biom32 woodland ecosystems report

BIOM32 WOODland Field Course Report

BIOM32 Woodland Field Course Report KUMAR 748392

Table of Contents1.0 Park Woods 21.1 Woodland concepts 21.2 Park Woods: history and ecology 21.3 National Vegetation Classification and the W8 woodland 31.4 Structure & composition of Park Woods & woodland management strategies 31.5 Key indicator species and other observations 41.6 Functional roles and ecosystem services provided by birds and mammals 5

2.0 Brecon Beacon Upland Nedd Fechan Valley Woodland 72.1 The Nedd Fechan Valley 72.2 Sessile oak woodlands and the Atlantic influence 82.3 Freshwater lotic systems 92.4 Key indicator species and other observations 92.5 Bryophytes 102.6 Human and industrial influence 11

3.0 Conifer Plantations 123.1 Introduction to British conifer plantations 123.2 Fungal-like and fungal diseases 133.3 Plantation structure from a biodiversity perspective 143.4 The forested matrix and biodiversity 143.5 Maxismising biodiversity in the forested matrix 153.6 The non-forested matrix 153.7 Maximising biodiversity in the non-forested matrix 153.8 Ecosystem services and resilience thinking 16

4.0 References 19

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1.0 Park Woods

1.1 Woodland concepts

WILDWOOD – Natural, uncultivated woodland that originated in Britain after the last Ice Age but prior to mankind. A majority of this woodland disappeared by the end of the Bronze Age.

ANCIENT WOODLAND – Been in existence since between the 1600 AD and 1700 AD (approximately 400 years old.) There has been continuous existence of this woodland since this time. This woodland encompasses a wide diversity of flora and fauna.

PRIMARY WOODLAND – Woodland that has always been on wooded land since the end of the last Ice Age and have been managed by man at some point.

SECONDARY WOODLAND – Woodland that grows on and colonises historically unwooded sites that have previously been abandoned. This type of woodland lacks some characteristics to those of ancient woodland.

SEMI-NATURAL WOODLAND – Woodland that dates back to between 1600 AD and 1700 AD consisting of native species that have not but planted, however it is said to have been managed at a point in time.

1.2 Park Woods: history and ecology

Park Woods is a woodland valley situated in South Gower just west of Swansea. This area has received a notable amount of scientific attention due to its remarkable history and ecological value. The land in this particular site was previously inhabited by the Mesolithic people who were nomadic hunters whose culture was defined by remaining storm artifacts and viewed that they belonged to the land rather than the land belonged to them. The Mesolithic people eventually adopted Neolithic culture and lifestyle which originated in the Middle East and spread across to Britain. There is a cave here known as the Cathole Cave, which is 38,000 years old, and was utilized in the Palaeolithic times by hunters because there were no trees to provide them with shelter. William Buckland, a renowned geologist, believed that the sea level rose due to Noah’s Flood and animals washed up in caves such as the Cathole Cave. Ivory, beads and a skeleton were found in this particular cave and Buckland believed the skeleton was that of a prostitute 2,000 years ago. His theory was proved otherwise due to later evidence that showed the skeleton belonging to a 38,00 year old man who belonged to the upper Palaeolithic period. The ivory was actually from a mammoth. The first trees that emerged here were birch, juniper, and aspen trees. Eventually the Neolithic people imposed increased pressure on the landscape to take down trees to create room for food, farming and husbandry. In order for them to take down the trees, they had to dig

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them out. As Neolithic culture expanded over time, trees became endangered. At the time, hazelnuts were an important source of nourishment for the people. In 1066, William the Great invaded England at Hastings Hill with the intent of conquering and acquiring land and wanted to know what type of and how much land he had. He commissioned people to survey the land and create what is called Domesday Book, produced in 1086. With deductive reasoning, it can be inferred that the ancient woodland dates back to the wildwood although there is no direct evidence for this. The Black Plague of 1349 caused a major recession leaving no people left to manage the land. This event kept recurring every 10-20 years which decimated the population and encouraged the development of secondary woodland.

1.3 National Vegetation Classification and the W8 woodland

The development of National Vegetation Classification (NVC) began in the 1980s and is what Britain uses as their method of classifying different types of vegetation. The woodland section of the NVC is classified based on over 2000 recent and ancient samples from woods in Britain (Hall et al., 2004). Park Woods is a semi-natural ancient woodland. The type of NVC found here is a W8 mixed deciduous lowland woodland consisting of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), field maple (Acer campestre) and dog’s mercury (Mercurialis perennis) which are the three major indicator species of this woodland that classify its NVC. The distribution of this woodland, as shown in Figure 1, is common of the East Durham Limestone Plateau and localized sites in the Tees Lowlands, but in general is more common south and west Britain (Durham County Council, 2008). This woodland is characterized by basic calcareous soils due its rich Carboniferous Limestone geology. The soil here is not much waterlogged thus encouraging the growth of shrubs and types of flora that thrive on well-drained soils.

