biomes: where do plants and animals...
TRANSCRIPT
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Agenda 1/4
• Bell-Ringer: Name one biome and list two characteristics of that biome.
• Biome Notes
• Wrap-Up: What is the competitive exclusion principle?
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Biomes: Where Do Plants and Animals Live?
Environmental Science
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What is a Biome?
• A major regional community of plants and animals with similar life forms and environmental conditions.
• Largest geographical biotic unit
• Named after the dominant type of life form, such as tropical rain forest, grassland, or coral reef.
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Habitat
• The geographical locations and environmental conditions where a plant or animal lives.
• Organism can find food, shelter, water, and mates to reproduce within its habitat.
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Niche • Totality of a species’ environmental
requirements
– How and where an organism obtains its energy and nutrients
– Ways it interacts with other species
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Competitive Exclusion Principle
• No two species can share the same exact niche indefinitely unless other factors limit the density of the better competitor.
• Natural selection favors changes that reduce the degree to which species coexist within a small area.
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Example: Nitrogen in Alaska
• Species have evolved different strategies for obtaining nitrogen.
• Each species gets its nitrogen in a different form, during a different month, or from a different soil depth.
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Bigelow Sedge
• Gets most of its nitrogen as nitrate during June
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Dwarf Birch
• Gets most of its nitrogen as ammonium during August
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Specializations
• Adaptations that are work best in a relatively narrow range of conditions.
• Opposite of generalists adaptations that are well suited for a fairly wide geographic habitat.
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Adaptation Examples • Leaf Shape!
– Lots of water thin leaves w/ large surface area
• Allows leaf to capture lots of sunlight
• Looses much water through transpiration
– Little water thick stubby leaves w/ little SA
• Less surface area for minimum water loss
Banana Plant
Creosote Bush
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Environmental Gradients
• Changes in conditions from one region to the next.
• Ex.) Areas of high precipitation gradually blend into areas of low precipitation.
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Survival Range
• Area along a gradient where an individual can obtain just enough energy and materials to survive.
• Cannot reproduce!
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Reproductive Range
• An area where individuals have enough energy for reproduction.
– Remember: the ability to reproduce is a luxury!
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Distribution Determinants
• Temperature
– Length of growing season number of consecutive days during which temp remains above 0° Celsius
• Plants must produce enough energy to reproduce or store enough energy to survive until the next growing season
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Distribution Determinants • Water
– Amount of water in soil determined by the rates of precipitation and potential evaporation
– Potential Evaporation: the amount of water that would evaporate if water were available
– When water exceeds PE it accumulates in soil and is available to plants
– If evaporation is greater plants close stomata to save water which halts photosynthesis
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Distribution Determinants
• Sunlight
– Amount of light available is determined by latitude and local climate
– Greatest amount of sunlight between 23.5°N and 23.5°S
• Clouds can limit plant growth in this area
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Tropical Rain Forests
• Located within 10° of the equator (N & S)
• Supported by warm temperatures (25-27°C, 77-80°F) and heavy rainfall (2-4 meters per year)
• Warm, not hot
• Heat is dissipated by evaporating water
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Tropical Rain Forests
• Rainfall exceeds evaporation during all months creating an abundant supply of water
• Warm temps and heavy rainfall give plants their shape big, thin leaves
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Competition Shapes Forest
• Competition for light gives 3D shape
• Trees grow tall to capture light
• Tree leave mingle to form a closed canopy
– Provides habitat for wide variety of animal life
– Little light reaches forest floor restricting plant growth
– Very easy to walk through
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Ideal Growing Conditions
• Tons of sunshine, precipitation, and warmth
• NPP rate is among highest in the world
• Up to 300 different species of trees per single hectare
• Tree depend on bees, bats, or birds for pollination
• Very diverse in both plant and animal species
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Example: The Amazon (S. America)
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Example: Gondwanan Rainforest (AUS)
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Tropical Dry Forests
• Located in South America, Africa, Australia, and Asia as well as on the island of Madagascar.
