Biosphere as a system for Biosphere as a system for guaranteeing of human guaranteeing of human

existenceexistence

Lecturer: ass. Nedoshytko Kh. Yu.Lecturer: ass. Nedoshytko Kh. Yu.

PLANPLAN

1. The structure of biosphere2. Ecosystem as a unit of

biosphere3. Human ecology as ecology of

Homo sapiens4. Pollution of environment

• At the first time the term "biosphere" was coined by austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1875; he defined:

The biosphere is the aggregate of different organisms that live on Earth's surface.

• In the 1929 the term "Biosphere" was coined by Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky as:

The biosphere is the life zone of the Earth and consists of all living organisms, including human beings, and all organic matters.

The structure of The structure of biospherebiosphere

Biosphere has 3 phases of substances:1. Liquid2. Solid3. Gas

The parts of hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere (where the organisms live) belong to biosphere.

AtmosphereAtmosphere• The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon,

water vapor, and a number of trace gases. This composition has remained relatively constant throughout much of Earth's history. Different processes and chemical reactions (such as transpiration and condensation of water, photosynthesis, the formation of air flow, climate and weather) run in atmosphere. Chemical reactions maintain the ratios of major constituents of the atmosphere to each other. For example, oxygen is released into the atmosphere by photosynthesis and consumed by respiration. The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained by a balance between these two processes:

• Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + light → "CH2O" + O2 Respiration: "CH2O" + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy

• "CH2O" denotes the average composition of organic matter.

Atmospheric gas composition (average). Concentrations of gases shown in Atmospheric gas composition (average). Concentrations of gases shown in color are rising due to human activities.color are rising due to human activities.

Gas Mole fraction

Nitrogen (N2) 0.78

Oxygen (O2) 0.21

Water (H2O) 0.04 to < 5x10-3; 4x10-6 — strat

Argon (Ar) 0.0093

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 370x10-6 (date: 2000)

Neon (Ne) 18.2x10-6

Ozone (O3) 0.02x10-6 to 10x10-6

Helium (He) 5.2x10-6

Methane (CH4) 1.7x10-6

Krypton (Kr) 1.1x10-6

Hydrogen (H2) 0.55x10-6

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.32x10-6

Carbon Monoxide (CO) 0.03x10-6 to 0.3x10-6

Chlorofluorocarbons 3.0x10-9

Carbonyl Sulfide (COS) 0.1x10-9

Atmosphere structureAtmosphere structure• Earth's

atmosphere extends more than 560 kilometers (348 miles) above the planet's surface and is divided into four layers, each of which has distinct thermal, chemical, and physical properties. Life can exist only in the lowest part of atmosphere – troposphere.

• Water is essential substance for all living organisms on Earth and plays a key role in the evolution and development of life on our planet.

• The biosphere as we know would not exist without

liquid water (for example, planet of Solar system Mars).

• Water is also important for living organisms to transport the soluble nutrients (phosphates and nitrates).

HydrosphereHydrosphere

Hydrosphere structureHydrosphere structure

• Oceans are divided into zones that offer a wide range of conditions for life.

• Soil is the component Soil is the component of lithosphere. It of lithosphere. It contains mineral and contains mineral and organic matters. All organic matters. All living organisms can living organisms can use these matters for use these matters for their nutrition and their nutrition and development.development.

LithosphereLithosphere

Lithosphere structureLithosphere structure

It It is that part of the environment that is is that part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use made or modified by humans for use forfor human activities and human activities and human human habitats.habitats. It is It is sometimes also sometimes also called called technospheretechnosphere. .

Human population causes the Human population causes the destruction of different parts of destruction of different parts of biosphere (deforestation, biosphere (deforestation, desertification, pollution etc.). desertification, pollution etc.).

AnthroposphereAnthroposphere

EcologyEcology As the human activity has negative influence to nature, nowadays there is a new sciense – ecology.

Ecology is the scientific study of relationships in the natural world.

It includes relationships -between organisms and their

physical environments (physiological ecology);

-between organisms of the same species (population ecology);

-between organisms of different species (community ecology);

-between organisms and the fluxes of matter and energy through biological systems (ecosystem ecology).