1.4 Structure and composition of Park Woods & woodland management strategies

The structure and composition on the W8 in Park Woods consists of different layers with different species within each layer. There is the canopy layer, herb layer, shrub layer and ground layer as portrayed by Figure 2. The species found in each layer are displayed in Table 1. Everything below the canopy is called the understorey. An understorey can best be defined as the layer of small trees below the prevailing tree species in the canopy but

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Figure 1. A distribution of the W8 Fraxinus excelsior – Acer campestre – Mercurialis perennis woodland

across Britain. Derived from Hall et al., 2004.


above the ground layer (Royal Forest Society, 2010). The canopy layer is controlled by an ancient woodland management strategy called coppicing which is when trees are cut down to almost the ground layer and sprouts shoot from the stool. Coppicing produces good sized wood shoots. This is when the Neolithic period transitioned into the Bronze Age because the Neolithic people burned the coppice shoots for charcoal to smelt bronze and copper. They also used it for fencing, tools, weapons and more. The ancient woodland management technique of suckering is similar to coppicing but the difference is that trees that sucker will send shoots up from its roots. Most deciduous trees such as the common ash and hazel (Corylus avellana) will coppice and not sucker with the exception of the wild cherry tree (Prunus avium) that suckers. Blackthorns (Prunus spinosa) and spindles (Euonymus europaeus) are also examples of trees that sucker. Out of the English elms, wych elm (Ulmus glabra) is the only one that suckers and the rest of them coppice. Another technique used in ancient woodland management is pollarding which is cutting the tree down to two metres so multiple branches are able to grow. Fire is an important ecological factor in woodland management. Conifer forests burn very well and it is not the wood that burns, but instead the vapors that it emits. Hardwood forests on the other hand do not burn so fire is not instrumental in their ecology.

Figure 2. A diagram of woodland composition and layers from the bare ground to the canopy from the time since abandonment. Derived from (Blakesley & Buckley, 2010).

1.5 Key indicator species and other observations

From what was observed today, there was an excess of bluebells (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) near wood branches. This can be attributed to the fact that they respond well to coppicing. They are also good indicators of ancient woodland. Another good ancient woodland indicator that responds well to coppicing is the wood spurge (Euphorbia amygdaloides.) A common toothwort (Lathraea squamaria) was spotted near a hazel tree and is a good indicator for ancient woodland because it is typically found nearby hazels. The reason for this is because it does not photosynthesize since it is a parasitic

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plant. It thrives from leaching water and sugar from hazels. A plethora of ramsons (Allium ursinum) were spotted in many parts of the Park Woods. Another common name for them is wild garlic. Due to their widespread clusters, they are classified under a sub-community known as the W8f. Ramsons prefer shady areas. Wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa) and herb paris (Paris quadrifolia) are also two very good indicators of ancient woodland. Dog’s mercury is one of the indicator species that is used in the NVC to classify the W8. The rest of the ancient woodland indicators that were spotted today are wood speedwell (Veronica montana),

thin spiked wood sedges (Carex strigosa), ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea) and lords and ladies (Arum maculatum.) As the day winded down we strolled down the pathway to listen for various bird songs. The first bird song we heard was from a blackcap bird (Sylvia atricapilla) which is common in woodland and has a tumbling song in its song. The second bird we heard was a common blackbird (Turdus merula) which had a continuous variation in its song. A few insects were passed around for us to look at in specimen containers. The common dronefly (Eristalis terax) live as larva in organic muddy pools and the common snout-hoverfly (Rhingia campestris) larvae live in cow pats. The insects in this woodland need a sufficient amount of space to grow and are currently choking from the vegetation. A hand lens is necessary to examine the insects here in order to classify them properly. The key to this is to look at the back of their necks to tell them apart.