• Found between 10° and 25° N and S of the equator
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Climate
• Hot temperatures (25-35°C)
• Abundant rainfall (1-2 meters/year)
– Highly seasonal much occurs during a 6-7 month rainy season
• Rainy season: precip. greater than evaporation, water is abundant
• Dry season: evaporation exceeds precip., water is relatively scarce
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Dry Season
• At start of dry season soil begins to dry
• Leaves close stomata to conserve water
• Photosynthesis slows
• Some trees change angle of their leaves from horizontal (maximize sun) to vertical (reduces sunlight captured/heat lost)
• Other species drop leaves in dry season and regrow in rainy season
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Seasonality (Wet & Dry)
• Tree height is shorter than rain forests height of trees related to rainfall
• Larger fraction of energy used to create deep roots than to grow tall
• Animals:
– Birthing or hatching in wet season = more food/water
– Some migrate to wetter areas in dry season
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Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs
• Hibernate to avoid dry season (up to 7 months)
• Lemur slows its basal metabolic rate and allows it body temp to fluctuate with environmental conditions
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Example: Madagascar
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Example: Chiquitano Dry Forest (Boliva/Brazil)
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Tropical Savannas
• Located between 10° and 20° N and S
• Supported by warm temperatures (25-35°C)
• Lesser amounts of rainfall than rainforests and dry forests (less than 1 meter per year)
• Rainy season is shorter than dry forest and dry season is longer than dry forest
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Wet/Dry Seasons
• Small amount of rain and long dry season give savannas their appearance
• Mostly grass with widely scattered trees
• Spacing gives tree roots room to collect water from relatively large area
• Location of trees determined by many factors: – Grazing
– Termite nests (due to nitrogen limiting nutrient)
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Grasses
• Predominant plant species
• Green up during growing season and brown during dry season
• Browning caused by drying which increases fire risk
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Fires • At the start of rainy season lightning strikes
can ignite large grass fires
• Burn the tops of the grasses but grasses can regrow quickly underneath
• Grow from areas below the soil surface protected from fires
• Fires give open appearance, eliminate much brush
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Grazers
• Vegetation shaped by grazers
• Grazing stimulates some plants to increase photosynthetic/nutrient absorption rates
• Moderately grazed areas have higher NPP and nutrient content
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Animals • Influenced by grass and seasons (wet & dry)
• Abundance of edible grass (vs. trees) supports large populations of mammalian grazers
• Many grazers have long faces creates room for the teeth that are needed to grind grass while keeping animals’ eyes and ears on the lookout for predators
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Grazer Example
• Antelope
• Wildebeest
• Zebra
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Predator Example
• Lions
• Leopards
• Cheetahs
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Large Detritivore Food Chain
• Termites create mounds up to 6 meters high that house several million organisms
• Dung beetles feed on droppings of mammalian herbivores
– Collect dung, roll into balls, lay eggs in balls and bury them
– After hatching larvae feed on the dung
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Example: Kruger Park, S. Africa
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Deserts
• Found on every continent other than Antarctica
• Located at about 30° N and S of the equator
• Potential evaporation exceeds annual precipitation
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Precipitation
• No set precipitation rate to define deserts
• Ex.) Sonoran Desert, AZ up to 300 mm/yr
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Temperature
• Deserts can’t be defined by temperature
• Ex.) summer temps in the desert of central Mongolia rarely exceed 20°C
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Vegetation • Lack of water keeps desert vegetation to a
minimum
• Most deserts support some vegetation
• Ex.) Cacti and other euphorbs
– Euphorbia (genus): Herbs, shrubs, and trees of the spurge family that have a milky juice and simple alternate leaves of no leaves, and usually petalless flowers
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Cacti
• Appearance reflects selective pressures to conserve and store water
• Most are fairly round which reduces surface area across which the plant may lose water
• Conversion of leaves to spines protect the plants and their fluids from herbivores
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Water Availability
• In some deserts precipitation exceeds evaporation for weeks or months
