bloody delight is it ethical to use material from endangered species in the restoration of 18th...
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BUCKS NEW UNIVERSITY MA FURNITURE CONSERVATION RESTORATION &
DECORATIVE ARTS
BLOODY DELIGHT:
Is it Ethical to Use Material from
Endangered Species in the Restoration of
18th Century Furniture?
Second Copy
AUTHOR: Ivo Kipre
ID: 2091659 October 2010
BUCKS NEW UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF CREATIVITY AND CULTURE
MA FURNITURE CONSERVATION RESTORATION &
DECORATIVE ARTS
BLOODY DELIGHT: Is it Ethical to Use
Material from Endangered Species in the
Restoration of 18th Century Furniture?
AUTHOR: Ivo Kipre
ID: 20916593
VMC Tutor: Kate McIntyre MA(RCA)
Module: ADM02-09SB
Word Count: 7933
October 2010
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my family for supporting my dreams, especially to my sisters Katarina
and Nikoleta whose serenity and support means a lot to me.
Also I would like to acknowledge and thank all of the people without who this dissertation
would not be possible. Special thanks to Dr. Campbell Robert Norman-Smith and Mr. Paul
Tear MBE for their help and advices.
I wish to make acknowledgement to Mr. Yannick Chastang and Mr. Donald C. Williams for
sharing their time and information.
Contents
Introduction 1
1 Fascinating materials: Ivory and Turtleshell 3
1.1 Ivory and turtleshell use in furniture decoration 6
2 From exotic material to endangered species 14
2.1 Growing public awareness and CITES agreement 18
3 Material from endangered species in restoration 23
3.1 Alternative materials 27
3.2 In search of the perfect approach 36
Conclusion 39
Endnotes 42
Account of Sources 46
Picture Credits 51
Appendix I: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora 54
Appendix II: Recipe for making turtleshell using horn 60
Appendix III: Imitation of turtleshell by Donald C. Williams 61
Appendix IV: Correspondence with Donald C. Williams 64
1
Introduction
The 18th
century furniture introduced to the world what were probably the best pieces of
furniture ever made. It is unlikely that such imaginative designs and shapes will ever be
surpassed. Many of the pieces of furniture made in this period were decorated with ivory and
turtleshell; materials obtained from species whose existence is threatened. Numbers of these
two species in particular have been significantly reduced in the last century due to numerous
reasons. The perhaps emotional title of this dissertation concerns the issues that link these
two materials. Further more carefully selected image on the front cover, because of both
interesting scene shown and materials used to make characters symbolically encapsulate the
ideas that underpin this research. The main aim of this research is to define to what extent is
it ethical to use these materials and thereby to help to clarify a somewhat obscure subject for
many antique furniture restorers and conservators around the world dealing with 18th
century
furniture. A growing global awareness of the issues of endangered species has certainly
contributed to general confusion among restorers and conservators. The research begins by
introducing these two materials explaining for what purposes they were initially used and
from what animal species they are obtained. Furthermore it will explain the link between
these two materials with respect to the special technique for decorating furniture surfaces
know as marquetry. Special attention will be devoted to Boulle marquetry style furniture in
relation with these two materials. By researching how these animals reached the
disappointing status of being endangered species and close to total extinction the research
will follow the path of turtleshell and ivory through history until the present day. An
international agreement between governments: “the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora” better known as CITES that was formulated as
a result of growing public awareness will be next step of this research that is crucial for
2
understanding regulations and restrictions related to the export and import of ivory and
turtleshell. Also all different causes that are contributing to drastic reduction in numbers of
these particular animal species together with constant threats in terms of illegal trade and
poaching will be discussed. In the last chapter of this dissertation several important questions
regarding the amount of genuinely legal materials in restoration workshops and alternative
materials both artificial and natural that are used when restoring 18th
century furniture will be
covered. The chapter will start with explaining the causes responsible for degradation and
missing pieces of ivory and turtleshell on this period furniture and it will end by defining an
appropriate approach based on common practice of recognized restorers and institutions.
3
1. Fascinating materials: Ivory and Turtleshell
The intention of this chapter will be to show link between these two materials and furniture.
This will be done by describing the materials their use, physical characteristics as well as by
describing of the specific techniques that allowed these materials to be used for furniture
decoration.
Ivory and turtleshell1 have been known to mankind for centuries. In the
beginning this was as a part of traditional body decorations by native tribes as
their natural form limited these materials to mainly decorative purposes
(Fig.1). Despite the fact that today we have all sorts of new materials,
admiration for ivory and turtleshell as precious materials has never stopped.