1.6 Functional roles and ecosystem services provided by birds and mammals

Birds and mammals play an important role in woodland ecology. Woodpecker species such as the ones discussed on this day are good indicators of a healthy woodland ecosystem. The particular woodpecker species that were discussed today were the green woodpecker (Picus viridis), greater spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) and lesser spotted woodpecker (Picoides minor.) A study by Drever et al., 2007 showed a positive correlation between woodpecker richness and richness of forest birds on a landscape scale. Greater spotted woodpeckers are also responsible for carving cavities in dead birch trees that allow other woodpeckers, birds and bats to utilize it as their

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Figure 3. A picture of a coppicing deciduous tree surrounded by an excess of ancient woodland indicating

bluebells as they respond well to coppicing trees.


nesting area or habitat. Badgers (Meles meles) have a positive impact on the woodland ecosystem and are known as “ecological engineers.” Dormice (Gliridae) are predominantly found in deciduous, coppiced woodlands and sometimes in coniferous forests. The dormice are currently suffering from habitat fragmentation and insensitive woodland management. Under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), they have been awarded the conservation status of “priority species” meaning that an ample amount of attention must be paid to them in order to preserve them. Deer species such as the red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) are said to have profound, negative impacts on woodland ecosystems. If not managed appropriately, deer grazing could prove to be damaging to lowland woodland biodiversity, especially to invertebrate species by hindering regeneration and elimination of the understorey (Stewart, 2001).

Table 1. W8 species list including common and scientific names for seen, not seen, discussed and heard species at Park Woods.

Common Name Scientific NameTrees (Canopy Layer) Common Ash Fraxinus excelsior

Sequoia Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirensHazel Corylus avellanaWych Elm Ulmus glabraJapanese Larch Larix koempferiCommon Hawthorn Crataegus monogynaField Maple Acer campestreSycamore Acer pseudoplatanusWild Cherry Prunus aviumBlackthorn Prunus spinosaSpindle Euonymus europaeusSessile Oak Quercus petraeaGrand Fir Abies grandis

Shrubs (Shrub Layer) Common Holly Ilex aquifoliumGround Ivy Glechoma hederaceaBramble Rubus fruticosus

Flora (Ground Layer) Bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scriptaCommon Nettle Urtica dioicaRamsons (Wild Garlic) Allium ursinumDog’s Mercury Mercurialis perennisRed Campion Silene dioicaEnchanter’s Nightshade Circaea lutetianaWood Speedwell Veronica montanaPrimrose Primula vulgarisWood Spurge Euphorbia amygdaloidesHerb Paris Paris quadrifoliaCommon Toothwort Lathraea squamariaThin Spiked Wood Sedge Carex strigosaWood Anemone Anemone nemorosaLords and Ladies Arum maculatumGermander Speedwell Veronica chamaedrysEarly Purple Orchid Orchis mascula

Birds Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla

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Common Blackbird Turdus merulaLesser Spotted Woodpecker Picoides minorGreater Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos majorGreen Woodpecker Picus viridis

Insects (Invertebrates) Common Dronefly Eristalis teraxBog Hoverfly Sericomvia silentisCommon Snout-hoverfly Rhingia campestrisRamsons Hoverfly Portevinia maculataFemale Bee Fly Andrena bombylius majorElm Bark Beetle Scolytus scolytusOily Beetle Meloe proscarabaeusSolitary Bee Andrena

Fauna (Vertebrates, Mammals) Badger Meles melesDormouse GliridaeRed Deer Cervus elaphusRoe Deer Capreolus capreolusFallow Deer Dama damaGrey Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

2.0 Brecon Beacon Upland Nedd Fechan Valley Woodland

2.1 The Nedd Fechan Valley

The woodlands are essential ecosystems for providing a habitat for various species of trees, mosses, insects, birds, mammals and fungi. There is a plethora of shady cover and food where organisms can thrive (Brecon Beacons National Park, 2013). This day of the field course consisted of walking along the Afan Nedd Fechan from Pont Nedd Fechan to Pont Melin Fach in the Brecon Beacon Upland Ancient Woodland where the trail begins in a W11 woodland ecosystem and transitions into the W17 one. This valley used to be a hotspot for industrial activity but is now an ecological gem of South Wales with its scenic trail and pristine waterfalls such as the one picture in Figure (4.)

2.2 Sessile oak woodlands and the Atlantic influence

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Figure 4. The Scwd Gwladys waterfall at the end of the Nedd Fechan Valley. Photograph by David Glendinning.


