biotech reviewer.pdf
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
1/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology - a specialized area of biology that deals with living things ordinarily toosmall to be seen without magnification.
Some prominent areas that are heavily based on applications in microbiology are as
follows:
Immunology - studies the system of body defenses that protects against infection.
Public Health Microbiology and Epidemiology - aim to monitor and control the spreadof diseases in communities. Most of them work in government institutions.
Food Microbiology and Aquatic Microbiology - examine the ecological and practicalroles of microbes in food and water.
Agricultural Microbiology - is concerned with the relationships between microbes andcrops, with an emphasis on improving yields and combating plant diseases.
Biotechnology - includes any process in which humans use the metabolism of livingthings to arrive at a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy.
OVERVIEW OF MACROMOLECULES
Monomers - are the simple building blocks that, when polymerized, yield amacromolecule.
Macromolecule - typically defined as a large and complex molecule with biologicalfunction.
The structure of biological macromolecules is hierarchical, with distinct levels ofstructure:
Primary Structure - (abbreviated as 1) is the linear arrangement (or sequence) ofresidues in the covalently linked polymer.
Secondary Structure - (abbreviated as 2) is the local regular structure of amacromolecule or specific regions of the molecule. These are the helical structures.
Tertiary Structure - (abbreviated as 3) describes the global 3D fold or topology of themolecule, relating the positions of each atom and residue in 3D space. Formacromolecules with a single subunit, the functional tertiary structure is its nativestructure.
Quaternary Structure - (abbreviated as 4) is the spatial arrangement of multiple distinctpolymers (or subunits) that form a functional complex.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
2/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
The arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms in a molecule is described by the termsconfiguration and conformation. These terms are not identical.
Configuration - defines the position of groups around one or more nonrotating bonds oraround chiral centers, defined as an atom having no plane or center of symmetry.
Conformation - describes the spatial arrangement of groups about one or more freelyrotating bonds.
PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES AND AMINO ACIDS
Proteins
The most abundant organic molecules in animals, playing important roles in allaspects of cell structure and function.
Proteins are biopolymers of acids, so named because the amino group is bonded tothe carbon atom, next to the carbonyl group.
The physical and chemical properties of a protein are determined by its constituentamino acids.
Amino Acid
A type of organic acid that contains an acid functional group and an aminefunctional group on adjacent carbon atoms.
Amino acids are considered to be the building blocks of proteins.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
3/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Carbohydrates
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissuesand including sugars, starch, and cellulose.
They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically
can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
4/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF LIVING MATTER
I. Monosaccharides - have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of 2 .Glucose ( 6 12 6) is the most common monosaccharide. Monosaccharides serve as amajor fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules. All monosaccharides canbe grouped into two general classes as:1. Aldoses : contain a functional aldehyde grouping (-CHO), or2. Ketoses : contain a functional ketone grouping (>CO)
Common monosaccharides are:
a. Glucose (or dextrose) - one of aldohexoses which has two isometric forms: D-glucoseand L-glucose. It is the most common and most important hexose and is found in mostsweet fruits and in blood sugar.
b. Fructose - a keto sugar and is found in fruits and honey. Fructose sweeter than othernatural sugar. If we take the relative sweetness of cane sugar as one, glucose ismeasured to be 0.7 whereas fructose is 1.7.
II. Disaccharides - formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides. Thecovalent bond in disaccharides is called a glycosidic linkage. Common disaccharides are:
a. Sucrose - known as table sugar, is comprised of -D- glucose and -D fructose.Sucrose is the only nonreducing sugar among the four disaccharides.
b. Lactose - sugar present in milk, is a dimer of -D-galactose bonded with D-glucose. The aldehyde group of the left ring of lactose is used for linkage. However, the rightring of the lactose can be opened to react because its aldehyde group is not used forlinkage. As a result, lactose is a reducing sugar.
c. Maltose - repeating units of starch and can be obtained by the hydrolysis of starchusing the diastase enzyme. Further hydrolysis of maltose yields two molecules ofglucose.
d. Cellobiose - a stereoisomer of maltose, is obtained by the partial hydrolysis ofcellulose. Maltose and cellobiose are both reducing sugars, since the right rings mayopen to react, as reducing agents.