– Short period of water availability allows desert plants and animals to complete their life cycles quickly
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Water Availibility
• Annual plants may grow, flower, and die in just a few weeks • Blooms seemingly overnight
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Spadefoot Toad • Spadefoot toads are active for only a couple of
weeks each year
– Spend most of the year buried underground
– Come to surface when it rains, lay eggs in temporary ponds
– Tadpoles have just a few weeks to mature and store enough food to last them underground until next year
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Kangaroo Rat
• Abel to go entire lives without drinking water
• Obtain water directly from their food and by converting food to energy
• Metabolizing 1 gram of fat = 1 gram of water
– Same thing with camels’ humps
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Example: Saharan Desert (N. Africa)
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Example: Mojave Desert, CA
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Mediterranean Woodland/Scrubland
• Known as chaparral (LA), matoral (Spain), fynbos (South America), mallee (Australia), and garrigue (eastern Mediterranean)
• Found on every continent except Antarctica
• Usually between 30-40° N or S of the equator but may extend farther N or S
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Typical Climate
• Mild winters, hot summers
• 250-600 mm of precipitation per year
• Little precipitation during the summer, so evaporation usually exceeds precipitation during these months
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Precipitation
• Quantity and timing of precipitation shapes biomes
• Yearly precip. Is sufficient to support a limited number of trees
• Lack of summer precip. makes biomes vulnerable to fire
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Fires
• Shapes many of the local plants and animals
• Due to temps remaining above 0°C year-round, most trees are evergreen
• Small leaves to cope with the dry season
• Trees often have thick bark to help them survive fires
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Shrubs
• Burn easily but can sprout quickly following a fire
• Many plants native to biomes are used for herbs: rosemary, thyme, sage, oregano
– Aromatic chemicals enhance burning
• Other plant species grow and reproduce when water is available and die back during summer
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Animals
• Hot, dry conditions force many local animals like snakes, rabbits, and foxes to spend part of the day underground
• Burrows also serve as protection during fires for less mobile species
• More mobile species escape fires by running
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Animals
• Larger grazers (deer, etc.) must travel long distances to find enough food b/c many plants have tough leaves with a waxy coating to reduce water loss
• Supports small population of larger predators like mountain lions and wolves
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Ex.) California Chaparral
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Temperate Grasslands
• Located in N. America, S. America, Europe, and Asia
• Tend to be located in the middle of the continent
• Continental climate
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Continental Climate
• Hot summers, cold winters
• Long cold winters = relatively short growing season
• Growing season coincides with most of the year’s precipitation
– 300-1,000 mm per year
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Precipitation
• Range in precipitation supports a variety of grass species
• N. America precipitation increases as we move east from the Rocky Mountains
• Shortgrass Prairies: Driest areas of the grassland
• As we move farther east grass gets taller tallgrass prarie
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Fire
• Spreads quickly due to dry grass and strong winds
• Grasses survive fires by growing from areas at or below the soil surface
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Animals
• Rich soil and lush grass support huge herds of grazers
– Bison
– Pronghorn
– White-tailed deer
• Animals consume up to 50% of NPP in grasslands compared to 5-10% in most other biomes
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Prairie Dogs
• Live underground in large groups that are known as towns
• High density exerts heavy pressure on local plants has a positive effect
• Increases nitrogen content and digestibility of local plants while leaving total biomass unchanged
• Bison graze near prairie dog towns
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Example: Great Plains of N. America
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Temperate Forests
• Found in N. Cali, E. coast of N. America west to the Mississippi, Europe, Asia, and Australia
• Receive 650-3000 mm of precipitation/yr
• Most located between 40 and 50° N and S although some extend to 30°
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Growing Season
• Have relatively short growing seasons
• Brevity of growing seasons is partially responsible for major characteristic: deciduousness