The W11 and W17 are the two dominant woodland NVC communities found here. Sufficient amounts of native species here rely on the woodlands for a significant portion of the year (Brecon Beacons National Park, 2013). The ecosystem here is that of a Celtic, temperate rainforest where the valleys are carved by the rain. This type of rainforest can be found in the Celtic countries of the Atlantic seaboard region of Europe, where Wales is said to have the best examples of this type of rainforest. Contrary to the W8 woodland, the amount of carboniferous limestone in this area is less prevalent however there is still a fair amount of it. The dominant geological features here are the Old Red Sandstone and Millstone Grit, which are responsible for the formation of acidic-rich soils here. The W11 and W17 woodlands both contain acidic soils but the grasses in the W11 differentiate it from the mosses in the W17. The W11 is the most common woodland on acidic soils. The W17, also known as the Atlantic sessile oak (Quercus petraea) Woodland, does not have much grass in the understorey but is rich in its diversity of bryophytes. The Sessile Oak Woodlands mostly thrive on shallow, acidic and leached brown Earth soils (Forestry Commission, 2003). The temperate, Celtic rainforest is an excellent supporter of much lichen and bryophyte species that are mainly restricted to this habitat. A lot of the lichen and bryophyte species found here cannot be found in many other places across Britain and the rest of Europe. Some are even rare across the globe (Plantlife Scotland, 2010). The sessile oak woodland is rich in sessile oak, birch (Betula pubescens) and greater fork-moss (Dicranum majus.) The greater fork-moss can only be found in Britain where there is Atlantic influence. The sessile oak trees themselves are abundant in the upland oakwoods of semi-natural woodlands. Sessile oak Woodland communities that have a western, Atlantic influence range from South Wales to Northern Scotland (Blakesley & Buckley, 2010). Figure 5 shows the distribution of the W11 and W17 woodlands in Britain. Sessile oak trees support more wildlife than any native tree (Woodland Trust, 2014). This tree species is essential to the food chain and the biodiversity lifestyle of this rich ecosystem. It serves as a habitat for several insect species which then provide food for birds and any other predators. Furthermore, mosses and liverworts are able to thrive on the bark of these trees (Woodland Trust, 2014). There is also river corridor woodland here which is not a W8 woodland type, but does not fall into other categories of woodland either. There are two ancient woodland indicator species here (wych elm and wild garlic) that we also observed at Park Woods.

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b)a)


Figure 5. Figure 2a depicts a distribution of W11 Quercus petraea – Betula pubescens – Oxalis acetosella woodland across Britain. Figure 2b depicts a distribution of W17 Quercus petraea – Betula pubescens – Dicranum majus woodland in Britain. Derived from Hall et al., 2004.

2.3 Freshwater lotic systems

The flow of water is essential in the ecology of a freshwater lotic system. The key aspect of lotic systems is that the water is constantly moving and flows in one direction. This includes but is not limited to ecosystems such as streams, rivers, creeks and springs. Organisms that live here are accustomed to live in these flowing water conditions. The water in a freshwater lotic s ystem resides in that area for approximately two weeks (Wetzel, 2001).

2.4 Key indicator species and other observations

One of the first species of plants observed on this day is a wood melick (Melica uniflora) which is arguably the best indicator of ancient woodland. It is always found in ancient woodland, but never in secondary woodland. The navalwort (Umbilicus rupestris) is named after is naval appearance and is an Atlantic species that prefers a wet climate. Cow weed and hairy woodrush (Luzula pilosa) were spotted and are both associated with the W11 woodland. An insect called the stonefly (Plecoptera) typically thrive in cold waters and feed on algae. They are an excellent indicator of water quality. There are a variety of nationally and globally rare bryophyte species that grow in this section of Brecon Beacons. A yellow flower called the yellow archangel (Lamium galeobdolon) is an ancient woodland species that is rare in Gower and has a look-alike that is a subspecies of it that is grown in gardens. The confusion between the two species triggers genetic

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pollution. Two different types of hard ferns (Blechnum spican) were observed: reproductive and non-reproductive. They are a reasonably good ancient woodland species. Four different species of birds were discussed but not seen, however, they are characteristic of the type of woodland here. They are the redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), tree pipet (Anthus trivialis), wood warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) and pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca.) The upland sessile oak woodlands of western Britain sustains smaller populations of birds than then the lowland. Redstarts are prevalent in British woodland among the ancient trees. They nest in tiny holes in the trunks of matured trees or on larger branches (Rotherham, 2011). Populations of tree pipets are declining due to change in management so they are currently a conservation concern. Tree pipets and wood warblers are good indicators of the communities being in their most diverse stage. Wood warblers and pied flycatchers are even more endangered because they necessitate certain habitat qualities which make them vulnerable to any changes that occur in the woodland (Blakesley & Buckley, 2010). Some water bat species were discussed such as the natterer’s bat (Myotis nattereri) which has a strong ecological connection to wet woodland. They feed off the insects on the surface of the water and this serves as their primary food source. The woodland here provides a favourable habitat for them because they are able to nest in the cavities in birch trees carved by woodpeckers.