III. Polysaccharides - the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles. Thestructure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers andthe positions of glycosidic linkages. Common polysaccharides are:
a) Starch - a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers.Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids. Thetwo types of starch are:
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
5/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Glycogen form stored in animals for energy, coiled, mainly 1 -4 glycosidiclinkage. It is branched therefore also has 1-6 glycosidic linkage, easy to digest.Found in animals: stored mainly in liver and muscle.
Chitin - found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. Chitin also provides structuralsupport for the cellwalls of many fungi.
Glycoproteins carbohydrate and protein on outer surface of cell membranes.b) Dextrins - products of the partial hydrolysis of starch, are polysaccharides of lower
molecular weight than starch. They are used in infant food because they are easier todigest than starches. Dextrins are sticky when wet and are used as mucilage onpostage stamps and envelopes.
c) Cellulose - one of the three major structural components of all plant cell walls withtwo other components, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is the most abundantorganic compound of natural origin on the face of the earth. Complete hydrolysis ofcellulose gives glucose.
LIPIDS, FATS AND STEROIDS
Lipids - are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers,and they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules.
Important Types of Lipids
a. Fats - constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Therest of the skeleton consists of a hydrocarbon chain.
Glycerol - is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group.
Fatty Acid - has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon at one end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group, the functionalgroup that gives these molecules the name fatty acid.
The types of fatty acids are:
Saturated Fatty Acid - if there are no double bonds between carbon atomscomposing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to thecarbon skeleton. Such a structure is said to be saturated with hydrogen.
Unsaturated Fatty Acid has one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogenatom on each double-bonded carbon. Nearly all double bonds in naturally
occurring fatty acids are cis double bonds, which cause a kink in the hydrocarbonchain wherever they occur.
b. Phospholipids - are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes. Theirstructure provides a classic example of how form fits function at the molecular level. Aphospholipid is similar to a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerolrather than three.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
6/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
c. Steroids - are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.Different steroids, such as cholesterol and the vertebrate sex hormones, are distinguishedby the particular chemical groups attached to this ensemble of rings.
d. Cholesterols - is a crucial molecule in animals. It is a common component of animalcell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized.
NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA, RNA
Nucleic Acid
-Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules, or large biological molecules, essential forall known forms of life
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)-DNA contains four different amine bases, two substituted purines (adenine and guanine)
and two substituted pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine)
-A molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development andfunctioning of all known living organisms and many virus
Genes-are made of DNA, a nucleic acid-are made of monomers called nucleotides.
Nucleotides- are building blocks of DNA and RNA.-major components are pentose sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base
(purine or pyrimidines)
Ribonucleic Acid- Plays a central role in protein synthesis.- Perform multiple vital roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.- Contains guanine, adenine, cytosine and uracil as bases
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
7/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Adenosine Triphosphate- ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemicalenergy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is brokendown (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate).
Transcription is the first step of gene expression , in which a particular segment of DNA iscopied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase
Translation is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins)
ANATOMY OF CELLS
Biological Actvities of Cells1. Reproduction: Bearing Offspring2. Metabolism: Chemical and Physical Life Processes3. Irritability or Motility4. Protection and Storage5. Transport: Movement of Nutrients and Wastes
Animal cell
-Animal cells are eukaryotic cells. They are bound together by intercellular material toform tissue. Tissue is customarily divided into four categories:
Epithelial tissue -forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, bothexternal and internal.
Connective tissue -the cells are always embedded in an extensive intercellularmatrix, which may be liquid, semisolid, or solid.
Muscle cells - are usually elongate and bound together into sheets or bundles byconnective tissue.
Nerve cells - are composed of a cell body, containing the nucleus, and one or morelong thin extensions called fibers
Animal Organelles and Functions
1. cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell.
2. centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body locatednear the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules
3. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles arelocated.
4. Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex). It packages proteinsand carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
5. lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane andcontaining digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
8/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
6. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. Themitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)for the cell.
7. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
8. nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.Some cells have more than one nucleolus.
9. nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. Thenucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) andcontains DNA (in chromosomes).
10. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that aresites of protein synthesis.
11. rough endoplasmic reticulum - transports materials through the cell and producesproteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into thecell membrane).
12. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - transports materials through the cell. It containsenzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane protein.
13. vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fillswith food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.
Plant Cell Organelles and Functions
- Plant cells have distinctive features such as a rigid wall, a large vacuole, and thepresence of chloroplasts.
1. amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch.
2. ATP - adenosine triphosphate; it is a high-energy molecule used for energy storage byorganisms. ATP is produced in the cristae of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
3. Cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is insidethe cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to passinto the cell and blocking others.
4.
Cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulosefiber gives the cell most of its support and structure.
5. Centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body locatednear the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules.
6. Chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turnwater and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process iscalled photosynthesis).
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
9/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
7. Chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll.
8. Christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of acell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections.
9. Cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles arelocated.
10. Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex).The golgi bodypackages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" fromthe cell.
11. Granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is calleda granum.
12. Mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. Themitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)for the cell.
13. Nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
14. Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA isproduced.
15. Nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. Thenucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) andcontains DNA (in chromosomes).
16. Ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that aresites of protein synthesis.
17. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected,membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (theER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane
18. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected,membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (theER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane).. Smooth ER transport materialsthrough the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) andmembrane proteins.
19.
Stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membraneof chloroplasts, between the grana.
20. Thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structuresin chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll.
21. Vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled withfluid.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
10/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
CLASSES OF ORGANISMS
1. Prokaryotes - prokaryote meaning before nuclei. These cells lack membranebound organelles. Prokaryotic cells are unicellular organisms, which reproducethrough binary fission.
2. Eukaryotes- eukaryote means true nucleus. Eukaryotes are more complexorganisms and can be multicellular or single-celled.
BACTERIA
- Bacteria are unicellular microscopic organisms. Bacteria occur in a variety ofshapes such as: cocci: spherical or ovoid bacilli : cylindrical or rod shaped spirilla : helically coiled
All biological systems, from microorganisms to man, share a set of nutritionalrequirements, which are:
1. Sources of energy
a. phototrophs : organisms which are capable of employing radiant energy.
b. chemotrophs : organisms which obtain the energy for their activities and self-synthesis from chemical reactions that can occur in the dark.
2. Sources of carbon
a. autotrophs : organisms which can thrive on an entirely inorganic d:et, usingCO2 or carbonates as a sole source of carbon.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
11/31
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
12/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Ciliates - have cilia that are similar to but shorter than flagella. The cilia arearranged in precise rows on the cell
SIX KINGDOMS OF LIFE
I. Archaebacteria
Organisms: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophiles Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur,
sulfide may be needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption,
non-photosynthetic photophosphorylation, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation.
II. Eubacteria Organisms: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteria Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen may be toxic, tolerated, or needed for
metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption,
photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction
III. Protista
Organisms: Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may be by
absorption, photosynthesis, or ingestion. Reproduction: Mostly asexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs in some species.
IV. Fungi
Organisms: Mushrooms, yeast, molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Absorption Reproduction: Asexual or sexual reproduction occur.
V. Plantae
Organisms: Mosses, angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms, liverworts,ferns
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
13/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.
Nutrition Acquisition: Photosynthesis Reproduction: Some species reproduce asexually by mitosis. Other species exhibit
sexual reproduction.
VI. Animalia
Organisms: Mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Ingestion Reproduction: Sexual reproduction
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MICROBES
1. Temperature Psychrophile is a microorganism that has an optimum temperature below 15 oC
and is capable of growth at 0 oC Mesophile is a microorganism that grows at intermediate temperatures having
the optimum growth temperature ranges from 20 oC to 40 oC Thermophile is a microbe that grows optimally at temperatures from 45 oC to
80 oC.