EcosystemEcosystem is the complex association of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms that interact with their nonliving environment in such way to regulate the flow of energy through them and the cycling ofnutrients within them. Ecosystem consists of both living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components.

Abiotic factorsAbiotic factorsThey include:They include:

• soil, soil, • water, water, • light, light, • inorganic matters,inorganic matters,• weather.weather.

Biotic factorsBiotic factorsThey are the factors of the living nature. There

are 2 forms of interaction of biotic factors:1. Predation;2. Symbiosis.

Predation

One animal, the predator kills and eats another animal, the prey.

SymbiosisIt is a biological relationship in which two

dissimilar organisms live together in a close association. Biologists distinguish three main types of symbiosis:

1. parasitism, 2. commensalisms, 3. mutualism.

ParasitismIt is a relationship where one species benefits

and the other is harmed.

CommensalismsIt is a relationship where one species benefits and the other is not affected.

Entamoeba coli

MutualismIt is a relationship where both species benefit .

Escherichia coli

Living components• ProducersProducers are autotrophic organisms with the

capability of carrying on photosynthesis and making food for themselves (green plants on land and algae in water). A plant fixes about 1% of the solar energy that falls on its green parts.

• PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis – a process where by chlorophyll-containing organisms trap sunlight energy to build a sugar from carbon dioxide and water.

• ConcumersConcumers are heterotrophic organisms that use preformed food. There are 4 types of consumers:

• Herbivores (primary consumers) feed directly on green plants or plant products.

Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits, deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.

• Carnivores (secondary or tertiary, consumers) feed on only other animals.

Examples are foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders.

Living components

Living components

• Omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Examples of omnivores are: bears, turtles, monkeys,

squirrels.A human being eating both leafy green vegetables and beef is an omnivore too.

• Decomposers feed on detritus. There are a bacterial and fungal species.

Every ecosystem is characterized by 2 fundamental phenomena:

• -energy flow

• -chemical cycling

Chemical cycling• water cycle • carbon

cycle

• nitrogen cycle

• oxygen cycle

Energy flowEnergy flowIt occurs because all the energy content of organic food is eventually lost to the environment as heat.

It begins when producers absorb solar energy.

Energy and nutrient transfer through ecosystems

The sequence of organisms through which energy may move in a

community is called a food chainfood chain.

As the human population increases in size, the spaceallotted to natural ecosystems is reduced in size. Natural ecosystems are then no longer able to process and rid the biosphere of wastes, which accumulate and are called pollutants.

Pollutants are substances added to the environment, particularly by human activities, that lead to undesirable effects for all living things. Human beings add pollutants to all parts of the biosphere - land, water and air.

The high level of industry and agriculture concentration and human economic activities lead to terrible situation that human life in many countries is ecologically dangerous. The pollution of environment (water pollution, air pollution, land pollution) has the negative influence to human health. That is why nowadays a new branch of ecological science begins to develop. It is human ecology.

Human ecology is an academic discipline that deals with the association between humans and their natural environment.

Human ecology views human communities and human populations as part of the ecosystem of Earth. It is the special ecology of the species Homo sapiens.

In the world, human ecology was established as a sociological field in the 1920's, although geographers were using the term much earlier.

Nowadays the main development line of human ecology is directed to the decision of the problems by the environment, ways of the rational usage of nature , the optimization of human life conditions in diverse anthropological systems.

Human ecology explores not only the influence of humans on their environment but also the influence of the environment on human behaviour and health. It is a way of thinking about the world, and a context in which we should define our questions and ways to answer those questions.

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The object of investigation is the system:

Human

Environment

The structure of The structure of environmentenvironment

The place of human ecology in the system of ecological sciences

The main tasks of The main tasks of human ecology:human ecology:• the investigation of human health condition;

• the research of dynamics of human health condition in the process of historical and social-economical development;

• the forecast of the health condition of the future generations;• the investigation of the processes of human health protection;• the analysis of global and regional problems of human ecology;• the research of influence of environmental factors to human

health;• the composition of medical-geographical maps that show the

territorial differentiation of human diseases;• the addition of medical-geographical maps and environmental

pollution maps and the determination of correlative dependence between human diseases and environmental pollution;

• the determination of value of boundary technogenic load limit to human organism.