2.5 Bryophytes

Bryophytes are good indicators of habitat quality. They are able to serve as habitats for a plethora of biodiversity. They are non-vascular plants that lack xylem and phloem meaning that they are unable to raise water in their stems. Plants that are deprived of vascular tissue will not have much height. The first moss observed on this day was a swan’s-neck thyme-moss (Mnium hornum), an acrocarpous (cushion) moss that is characterized by a vein strung through each of the leaves. Each leaf has sharp edges. Another cushion moss observed here was the common haircap or Polytrichum spp. (e.g. Polytrichum commune) which is the tallest of all mosses and, at one point in time, dominated the Earth. This moss comes in two different species. One of the species of this moss was producing a sporophyte (seta) with a capsule on the tip covered by a calyptra. The silicone-like cap under the calyptra is called the operculum which falls off.

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Figure 6. Greater fork-moss (Dicranum majus) which is one of the key species that

distinguish the W17 from the W11 woodland.


Underneath this, there are teeth that open up and release spores. The four sides of the capsule indicate that it is a Politricum species. It is a gametophyte, and is haploid meaning that it only has one set of chromosomes. In fact, all mosses are haploid as it is the dominant generation. We came across one of the two bog mosses that are normally found in the Nedd Fechan Valley. It is called the fringed bog-moss (Sphagnum fimbriatum) and can be found in ancient woodland drooping over branches. They are generally long. The third types of mosses found in this valley are the pleurocarpous (feather) mosses. When pulling off a sample of the mamillate plait-moss (Hypnum andoi) from the tree to observe it under the hand lens, it was noted that the moss was firmly attached to the bark, even pulling off a fragment of it in the process. The mouse-tail moss (Isothecium myosuroides) that was observed is renowned for how comfortable it is to sit on. The little shaggy-moss (Rhytidiadelphus loreus) is found in W11 and W17 woodlands. A moss known as the common tamarisk-moss (Thuidium tamariscinum), or “feathery carpet” moss is a feather-like, beautiful moss that is common in the woodlands. The great scented liverwort (Conocephalum conicum), was spotted growing on a rock in a shaded area. This liverwort prefers shady and wet areas and resembles seaweed in terms of its appearance. It has a unique, aromatic smell to it and is a common liverwort and is a type of thallose liverwort. Another type of thallose liverwort that we observed was the forked veilwort (Metzgeria furcata) which has a forked structure and is more common than the great scented liverwort. White earworts (Diplophyllum albicans) and greater featherworts (Plagiochila asplenoides) are two types of leafy liverworts that we came across. The greater featherwort tends to grow on the ground and is sometimes mistaken for a moss.

2.6 Human and industrial influence

Along the trail, we observed an Old Mill where there were stones made out of “pudding stone,” which is an element of Millstone Grit series. A mountain range from the middle of Wales that stretched all the way to Belgium approximately 325 million years ago had rivers, which carried sediments towards the sea. The first sediments to accumulate here were pebbles followed by sand and this mixture lead to the formation of Millstone Grit (National Botanic Garden of Wales, 2013). The existence of this mill in the Nedd Fechan Valley is an indicator of how humans are always managing and interfering with nature, and as a result humans have become a component of ecosystems.

Table 2. W11 and W17 species list including common and scientific names for seen, not seen, discussed and heard species in the Nedd Fechan Valley.

Common Name Scientific NameBryophytes (Non-vascular

plants)Swan’s-neck Thyme-moss Mnium hornum

Great Scented Liverwort Conocephalum conicumForked Veilwort Metzgeria furcataCommon Haircap Polytrichum spp.Common Tamarisk-moss Thuidium tamariscinumGreater Featherwort Plagiochila asplenioides

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Little Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus loreusMouse-tail Moss Isothecium myosuroidesMamillate Plait-moss Hypnum andoiFringed Bog-moss Sphagnum fimbriatumWhite Earwort Diplophyllum albicansGreater Fork-moss Dicranum majus

Trees, Shrubs and Ground Flora Common Beech Fagus sylvaticaSessile Oak Quercus petraeaDowny Birch Betula pubescensSilver Birch Betula pendulaCommon Ash Fraxinus excelsiorHazel Corylus avellanaNavalwort Umbilicus rupestrisWood Melick Melica unifloraSmall Leaved Lime Tilia cordataWood Sorrel Oxalis strictaHairy Woodrush Luzula pilosaYellow Archangel Lamium galeobdolonHard Fern (reproductive and non-reproductive)

