*r7 et)..

0!rt '+otoy#t+et!) or/a#!( ! 'ro%a%ly '+otoy#t+et!) %a)ter!a. A#)etor o$ )ya#o%a)ter!a.

F.D C+ordate 0eat*reC+ordata #ot e>*al to %a)&%o#eB!lateral y((etryT+ey are de*teroto(e a#* de-elo' $ro( or #ear %lato'ore3,*r!#/ de-elo'(e#t7 t+ey 'oe a #oto)+ord e(%ryo#!) a!al *''ort7 der!-ed $ro( (eoder( #

%a)& %o#e37 '+ary#/eal l!t7 a doral +ollo5 #er-e )ord7 a#d a ta!lMot )+ordate are -erte%rata #oto)+ord re'la)ed 5!t+ %o#e tr*)t*re 5!t+ d!t!#)t %ra!# tr*)t*re

e#)loed !# a &*ll3

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