Human ecology uses many methods Human ecology uses many methods of investigation:of investigation:

• mathematical;• statistical;• biochemical;• physical;• bacteriological;• clinical;• physiological etc.

Human ecology is connected with Human ecology is connected with many sciences:many sciences:

• immunology;• hygiene of environment; • ecotoxicology;• medical geography etc.

The main terms of The main terms of human ecology:human ecology:• Hygiene standard Hygiene standard – is the definite range of values of the

environmental factor which is optimal or is not dangerous for human health, activity and life;

• Maximum permissible concentration Maximum permissible concentration – is maximum amount of toxic substance in unit of volume or mass of water, air or soil which does not have any influence to human health;

• Maximum permissible level Maximum permissible level – is periodical or permanent influence of the environmental factor to human organism which can not cause any diseases or changes in human health condition;

• Maximum permissible doseMaximum permissible dose – is the amount of toxic substance which penetrating in human organism does not hurt it.

In real conditions humans feel the influence of different environmental factors.

The influence of physical factors to The influence of physical factors to human organismhuman organism

• solar activity solar activity – there is the close connection between death, birth and solar activity.

If there are spots on the sun surface, people have bad mood, their activity is reduced, there is an accentuation of chronic diseases, especially diseases of cardiovascular and central nervous systems.

• weatherweather – it can have different influence to human organism. It influences to human behavior and psychological condition. Many peoples suffer foehnic disease 1-2 days before the beginning wind weather;

• temperaturetemperature – high temperature can change the immunological reactionary of human organism, reduces the attention and causes anemia. Low temperature can change the system of thermoregulation of human organism. It reduces metabolism and immunological reactions to different infections.

The influence of anthropogenic The influence of anthropogenic factors to human organismfactors to human organism

• ozone holeozone hole – it can pass ultraviolet rays that effect human cells, cause mutations.

Effects on humansEffects on humans UVB(the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally accepted

to be a contributory factor to skin canser. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.

1. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas.They are the most common forms of skin cancer in humans. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery.

2. Malignant Melanoma. It is another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20% of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet well understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved.

3. Cortical Cataracts. There is an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB. There are data that percentage of this disease among white women are lower than white men. So the risk is bigger in men. Moreover, there are no data linking sunlight exposure to risk of cataract in African Americans.

Increased Tropospheric Ozone. Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties.

• greenhouse effect greenhouse effect – it is the increase of environmental temperature (global warming) that has negative influence to human organism.

• acid rains acid rains – they can hurt human respiratory tracts and skin, attack fruits and vegetables.

• photochemical fogs photochemical fogs – it is the mixture of different gases that are wastes from the plants of chemical industry and transport. It hurts human respiratory tracts and causes poisoning.

Santiago/Chile/Winter 2003

• heavy metals heavy metals – lead, mercury, manganese, zinc, chromium etc. – they are poisons that hurt all organs and central nervous system in human organism, cause pathological changes in them.

Effects on Effects on humanshumans

Some of these elements are actually necessary for humans in minute amounts (cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, nickel) while others are carcinogenic or toxic, affecting central nervous system (manganese, mercury, lead, arsenic), kidneys or liver (mercury, lead, cadmium, copper) or skin, bones, teeth (nickel, cadmium, copper, chromium).

Water pollutionWater pollution

Water is the most spread nonorganic substance in whole world. It is the basis of all processes in alive organisms and it is the unique source of oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. The biosphere would not exist without liquid water.

Hydrosphere is polluted with human help. Industrial wastes can include heavy metals and organic chlorides, such as pesticides. These materials are not destroyed under natural conditions. So they accumulate in the bottom mud of deltas of highly polluted rivers and cause environmental problems.

Every year 5 million peoples die in the Every year 5 million peoples die in the result of poisoning by polluted water. result of poisoning by polluted water. Nowadays new diseases appear that are Nowadays new diseases appear that are connected with chemical water pollution.connected with chemical water pollution.