Blechnum spican

Birds (Vertebrates) Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurusTree Pipit Anthus trivialisWood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrixPied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleucaKingfisher Coraciiformes

Insects (Invertebrates) Stonefly Plecoptera species familyCommon Woodlice OniscusTree Slug Limax marginatusGall Wasp Biorhiza pallidaDor Beetle Geotrupes stercorariusLonghorn Beetle Cerambycidae species familyPurple Emperor Butterfly Apatura irisHairstreak Butterfly Lycaenidae species familyWood White Butterfly Leptidea sinapisGreen-veined Butterfly Pieris napiSpeckled Wood Butterfly Pararge aegeriaClearwing Moth Rheumaptera hastateOak Tortrix Moth Tortrix viridana

Fauna (Vertebrates, Mammals) Daubenton's Bat Myotis daubentoniiNatterer's bat Myotis nattereriBadger Meles melesOtter Lutra lutraBrown Rat Rattus norvegicus

3.0 Conifer Plantations

3.1 Introduction to British conifer plantations

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The original purpose for conifer plantations in Britain was intended for timber production. Most of the natural woodland in Britain is deciduous, however a fair amount of woods have conifer species that are native and introduced and have been planted in open habitat areas. Conifer plantations are high in biodiversity value and in order to preserve them, we must find solutions to maximise it whether it be in the forested or non-forested matrix.

3.2 Fungal-like and fungal diseases

There are currently three fungal diseases that are affecting conifer plantations in Britain. The first one is the Phytopthora ramorum. P. ramorum is a fungus-like organism belonging to the Oomycetes. Oomycetes produce swimming spores (flagella.) and this is the way they disperse themselves. This fairly new disease of conifers has recently received a lot of attention. P. ramorum is said to have come from Asia and was first recognised in Britain in 2002 on Viburnum (Viburnum rhytidophyllum) in Essex Garden. In 2003 the disease was found on a Southern Red Oak (Quercus falcata) and in 2009 it was found to be killing the Japanese Larch (Larix koempferi) causing stem cankers. Symptoms of P. ramorum include dark bleeding, exudate and shoot tips needling. The current strain in the UK has been found on a number of hosts which (rarely) other conifers such as the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), Rhododendron (Rhododendron ferrugineum) and Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus.) P. ramorum does not produce as many spores on Bilberry but sporulates at a

rapid rate on the Japanese Larch. The dispersal of these spores can be carried by mists and rain, humans, bikes, dogs etc. There is currently no effective treatment for P. ramorum other than removing the diseased trees. Removal of these trees is currently costing millions of pounds and it is being done on a large scale in the UK. This leads to the issue of allocating the tree trunks. This operation also results in significant landscape

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c)b)a)

Figure 7. Pictures capturing the disease-affected trees. Figure 7a depicts a canker caused by the P. ramorum disease. Figure 7b shows the dying leaves of the ash tree that are soon about to fall which is due to the Ash

Dieback Disease. Figure 7c shows the Elm Bark Beetle’s marks on a wych elm trunk. Images derived from Wikipedia.


changes and forest plans must now consider what will replace Larch and how the landscape will be rebuilt. Sustainable timber production, biodiversity, aesthetic and amenity all play a part in this decision making process to revive the ecosystem structure. A fungal disease affecting conifer plantations is the Ash Dieback Disease (Chalara fraxinea) of ash trees. This disease is threatening the UK’s population of ash trees at a rapid rate. The third disease is the Dutch Elm Disease (Ophiostoma ulmi) which is a fungal disease that affects elm trees across the UK and is spread by the Elm Bark Beetle (Scolytus multistriatu) which is considered a pest insect.

3.3 Plantation structure from a biodiversity perspective

1. THE PLANTATION IS THE ENTIRE FORESTRY OPERATION – IT IS MADE UP OF:2. THE FORESTED MATRIX – WHERE TREES ARE PLANTED.3. THE NON-FORESTED MATRIX – ALL OTHER STRUCTURES OUTSIDE AND AROUND THE FORESTED

MATRIX.4. UNDERSTAND THE FEATURES THAT UNDERPIN DIVERSITY IN EACH MATRIX.5. MAXIMISE THEIR POTENTIAL IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY IN VIEW OF THE DIVERSE VALUES AND USES

OF THE DIVERSE VALUES AND USES OF THE FOREST.

Quarries supply rock to make new roads and then provide a habitat.