2. Gas Requirements Aerobic organisms -organisms that require gaseous oxygen. Anaerobic organisms -organisms that do not require gaseous oxygen or live
in oxygen-poor environments: ocean bottoms, sulfur-rich puddles inmarshes and in sedimentation tanks of sewage-treatment plants.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
14/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Different bacteria behave differently when grown in liquid culture:
a) Obligate aerobic bacteria gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorbmaximal amount of oxygen.
b) Obligate anaerobic bacteria gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
c) Facultative bacteria gather mostly at the top, since aerobic respiration isadvantageous (ie, energetically favorable); but as lack of oxygen does not hurtthem, they can be found all along the test tube.
d) Microaerophiles gather at the upper part of the test tube but not at the top. They require oxygen, but at a lower concentration.
e) Aerotolerant bacteria are not affected at all by oxygen, and they are evenlyspread along the test tube.
Although all microbes require some carbon dioxide in their metabolism,capnophiles grow best at higher CO 2 tensions than are the normally present inthe atmosphere.
3. Moisture
4. Effect of pH Neutrophiles are organisms that thrive in neutral (pH 7) environments. Alkaliphiles are microbes that thrive in alkaline (pH 9-11) environments. Acidophiles are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions (usually at pH
2.0 or below)5. Salt / Sugar Concentrations
Halophiles - organisms capable of growth in very salty environments Osmophiles - Organisms capable to live in environments high in sugar those
able concentration. Xerophiles - grow in very dry environments (made dry by lack of water)
https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/aerobic-respiration/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/organisms/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/microbes/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/microbes/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/organisms/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/aerobic-respiration/ -
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
15/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENT MEDIUM
1 Synthetic Medium a medium consisting only of chemically defined nutrients.
2 . Complex Medium one that contains ingredients of unknown chemical composition.Usually contains yeast extract, beef extract and peptone.
ISOLATION METHODS
1 . Pour Plate suspension of cell is mixed with the melted agar and poured into a petridish. When agar solidifies, cells are immobilized in the agar and grow into colonies.2 . Streak Plate the sterile, melted and cooled medium is first poured into a sterile petridish and allowed to harden thoroughly; then the surface of the hardened agar isinoculated by streaking the needle of swab across it.
STERILIZATION METHOD1. Chemical2. Mechanical3. Thermal4. Radiation
INHIBITORY AND INORGANIC CHEMICALS
1 . Inhibitory Substances - prevent growth of particular microorganism in culture media.2 . Antibiotic substances produced by microorganisms that inhibit or kill other
microorganisms; inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms3 . Microstatic Agents Inhibit growth but do not kill the organism; when the agent isremoved, growth is resumed.4. Disinfectants kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic diseases.
REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH
Growth means an increase in the total number of cells due to reproduction ofindividual microorganism in the culture.
1. Sexual Reproduction - offspring are producedthrough the union of sex cells, called gametes, fromtwo parents. The fusion of gametes is calledfertilization and resulting cell is called zygote whichcontains a mixture of the two gametes through mitoticdivision.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
16/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
2. Asexual Reproduction - offspring originate through the division of a single parent cellinto two daughter cells. Individual cells divide in a process called binary fission.
Binary fission is the method by which prokaryotes produce new individuals that are
genetically identical to the parent organism.
The following steps proceed during binary fission:
Binary fission begins with the single DNA molecule replicating and both copiesattaching to the cell membrane.
Next, the cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once thebacterium just about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins to pinchinward.
A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into
two identical daughter cells.
http://biology.about.com/library/glossary/bldefdaughtercell.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/glossary/bldefdaughtercell.htm -
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
17/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Others are divided in a process of budding.
A small bud (or daughter cell) is formed on the surface of a mature cell. The budgrows and is filled with nuclear and cytoplasmic material from the parent cell. When the
bud is as large as the parent, nuclear apparatus in both cells is reoriented and the cellsare separated. The daughter cell may cling to the parent cell, often even after the cells aredivided.