• Deciduous trees: drop their leaves (usually in the autumn) and re-grow new leaves the following spring
– Green for only part of the year
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Deciduousness
• Shedding leaves costs a lot, but so does keeping leaves
– Must use energy to rebuild in spring, cannot photosynthesize without leaves
– Leaves require energy for maintenance always but in the winter or with age photosynthetic rate declines
• Just before dropping leaves plants withdraw ½ of the leaves N and 1/3 of the P
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Payback Period
• The time it takes a leaf to capture an amount of energy equivalent to the amount of energy used to make the leaf
• Ex.) Japanese Elm
– Requires 9-15 days to generate the amount of energy required to produce them
• Ex.) Japanese Evergreen
– 30 days
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Animals
• Must deal with short growing season
• Natural selection favors adaptations that allow animals to ride out the cold winter
• Hibernate during the winter and live off of stored energy
– Bats
– Bears
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Migration
• Fly south toward the equator during the winter months
• Avoid the cold and lack of food
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Detritivore Food Chain
• Leaves that trees drop provide much organic material for decomposers
– Earthworms
– Insects
– Fungi
• Without detritivores forest growth would slow because dead leaves and trees would “lock up” nutrients
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Boreal Forests
• Grow at high latitudes 50-65° N
• Few people live in these areas
• Exist in N. America, Asia, and Europe as a more or less continuous belt around the Northern Hemisphere
• Growing season is usually shorter than 6 months
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Climate
• 200-600 mm of precipitation per year
• There is enough water to support trees b/c the cold temperatures allow precipitation to exceed evaporation most of the year
• Marked by climatic extremes up to a 100°C temp difference between warmest and coldest days of the year
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Shape and Activity
• Controlled by solar radiation, air temp, and availability of soil water
• Maximum day length varies between 16 and 24 hours
• Many tree species require long periods of sunlight to trigger their growing season
• Natural selection favors day length, not temp, to control growing cycles b/c temp is so variable
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Plant Life
• Sun is never really overhead, tree canopies are shaped to absorb light at low angles
• Moisture is usually plentiful but roots cannot absorb water from frozen soil trees suffer water shortage
• Extreme environmental conditions cause most trees to be evergreen
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Evergreens
• Leaves have very long life spans 25-30 years
• Keeping leaves over the winter requires little energy because the cold temps reduces maintenance respiration
• Cold temps slow decomposition which reduces nutrient availability in soils
• Specialization for water transport favors keeping leaves
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Animals
• Caribou, reindeer, moose, wolves, Siberian tigers, grizzly bears, and many birds
• Many migrate or hibernate
• Those that are active year-round are often well insulated with fat, fur, or feathers
• Some fur and feathers turn white during winter for camouflage
• Feet and body shape adapted for the snow
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Tundra
• Thin belt that stretches across N. America, Europe, and Asia – most of which is North of the Arctic Circle
• Precipitation ranges from 200-600 mm per year
• Temp. range is less extreme than the boreal forest
• Growing season is shorter than the boreal forest
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Plants
• Covered with low-lying plants such as mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges, and members of the heath family
• Plants are covered by snow much of the year which allows them to avoid extreme winter temperatures
• No trees because of short growing season and permafrost
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Permafrost
• Any soil material that remains below 0°C for two years or more
• Roots cannot extract frozen water from the soil
• Permafrost keeps rooting depth too shallow for trees
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Rooting Depth
• The vertical distance from the soil surface that contains 95% of plant’s roots
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Animals
• Animals living at high latitudes have smaller surface areas than their lower latitude relatives
• Ex.) Ears of arctic fox smaller than those of the red fox
– Shorter ears reduce amount of body heat lost
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Body Size
• Small
– Allows them to spend winter under the snow which protects them from the temps
• Ex.) Lemming
– Can develop and mature more rapidly complete life cycles in the short growing season
• Large
– More exposed to the extreme conditions
• Ex.) Reindeer
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Example: Alaska