3.4 The forested matrix and biodiversity

The forested matrix consists of plantation compartments with planted trees such as spruce, larch and pine, specifically Sitka Spruce, Japanese Larch, Norway Spruce (Picea abies), Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta), and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestrus) but also Douglas Fir, Corsican Pine (Pinus nigra), Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata.) Conifer species in each type of forest is different. The stage in the forest cycle (young through mature) are successional changes that have remarkable effects on bird communities such as the nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), great grey shrike (Laninus excubitor), grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia), song thrush (Turdus philomelos), wood warbler, siskin (Carduelis spinus), lesser redpoll (Carduelis cabaret), crossbill (Loxia), goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), honey buzzard (Perinis apivorus), white throat (Sylvia communis), lesser white throat (Sylvia curruca.) The goshawk and honey buzzard are raptor-like birds. Figure 8 displays the rotational stages that trees undergo in the coniferous forest.

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Figure 8. A flow chart of the rotational stages that occur in trees on conifer plantations.

3.5 Maxismising biodiversity in the forested matrix

In order to maximise biodiversity potential in the forested matrix, a variety of conifer species can be used and more native and broad-leaved trees should be planted. Any compartments in the matrix should be made smaller and it needs to be ensured that there are always compartments at different rotational stages. The pre-thicket stage should be maximised and more compartments need to be allowed to reach the post mature stage. Planting on peatlands must come to an end. Finally, information and interpretation for recreational users must be improved.

3.6 The non-forested matrix

The non-forested matrix is relevant to the logistics of the forestry operation and it consists of roads, verges, banks, shrub-dominated scrub, residual deciduous forest and old stone walls. There are some bryophytes found here such as the inclined distichium (Distichium inclinatum) which is a rare moss that loves limestone and fir-club moss (Huperzia selago) which can be found at high latitudes. There is also the stag’s-horn club-moss (Lycopodium clavatum) found here. Epiphytic bryophytes are increasing on bryophytes and love wet, mild and moist environments.

3.7 Maximising biodiversity in the non-forested matrix

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Post Mature

Mature

Mid Rotational (15-25 yrs)

Pre-Thicket (8-10 yrs)

Clear-Fell


The most effective way of maximising biodiversity in the non-forested matrix is to create wider verges and marginal areas with banks. Thinner planting should be implemented along the edges and encouragement to expand natural areas of heathland, marshy grassland and wetland and leaving occasional log piles should be executed as well. More ponds should be created and willow shrub should be encouraged in suitable areas. Finally, the deciduous forest structure should be enhanced.

3.8 Ecosystem services and resilience thinking

Figure 9. A breakdown of the services that ecosystems provide. Under supporting services, carbon fixation and pollinations can be added. Diseases can be added to the regulating services category. Derived from Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005.

It is important to note that humans play a crucial role in ecosystems. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005 best defines ecosystems as the life support of humankind. The services shown in Figure 9 are just a few of many examples that ecosystems provide for humans. The Economics and Ecosystems of Biodiversity (TEEB) is a global initiative whose goal is to quantify the benefits of ecosystems. It allows for decision makers to determine the intrinsic value that ecosystems have to offer. This initiative aims to raise awareness and appreciation for biodiversity and its benefits. Humans are currently trying to execute the resilience approach which pertains to how we manage the ecosystems in terms of disease, climate change, etc. There are seven key components involved in implementing the resilience approach. Walker & Salt 2006 best define resilience as “the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure.”

1. MAINTAIN DIVERSITY

2. HABITAT CONNECTIVITY

3. MANAGE SLOW VARIABLES AND FEEDBACK LOOPS

4. THINK IN A COMPLEX AND ADAPTIVE WAY

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5. EDUCATION

6. BROADENING PARTICIPATION AND ENGAGEMENT

7. MULTIPLE GOVERNING BODIES

Resilience thinking offers a new perspective on managing the resources of our changing world. It harnesses the idea of bridging the gaps in ecosystems, communities and landscapes. It is our best interest to preserve these ecosystems because of the goods and services they provide us.

Table 3. Species list including common and scientific names for various species found on many conifer plantations such as the Rheola Forest.