When using the word ivory in an art and historical context we generally
think about elephant tusks, although scientists E. O. Espinoza and M. J.
Mann said:
The chemical structure of teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of
the species of origin. Teeth and tusks have the same physical structures: pulp
cavity, dentine, cementum and enamel. Therefore “ivory” can be correctly
be used to describe any mammalian tooth or tusk of commercial interest
which is large enough to be carved or scrimshawed2
However, in order to reduce confusion the word „ivory‟
is used here for what we traditionally consider to
be ivory, namely elephant tusks. The
tusks of two species of
elephant were used
for decoration
1 Turtleshell or tortoiseshell
2 E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, „The history and significance of the Schreger pattern in proboscidean ivory
characterization‟, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, vol. 32, no. 3, 1993, pp. 241-48
Figure 1
A 19th
century carved
ivory tusk from Nigeria between
1880 and 1897, Museums Sheffield.
4
purposes: the African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) and the Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) that can be found in certain areas of Africa and Asia (Fig.2). Despite the
similarities between these two species there are some major differences when talking about
their tusks. The ivory of the African elephant is noticeably bigger and both sexes of this
species have tusks, while cases of females of the Asian elephant barring a tusk are extremely
rare. The size of the tusk is not the only difference between these two species. F. St Aubyn
(ed.) says:
African ivory is not only larger than Indian but also finer grained and richer in tone, though ivory from West
Africa is usually harder and less intensely white3
Turtleshell is one of the natural plastics. It is a keratin based product that is obtained
from the carapace of sea turtles that can be found in the warm seas around the world
(Fig.3)The carapaces of three species of sea turtles were most commonly used: the Green
turtle (Chelonia mydas), the Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the Hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata) (Fig.4). All three species are different one from another, and there
3 F. St Aubyn (ed.), Ivory: A History and Collector’s Guide, Thames and Hudson Ltd , London 1987, p. 12
Figure 2 Area range for African and Asian elephants.
5
are even differences within the same species depending on the age of the turtle or the part of
the carapace turtleshell is made of. Yannick Chastang wrote:
The colour of turtleshell from the upper body is generally amber to brown with patches of dark brown,
while the turtleshell taken from the plastron is more even amber yellow.4
4 Y. Chastang, Paintings in wood: French Marquetry Furniture, The Wallace Collection, London, 2001, p. 13
Figure 3 Area range for sea turtles.
Figure 4 Three species of the sea turtles commonly used for the production of turtleshell
for furniture decoration:1) The Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata),2) The Green
turtle (Chelonia mydas), 3) The Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta).
6
1.1. Ivory and turtleshell use in furniture decoration
The popularity of ivory and turtleshell is closely linked to the technique called marquetry.
This represents a special technique of surface decoration where different colour timber or
precious materials are inserted into less valuable, usually wooden, surfaces. Despite the fact
that this technique evolved gradually and at the same time introduced more and more new
materials the fundamental idea of this technique remained the same. It is hard to define
accurately which one of the great civilizations at the time first started to use this technique for
surface decoration. It may be that the best answer on this dilemma was given by Pierre
Ramond:
In fact, it can be said that all civilizations have produced this form of art instinctively, whatever their
geographical location.5
Indeed it is very unlikely that one of these civilizations invented this technique and then all
the others copied it. It was the human desire for decoration creativity and individuality that
inspired this art. The great civilizations like Egypt, the Roman Empire, Persia, India, Japan
and China were all equally successful in using this technique through centuries. Rare pieces
of furniture preserved from those periods evidence their knowledge on marquetry; for
example Egyptian furniture found in the pyramids had most of the woodwork covered with
different precious materials including ivory applied using this technique (Fig.5). During the
Roman Empire a primitive version of this technique called intarsia was extremely popular.
Clifford Penny states:
To Romans the most important piece of furniture in the household was the table used for feasting,
which, besides having decorative veneer, was inlaid with ivory and pearls. Caesar‟s table was reputed
to be his proudest possession.6
However it was not only the ivory that was used for decorating furniture. Both Greek and
Roman authors mention boxes, chests and furniture decorated with turtleshell.7 Even though
5 P. Ramond, Masterpieces of Marquetry: From the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los
Angeles, 2000, p.9 6 C. Penny, The Fascination of Marquetry, English Universities Press, London, 1954, p. 9
7
this technique was continuously used in Africa and Asia, with the decline of the Roman
Empire marquetry almost completely disappeared in Europe until the 14th
century and the
Renaissance period in Italy where this technique started to develop rapidly and spread to
other developed European countries of that period.