• Itay-itayItay-itay – it is the disease caused by water with high concentration of cadmium;

• MinomataMinomata – it is the disease caused by water with high concentration of mercury;

• Molybdenum podagraMolybdenum podagra – it is the disease caused by water with high concentration of molybdenum;

• FluorosisFluorosis - it is the disease caused by water with high concentration of fluor.

land pollutionland pollution

The geosphere and biosphere are intimately connected through soils, which consist of a mixture of air, mineral matters, organic matters, and water. Soils can accumulate almost all toxic substances.

The main sources of soil pollution are:

• Industry;• Transport;• Agriculture.

In agriculture people use pesticides and nitrates. In agriculture people use pesticides and nitrates. These substances are very dangerous and toxic. These substances are very dangerous and toxic. They can cause mutations, cancer, pathological They can cause mutations, cancer, pathological processes in central nervous system, respiratory processes in central nervous system, respiratory and alimentary tracts, skin. and alimentary tracts, skin.

Teratogen is any agent that can disturb the development of an embryo or fetus. Teratogens may cause a birth defect in the child. The classes of teratogens include -radiation, -maternal infections, -chemicals, -drugs.

Drugs known to be capable of acting as teratogens include, ACE inhibitors likebenazepril (brand name: Lotensin), captopril (Capoten), enalapril (Vasotec), fosinopril sodium (Monopril), lisinopril (Zestril, Prinivil), lisinopril and hydrochlorothiazide (Zestoretic, Prinzide), quinapril (Accupril), and ramipril (Altace); the acne medication isotretinoin (Accutane, Retin-A); alcohol, whether ingested chronically or in binges; androgens (male hormones); the antibiotics tetracycline (Achromycin), doxycycline (Vibramycin), and streptomycin; blood-thinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin); seizure medications, including phenytoin (Dilantin), valproic acid (Depakene, Depakote, Valprotate), trimethadione (Tridione), paramethadione (Paradione), and carbamazepine (Tegretol); the anti-depressant/anti-manic drug lithium (Eskalith, Lithotab); antimetabolite/anticancer drugs methotrexate (Rheumatrex) and aminopterin; the antirheumatic agent and chelator penicillamine (Ciprimene, Depen); antithyroid drugs, such as thiouracil/propylthiouracil and carbimazole/ methimazole; cocaine; DES (diethylstilbestrol), a hormone; and thalidomide (Thalomid). Obviously, alcohol and illegal or unnecessary drugs should never

be used by women who are pregnant, or who plan to get pregnant. However, sometimes a medication necessary for health is also a teratogen: thyroid medication, blood thinners, and lithium are just a few examples. In these cases, female patients should work carefully with their doctors to determine if an alternative treatment is possible before and during pregnancy. In some cases the danger of birth defects is limited to a certain part of the pregnancy, and medication can be started again after that period has passed. Other medications can be safely restarted with the baby's birth. Some medications also pass through breast milk, however, and if they cannot be avoided the mother may need to choose formula feeding instead.

Air pollution is

the introduction

of chemicals,

particulate matters

or biological

materials that

cause harm or

discomfort to

humans or other living organisms, into the

atmosphere.

air pollutionair pollution

The results of air pollution:The results of air pollution:

• Photochemical smog;Photochemical smog;• Acid deposition;Acid deposition;• Global warming;Global warming;• Destruction of the ozone Destruction of the ozone

shield.shield.

Human populationposes a threat to the biosphere by habitat destruction, especially by the destruction of tropical rainforests (deforestation). This process is driving thousands of species to

extinction each year and reducing biological diversity.

DEFORESTATIDEFORESTATIONON

This is the logo of WWF (World Wildlife Fund). Their aim is to protect the future of nature. This organization is normally based on preserving endangered wildlife that is facing the threat of extinction. Reason of being extincted is due to selfishness and greediness of human being again. We tend to destroy their habitat and even kill all these innocent animals for our benefits like sellingtheir body parts like skin and so on. So our next generation will not view all these beautiful creatures by their own eyes.

SOUND SOUND POllutionPOllution It is excessive, displeasing

human, animal or machine-created environmental noise that

disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life.

The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction

and transportationsystems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft noise and rail noise.

Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks.