MICROBIAL GROWTH PATTERN
A. Batch CultureIn nature, the growth curve of bacteria consists of four phases, namely; the lag
phase, the log phase, the stationary phase, and lastly the death phase :
1 . Lag Phase physiological adjustment of the organism to the environment to theenvironment following organism to the environment following inoculation. No celldivision takes place but there is an increase in cell mass.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
18/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
2 . Logarithmic Phase cells divide at a constant rate. The rate of cellular increasecan be expressed in a natural exponential function.3 . Stationary Phase visible amount of the organisms become constant; rate ofbirth is equal to rate of death. This is due to any combination of the following:
a . exhaustion of nutrients
b . accumulation of metabolic by-productsc . change in pH
4 . Death Phase - cause by bacterial lysis and cell destruction.
B. Continuous Culture
Continuous culture demands continuous flow of nutrients andcorresponding flow of products. If the vessel is perfectly mixed, the numberof cells in the vessel is influenced by the growth rate and dilution rate.
If the dilution rate is greater than the maximum growth rate, there is acontinuous decrease of cells in the reactor until all are washed out. Whenthe dilution rate is less than the maximum growth rate, the population inthe vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients is reduced.
The growth rate decreases and there is less biomass to utilize the nutrients. The specific growth rate is equal to the dilution rate and no further build-up of the cells occurs. The culture is at equilibrium and steady state isattained.
Continuous culture, in a device called a chemostat , can be used to maintaina bacterial population at a constant density.
Chemostat (from Chem ical environment is stat ic) is a bioreactor to whichfresh medium is continuously added, while culture liquid is continuouslyremoved to keep the culture volume constant.
A turbidostat is a continuous culture device, similar to a chemostat, which hasfeedback between the turbidity of the culture vessel and the dilution rate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactor -
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
19/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
METHABOLIC PATHWAYS
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories.
1. Catabolism process of degrading the compound into smaller and simpler productsand produces energy for the cell by way of cellular respiration.
a. Stage 1 large nutrient molecules are degraded to their major building blocks;polysaccharides to simple sugars, lipids to fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into their20 component amino acids.
b. Stage 2 products of stage 1 are converted into smaller and simpler molecules.c. Stage 3- the products of stage 2 are converted to carbon dioxide and water.
2. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as protein and nucleicacid.
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
20/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Questionnaire
1. Defines the position of groups around one or more nonrotating bonds or around chiralcenters, defined as an atom having no plane or center of symmetry. Configuration
a. Configuration
b. Isomerization
c. Polymerization
d. Conformation
2. A crucial molecule in animals. It is a common component of animal cell membranesand is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized. Cholesterolsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids
c. Steroidsd. Cellulose
3. Are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers,and they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules. Lipidsa. Dextrinb. Lipids
c. Starchd. Chitin
4. The spatial arrangement of multiple distinct polymers (or subunits) that form afunctional complex. Quaternary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure
c. Tertiary Structured. Quaternary Structure
5. Studies the system of body defenses that protects against infection. Immunologya. Biotechnologyb. Agricultural Microbiology
c. Immunologyd. Microbiology
6. Has one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bondedcarbon. Nearly all double bonds in naturally occurring fatty acids are cis double bonds.Unsaturated Fatty Acida. Saturated Fatty Acidb. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
c. Supersaturated Fatty Acidd. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
7. Are the simple building blocks that, when polymerized, yield a macromolecule.Monomersa. Isomersb. Biomers
c. Monomersd. Polymers
8. Formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides. The covalent bondin disaccharides is called a glycosidic linkage. Disaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Disaccharides
c. Polysaccharidesd. Tetrasaccharides
9. The linear arrangement (or sequence) of residues in the covalently linked polymer.Primary Structure
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
21/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
a. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure
c. Tertiary Structured. Quaternary Structure
10. Includes any process in which humans use the metabolism of living things to arriveat a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy. Biotechnology
a. Agricultural Microbiologyb. Immunology