The interesting invention of the tool called a fret-saw (Fig.6) in the 16th
century
revolutionised intarsia work8, and usage of these materials for furniture decoration, especially
turtleshell increased significantly. The fret-saw also introduced the use of different types of
metals in furniture surface decoration such as brass, pewter and copper that were previously
impossible to cut. By combining these two different materials a special type of decoration
7 E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟ in P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the
Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Stichting
Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p. 26 8 Chastang, p. 16
Figure 5 Child‟s chair decorated with gold
and ivory, found in Tutankhamun‟s tomb.
8
named Boulle marquetry was invented. It was named after André-Charles Boulle a French
cabinetmaker despite the fact that he did not invent it as it was invented before he was even
born. However it clearly symbolises the kind of impact he had on its development. Working
for the King Louis XIV André-Charles Boulle and his workshop created probably the most
beautiful pieces of furniture in history whose design and details will hardly ever be surpassed.
In the Boulle period marquetry cabinets (Fig.7) were especially popular, along with tables,
wall clocks and consoles. Even though the most common examples of this technique were
turtleshell in combination with metal, some other materials such as wood, horn or ivory were
used as well. To produce sheets of turtleshell plates of the sea turtle carapace had to be
flattened by immersing it in salty water heated to approximately 70˚C and under pressure.
Most often central, lateral and small peripheral plates9 of the dorsal side of the carapace were
used, although even plates from abdominal side of the carapace that are referred to as blonde
turtleshell were used.
9 Ramond, p.32
Figure 6 Fretsaw, the 18th
century drawing from L‟Art du
Menuisier by Jacques-André Ruobo.
9
Figure 7 The Louis XIV cabinet-on-stand from British Collection
of about 1680, attributed to André-Charles Boulle. This
extraordinary piece of furniture embellished with ormolu mounts (1)
clearly demonstrates the skill of using turtleshell (2) in combination
with different types of wood (3) and metal (4).
1.
2. 3.
4.
10
Plates of all three species: the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (Fig.8), the Loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta) and the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) were used. However,
some were more characteristic for certain periods as Yannick Chastang concludes:
The loggerhead and the hawksbill turtles produce a thicker shell than the green turtle and it seems
probable that theirs were the preferred shells during the earliest period of production of Boulle
furniture. The green turtle‟s shell became more popular during the nineteenth-century Boulle revival in
France since, being of a more even thickness, it requires less preparatory work.10
Cutting materials with this method not only made designs more precise but also made the
process itself faster as it was possible to make several designs from the same cut. It was
possible to cut two designs of “Boulle” marquetry: metal design in turtleshell background
called première-partie, and turtleshell design in metal background called contre-partie (Fig.
9).Première-partie Boulle marquetry was generally more appreciated and therefore was more
expensive; approximately twenty per cent.11
To increase the effect of turtleshell different
colour papers red and brown most commonly, and gold or silver leafs were glued under the
turtleshell as it is a semi-transparent material. Yannick Chastang points out:
Recent scientific analysis has indicated that much turtle-shell marquetry furniture dating from the late
seventeenth and entire eighteenth century was pigmented with black, while red seems to have been
preferred in the early seventeenth century and in the nineteenth-century Boulle marquetry revival.12
10
Chastang, p.31 11
Chastang, p.19 12
Chastang, p.34
Figure 8 Carapace of the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas).
11
What started in the middle of 17th century in terms of marquetry decorated furniture
experienced a complete revival during the 18th
century. However it was not just marquetry
decoration that experienced this revival. The 18th
century brought progress in every field of
science and society. The key to this phenomenon lies in just one fact and that was the
population growth of approximately 66 per cent over the century on estimates from 1701.13
The population increase resulted in higher demand which increased the market, improved the
13
B. Ford (ed.), Eighteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, referenced by C. D.
Edwards, Eighteenth-Century furniture, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1996, p. 5
Figure 9 Pair of Louis XIV coffres en tombeau, left: contre-partie and right:
première-partie, attributed to André-Charles Boulle, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
12
trade of products and ideas between the countries and inspired more frequent maritime travel
that made materials imported from colonies more accessible than ever. This revival had an
impact on the development of techniques and range of materials available. The marquetry
“donkey” (Fig.10) is definitely one of those developments that made cutting with a fret-saw
even easier. Furthermore the 18th
century a introduced new technique for making marquetry
designs called the advanced inlay technique which was in fact developed from the intarsia
technique.14
This new technique included using the fret-saw and marquetry donkey together
with a shoulder knife (Fig.11), a kind of developed version of the cutting knife used on
intarsia. The designs were first cut
with the fret-saw on a marquetry
donkey and then were inlayed into a
background using shoulder knife. A
change of fashion in the middle of
18th
century resulted in decreased
demand for Boulle marquetry furniture and almost a century passed before Boulle marquetry
14
Chastang, p.20
Figure 10 The 18th
century marquetry donkey, drawing from L‟Art du
Menuisier by Jacques-André Ruobo.