High noise can contribute to cardiovascular effects. It can increase or decrease blood pressure that lead to coronary artery disease.

RADIATION POllutionRADIATION POllution

The Chernobyl disasterThe Chernobyl disaster

• The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 of April in 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine). It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and it is the only one classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale.

The disaster began during a systems test on 26 of April in 1986 at reactor number four at the Chernobil plant, which is near the town of Pripyat. There was a sudden power output surge, and when an emergency shutdown was attempted, a more extreme spike in power output occurred, which led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of explosions. This event exposed the graphite moderator components of the reactor to air, causing them to ignite. The resulting fire sent a plume of radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area, including Pripyat. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Northern Europe . Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia had to be evacuated, and over 336,000 people were resettled. According to official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the fallout landed in Belarus.

Despite the accident, Ukraine continued to operate the remaining reactors at Chernobyl for many years. The last reactor at the site was closed down in 2000, 14 years after the accident.

Aerial view of the damaged core. Roof of the turbine hall is damaged. Roof of the adjacent reactor 3 (image lower left) shows minor fire damage.

Effects Effects of of Chernobyl AccidentChernobyl Accident on human healthon human health

Down syndrome (trisomy 21). In West Berlin, Germany, prevalence of Down syndrome peaked 9 months following the main fallout. Between 1980 and 1986, the birth prevalence of Down syndrome was quite stable (i.e., 1.35–1.59 per 1,000 live births [27–31 cases]). In 1987, 46 cases were diagnosed (prevalence = 2.11 per 1,000 live births). Most of the excess resulted from a cluster of 12 cases among children born in January 1987. The prevalence of Down syndrome in 1988 was 1.77, and in 1989, it reached pre-Chernobyl values.

Chromosomal abberations. Reports of structural chromosome aberrations in people exposed to fallout in Belarus and other parts of the former Soviet Union, Austria, and Germany argue against a simple dose-response relationship between degree of exposure and incidence of aberrations. These findings are relevant because a close relationship exists between chromosome changes and congenital malformations. Inasmuch as some types of aberrations are almost specific for ionizing radiation, researchers use aberrations to assess exposure dose.

Neural tube defects (NTDs) in Turkey. During the embrionic phase of fetal development, the neural tube differentiates into the brain and spinal cord. Chemical or physical interactions with this process can cause NTDs. Common features of this class of malformations are more or less extended fissures, often accompanied by consecutive dislocation of central nervous system (CNS) tissue. NTDs include spina bifida occulta and aperta, encephalocele, and—in the extreme case—anencephaly. The first evidence in support of a possible association between CNS malformations and fallout from Chernobyl was published by Akar et al. in 1988. The Mustafakemalpasa State Hospital, Bursa region, covers a population of approximately 90,000. Investigators have documented the prevalence of malformations since 1983. The prevalence of NTDs was 1.7 to 9.2 per 1,000 births, but during the first 6 months of 1987 increased to 20 per 1,000 (12 cases). The excess was most pronounced for the subgroup of anencephalics, in which prevalence increased 5-fold (i.e., 10 per 1,000 [6 cases]). In the consecutive months that followed (i.e., July–December 1987), the prevalence decreased again (1.3 per 1,000 for all NTDs, 0.6 per 1,000 for anencephaly), and it reached pre-Chernobyl levels during the first half of 1988 (all NTDs: 0.6 per 1,000; anencephaly: 0.2 per 1,000).

Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) also known as radiation poisoning, radiation sickness or radiation toxicity, is a constellation of health effects which occur within several months of exposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation.

The onset and type of symptoms that develop depends on the dose of radiation exposure.

Relatively smaller doses result in gastrointestinal effects such as nausea and vomiting and symptoms related to falling blood counts such as infection and bleeding. Relatively larger doses can result in neurological effects and rapid death. Treatment of acute radiation syndrome is generally supportive with blood transfusions and antibiotics.

A Japanese girl recovering from the effects of radiation sickness.

It Is Not Too LateIt Is Not Too Late

Reduce, Reuse and Recycle

Love your planet! Love your planet! don’t harm it!don’t harm it!

Thank you Thank you for for

attention !attention !