c. Biotechnologyd. Microbiology
11. Describes the spatial arrangement of groups about one or more freely rotatingbonds. Conformationa. Configurationb. Isomerization
c. Polymerizationd. Conformation
12. Typically defined as a large and complex molecule with biological function.Macromolecule
a. Monomersb. Biomers c. Macromoleculed. Isomers
13. Describes the global 3D fold or topology of the molecule, relating the positions ofeach atom and residue in 3D space. For macromolecules with a single subunit, thefunctional tertiary structure is its native structure. Tertiary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure
c. Tertiary Structured. Quaternary Structure
14. The most abundant organic molecules in animals, playing important roles in allaspects of cell structure and function. Proteinsa. Proteinsb. Amino Acid
c. Fatty Acidd. Carbohydrates
15. A type of organic acid that contains an acid functional group and an aminefunctional group on adjacent carbon atoms. Amino Acida. Proteinsb. Amino Acid
c. Fatty Acidd. Carbohydrates
16. Known as table sugar, is comprised of -D- glucose and -D fructose. Sucrose is theonly nonreducing sugar among the four disaccharides. Sucrose
a. Glucoseb. Sucrose
c. Fructosed. Galactose
17. A specialized area of biology that deals with living things ordinarily too small to beseen without magnification. Microbiologya. Microbiologyb. Immunology
c. Agricultural Microbiologyd. Biotechnology
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
22/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
18. Have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of 2 . Glucose ( 6 12 6) isthe most common type of this molecule. Monosaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Disaccharides
c. Polysaccharidesd. Tetrasaccharides
19. Contain a functional aldehyde grouping (-CHO).Aldosesa. Aldosesb. Aetoses
c. Ketosesd. Polyols
20. Products of the partial hydrolysis of starch, are polysaccharides of lower molecularweight than starch. They are used in infant food because they are easier to digest thanstarches. Dextrins a. Dextrinb. Lipids
c. Starchd. Chitin
21. A keto sugar and is found in fruits and honey. It is sweeter than other natural sugar.Fructosea. Glucoseb. Sucrose
c. Fructosed. Galactose
22. Determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages.Polysaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Diosaccharides
c. Polysaccharidesd. Tetrasaccharides
23. The local regular structure of a macromolecule or specific regions of the molecule. These are the helical structures. Secondary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure
c. Tertiary Structured. Quaternary Structure
24. Contain a functional ketone grouping (>CO). Ketosesa. Aldosesb. Aetoses
c. Ketosesd. Polyols
25. Sugar present in milk, is a dimer of -D-galactose bonded with D-glucose. Thealdehyde group of the left ring of lactose is used for linkage. Lactosea. Lactoseb. Sucrose
c. Fructosed. Glucose
26. A storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers. Plantsstore surplus it as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids. Starch a. Fats b. Carbohydrate
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
23/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
c. Starch d. Grana
27. A major component of the tough wall of plant cells. Cellulose a. Celluloseb. Lignin
c. Fiberd. Stomates
28. Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. It also provides structural support for thecell walls of many fungi. Chitin a. Dextrinb. Lipids
c. Starchd. Chitin
29. Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. The restof the skeleton consists of a hydrocarbon chain. Fats a. Fatsb. Oils
c. Waxesd. Lipids
30. Is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group. Glycerola. Glycoholb. Glycerol
c. Phenold. Octanol
31. Has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon atone end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group. Fatty Acida. Fatty Acidb. Lipids
c. Starchd. Glycerol
32. Molecules having no double bonds between carbon atoms composing a chain, then
as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton. Saturated FattyAcida. Saturated Fatty Acidb. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
c. Supersaturated Fatty Acidd. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
33. Are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes. Their structureprovides a classic example of how form fits function at the molecular level. Phospholipidsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids
c. Steroidsd. Cellulose
34. Concerned with the relationships between microbes and crops, with an emphasison improving yields and combating plant diseases. Agricultural Microbiologya. Biotechnologyb. Agricultural Microbiology
c. Microbiologyd. Immunology
35. Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Steroidsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids
c. Steroidsd. Cellulose
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
24/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
36 It forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both external and internal.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells
c. Muscle cellsd. Connective tissue
37. The cells that are always embedded in an extensive intercellular matrix, which may
be liquid, semisolid, or solid.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells
c. Muscle cellsd. Connective tissue
38. These are composed of a cell body, containing the nucleus, and one or more longthin extensions called fibersa. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells
c. Muscle cellsd. Connective tissue
39. These are usually elongate and bound together into sheets or bundles by connective
tissue.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells
c. Muscle cellsd. Connective tissue
40. It packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export"from the cell.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion
c. Lysosomed. Ribosome
41. It converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for thecell.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion
c. Lysosomed. Ribosome
42. Small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of proteinsynthesis.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion
c. Lysosomed. Ribosome
43. Round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymesa. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion
c. Lysosomed. Ribosome
44. A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum.a. Christaeb. Centrosome
c. Cytoplasmd. Granum
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
25/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
45. The multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-likeprojectionsa. Christaeb. Centrosome
c. Cytoplasmd. Granum
46. A small body located near the nucleus. It has a dense center and radiating tubules.a. Christaeb. Centrosome
c. Cytoplasmd. Granum
47. The jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.a. Christaeb. Centrosome
c. Cytoplasmd. Granum
48. Bacteria that is spherical or ovoid in shapea. cocci
b. bacilli
c. dendritic
d. spirilla
49. Cylindrical or rod shaped bacteriaa. coccib. bacilli
c. dendriticd. spirilla
50. Helically coiled-shaped bacteriaa. coccib. bacilli
c. dendriticd. spirilla
51. Organisms which cannot use CO as a sole source of carbona. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs
c. chemotrophsd. autotrophs
52. Organisms which are capable of employing radiant energy.a. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs
c. chemotrophsd. autotrophs
53. Organisms which obtain the energy for their activities and self-synthesis fromchemical reactions that can occur in the dark.a. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs
c. chemotrophsd. autotrophs
54. Organisms which can thrive on an entirely inorganic diet, using CO2 or carbonatesas a sole source of carbona. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs
c. chemotrophsd. autotrophs
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
26/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
55. A photoautotrophs that lack the roots and stems of plants .a. yeastb. molds
c. protozoad. algae
56. Reproduce by means of tiny spores; the spores are invisible to the naked eye and
float through outdoor and indoor air.a. yeastb. molds
c. protozoad. algae
57. Are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. The process by which it reproduce is termedas schizogony.a. yeastb. molds
c. protozoad. algae
58. Are generally unicellular organisms and their shape is spherical to ovoid
a. yeastb. molds c. protozoad. algae
59. Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophilesa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria
c. Fungid. Protista
60. Mushrooms, yeast, moldsa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria
c. Fungid. Protista
61. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteriaa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria
c. Fungid. Protista
62. Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime moldsa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria
c. Fungid. Protista
63. Gather at the upper part of the test tube but not at the top. They require oxygen,but at a lower concentration.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria
c. Microaerophilesd. Facultative bacteria
64. Not affected at all by oxygen, and they are evenly spread along the test tube.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria
c. Microaerophilesd. Facultative bacteria
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
27/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
65. Gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria
c. Microaerophilesd. Facultative bacteria
66. Gather mostly at the top but as lack of oxygen does not hurt them so they can be
found all along the test tube.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria
c. Microaerophilesd. Facultative bacteria
67. Are also called blood parasitea. Hemoflagellatesb. Ciliates
c. Aspergillus flavusd. Amebae
68. Move by extending blunt, lobelike projections of the cytoplasm called pseudopod
a. Hemoflagellatesb. Ciliates
c. Aspergillus flavusd. Amebae
69. All of the following are eukaryotic except:a. plantaeb. fungi
c. eubacteriad. protista
70. Produces most of the world's citric acid, a common preservative for foods,detergents, and industrial productsa. A. nigerb. Aspergillus
c. Saccharomyces cerevisiaed. Hemoflagellates
1. Bioreactor to which fresh medium is continuously added while culture liquid iscontinuously removed
a. Turbidostat c. Fermenterb. Chemostat d. None of the Above
72. Phase where in no cell division takes place but there is an increase in cell mass.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase
73. Offspring are produced through the union of sex cells from two parentsa. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion
74. A medium consisting only of chemically defined nutrients.a. Complex Medium c. Natural Mediumb. Simple Medium d. Synthetic Medium
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
28/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
75. It prevents growth of particular microorganism in culture media.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance
76. Intercellular process of degrading a compound into simple products and producesenergy for the cell.a. Anabolism c. Glycolysisb. Photosynthesis d. Catabolism
77. Intercellular process uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteinand nucleic acid.a. Anabolism c. Glycolysisb. Photosynthesis d. Catabolism
78. An isolation method where in suspension of cell is mixed with the melted agar andpoured into a petri dish.a. Pour Plate c. Streak Plateb. Separation d. Sedimentation
79. Methods by which unicellular cell reproduce.a. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion
80. An isolation method where in melted and cooled medium is first poured into a sterilepetri dish and allowed to harden thoroughly.a. Pour Plate c. Streak Plateb. Separation d. Sedimentation
81. Phase where in cells divide at a constant rate.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase
82. Stage where products of the previous stage are converted into smaller and simplermolecules.a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism
83. Replication of the circular prokaryotic chromosome begins at ____________a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cellb. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus
84. The cell begins to elongate, FtsZ migrate towards __________________
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
29/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cellb. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus
85. Stage where the products of the previous stage are converted to carbon dioxide andwater.
a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism
86. Bioreactor which has feedback between the turbidity of the culture vessel and thedilution rate.a. Turbidostat c. Fermenterb. Chemostat d. None of the Above
87. When this agent is removed, growth is resumed.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agents
b. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance
88. Stage where large nutrient molecules are degraded to their major building blocks.a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism
89. Phase where in rate of birth is equal to rate of death.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase
90. Yeast is produced in the process of ________a. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion
91. This phase cause by bacterial lysis and cell destruction.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase
92. It inhibits the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance
93. If the dilution rate is greater than the maximum growth rate, _____________________a. there is a continuous decrease of cells in the reactorb. there is a continuous increase of cells in the reactorc. there is a continuous decrease of culture liquids in the reactord. there is a continuous increase of culture liquids in the reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidity -
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
30/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
94. It kills or prevents the growth of pathogenic diseases.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance
95. Due to the formation of a __________, the daughter cells separate to form individual
cells.a. Septum c. FtsZ Proteinb. Cleavage Furrow d. Cell Wall
96. Replication of the bacterial DNA is ___________a. Consecutively c. Consequentlyb. Reverse d. Bidirectional
97. The chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane at about _______________a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cell
b. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus
98. When the dilution rate is less than the maximum growth rate, ________________a. the population in the vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients isreducedb. the population in the vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients isproducedc. the concentration in the vessel will break up until the population of the nutrients isproducedd. the concentration in the vessel will break up until the population of the nutrients isreduced
99. The time required for one cell to divide into two cells.a. generation time c. conceptionb. reproduction time d. multiplying time
100. Which of the following has a required time to generate of 17 minutes?a. E-coli c. Mycobacteriumb. Yeast d. Gametes
-
8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf
31/31
Biotechnology Reviewer
Answer Key1. a2. a3. b4. d5. c6. d7. c8. b9. a10. c11. d12. c13. c14. a15. b16. b17. a18. a19. a20. a21. c22. c23. b24. c25. a26. c27. a28. d
29. a30. b31. a32. a33. b34. b
35. c36. a37. d38. b39. c40. a41. b42. d43. c44. d45. a46. b47. c48. a49. b50. d51. b52. a53. c54. d55. d56. b57. c58 a59. a60. c61. b62. d63. c
64. b65. a66. d67. a68. d69. c70. a71. b
72. c73. a74. d75. d76. d77. a78. a79. d80. c81. a82. c83. a84. c85. b86. a87. c88. a89. d90. b91. b92. a93. a94. b95. a96. d97. c98. a99. a100. a