Common Name Scientific NameTrees, Shrubs and Herbs Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis

Japanese Larch Larix koempferiScots Pine Pinus sylvestrusNorway Spruce Picea abiesDouglas Fir Pseudotsuga menziesiiLodgepole Pine Pinus contortaCorsican Pine Pinus nigraWestern Hemlock Tsuga heterophyllaWestern Red Cedar Thuja plicataMacedonian Pine Pinus peuceSouthern Red Oak Quercus falcataRhododendron Rhododendron ferrugineumBilberry Vaccinium myrtillusPurple Moor Grass Molinia caeruleaSouthern Marsh Orchid Dactylorhiza praetermissaCommon Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza fuchsii

Bryophytes (Non-vascular Plants)

Inclined Distichium Distichium inclinatum

Fir Clubmoss Huperzia selagoStag’s-horn Club-moss Lycopodium clavatum

Insects (Invertebrates) Elm Bark Beetle Scolytus multistriatuBirds (Vertebrates) Great Grey Shrike Laninus excubitor

Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeusCuckoo Cuculus canorusWhitethroat Sylvia communisGrasshopper Warbler Locustella naeviaLesser Redpoll Carduelis cabaretCrossbill Loxia species familyGoshawk Accipiter gentilisHoney Buzzard Perinis apivorusSong Thrush Turdus philomelosSiskin Carduelis spinusWillow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilusLesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca

Fungi-like (Oomycete) Ramorum Disease Phytopthora ramorumPotato Blight Disease Phytopthera infestans

Fungi Common Forest Fungi Physarum virescens

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Slimy Spike-cap Gomphidius glutinosusFalse Saffron Milkcap Lactarius deterrimusCommon Forest Fungi Russula fuscorubraAsh Dieback Disease Chalara fraxineaDutch Elm Disease Ophiostoma ulmi

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4.0 References

Blakesley D. and Buckley, P. (2010). Identifying woodland types. In: Blakesley D. and Buckley, P. Managing your woodland for wildlife. Newbury: Pisces Publications. 1-121.

Brecon Beacons National Park. (2013). Forests and woodland in the Brecon Beacons National Park. Available: http://www.breconbeacons.org/forests-woodland. Last accessed 10 May 2014.

Drever, M.C., Aitken, K.E.H., Norris, A.R., Martin K. (2008). Woodpeckers as reliable indicators of bird richness, forest health and harvest. Science Direct. 141 (1), 624.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership. (2013). Conifer Plantations. Available: http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=2737&p=0. Last accessed 21 May 2014.

Durham County Council. (2008). Woodland and Forestry: Native Woodland Types in County Durham. Available: http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Native-Woodland-Types.pdf. Last accessed 21 May 2014.

Forestry Commission. (2003). The Management of Semi-natural Woodlands. Edinburgh: Forestry Commission. 4-6.

Forestry Commission England. (2010). Managing ancient and native woodland in England. Available: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/FCPG201.pdf/$FILE/FCPG201.pdf. Last accessed 11 May 2014.

Hall, J.E., Kirby, K.J. & Whitbread, A.M. (2004). National Vegetation Classification: A field guide to woodland. Available: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/fieldguidetowoodland.pdf. Last accessed 21 May 2014.

National Botanic Garden of Wales. (2013). Carboniferous Millstone Grit. Available: http://www.history-of-wales-in-stone.gardenofwales.org.uk/about-the-rocks-2/carboniferous-millstone-grit-2/. Last accessed 11 May 2014.

Plantlife Scotland. (2010). Lichens and bryophytes of Atlantic woodland in Scotland: an introduction to their ecology and management. Stirling: Plantlife Scotland. 1-24.

Rose, F. (1999). Indicators of ancient woodland. Available: http://www.britishwildlife.com/classic_articles/BW%2010-241-251%20Indicators%20of%20ancient%20woodland.pdf. Last accessed 11 May 2014.

Rotherham, I.D. (2011). A Landscape History Approach to the Assessment of Ancient Woodlands. Sheffield: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 161-184.

Royal Forest Society. (2008). A Glossary of TREE TERMS. Available: http://www.rfs.org.uk/files/TreeTerms_RFS_17102011.pdf. Last accessed 18 May 2014.

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Stewart, A.J.A. (2001). The impact of deer on lowland woodland invertebrates: a review of the evidence and priorities for future research. Institute of Chartered Foresters. 71 (3), 259.

Walker, B. and Salt, D. (2006). Resilience Thinking. Washington, DC: Island Press. 2-4.

Wetzel, R.G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. 3rd ed. USA: Academic Press. P23-27.

Woodland Trust. (2014). Sessile Oak. Available: https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/learn/british-trees/native-trees/sessile-oak/. Last accessed 21 May 2014.

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biom32 woodland ecosystems report

Documents

secondary woodland woodland

woodland valley

ancient woodland

seminatural woodland

w8 woodland

uncultivated woodland

type of woodland

primarywoodland woodland