Figure 11 The 18th
century shoulder knife,
drawing from L‟Art du Menuisier by
Jacques-André Ruobo.
13
was fashionable again in a period called the Boulle revival during the reign of Napoleon III.
Today despite huge technical development and “high tech” equipment such as marquetry
lasers, the traditional method of the fret-saw and marquetry donkey is still used because of
both practical and economical reasons (Fig.12).
Figure 12 Cutting a marquetry design on the
custom made marquetry donkey, workshops of
Bucks New University, High Wycombe.
14
2. From exotic material to endangered species
This chapter will introduce historical facts and data that significantly affected populations of
these animal species. This will explain the path of these materials from exotic to endangered
species. Special attention is dedicated to Special attention is dedicated to “the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora” also known as CITES
and its role in protecting these species.
The demand for these “exotic” materials is more than justified if we consider their
aesthetic and other characteristics. However, it would be unreasonable not to consider that
the growing desire for these materials was affected by the specific phenomena of “exotic” as
something new and unknown, as well as by the other phenomena of following fashions.
Talking about turtleshell Yannick Chastang wrote:
The appeal of the exotic being what it is, it is worth considering whether perhaps turtleshell would
ever have become so desirable, were turtles to be found naturally in the Seine.15
Trade of these materials existed from the very beginning. Initially it was of a local
nature but it did not take too long time until other countries recognized their aesthetic
potential. Obviously most of great civilizations were obliged to import ivory from elephant‟s
natural habitats. Arabs and China were among the first to import significant amounts of
ivory. Arabs traded on the east coast of Africa already in 3rd
century BC and Chinese
imported ivory from Siam, India and Burma, after they had used up supplies of ivory
obtained from the native Chinese elephant that was extinct in 2nd
century BC.16
It is hard to
believe that initial trade in ivory seriously decreased the number of elephants as the trade was
slow and the market was rather small, but it certainly contributed as it was a beginning of
almost complete extinction of the species. Even though ivory was present in Europe from an
15
Chastang, p. 29 16
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
15
early stage it was not until 16th
century that European countries joined this growing market.
The search for the “New World” that was at its peak during this period encouraged colonial
exploitation of natural recourses of the new colonies. Interestingly, but not that extraordinary
from historic point of view considering that they were among strongest maritime forces of
that period Portuguese were metaphorically speaking crucial for European contribution to
something that almost led to the complete extinction of elephants and sea turtles. Apart from
some notable exceptions they were primarily responsible for the introduction of turtleshell to
Europe17
and were first among European countries that started to have an impact on the
number of elephants by the export of ivory from west coast of Africa. However, the
Portuguese are not the only ones to blame as shortly afterwards, all major European countries
including Holland, France and Great Britain started to follow their example (Fig.13).
The elephant species suffered mostly for their ivory, although they were hunted for
their meat, bones, skin, leather and hair. In the 19th
century the appetite for this material
17
L. de Caunes, L’écaille, Éditions Vial, Dourdan Cedex,1997, p. 12
Figure13 Principal trade route in 18th
century (green) and trade route used by Portugese in
the 16th
century (red).
16
became insatiable, and ivory starts to be used more and more for industrial purposes and not
only for artistic expression that was the case in the past.18
All sorts of objects were made
from this material including: billiard balls, handles for cutlery, tools and umbrellas, piano
keys and chess figures. It is worth mentioning that ivory used on decorating furniture
surfaces derived mainly from off-cuts.19
Initially the turtleshell was predominately used for “Boulle” style furniture until the
19th
century and the Industrial Revolution when an interesting discovery affected the way this
material could be used and turtleshell started to be used more often for industrial purposes as
it was case with the ivory. Lison de Caunes pointed out:
The discovery of its autograft
possibilities in the 19th
century, which
allowed working tortoiseshell from the
block, extended considerably its
application to other fields. From then on,
it could be welded, turned, sculpted,
shaped, and tortoiseshell artisans were
able to make real “tortoiseshell lace”20
In the 19th
and 20th
centuries
turtleshell produced from
carapaces of the Hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata) was
particularly used and soon the
main markets in Europe, North
America and Japan were showed
the introduction of luxury objects
such as jewellery, combs,
cigarette boxes, makeup boxes
18
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18 19
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18 20
Caunes, p. 14
Figure 14 Raw turtleshell sheets and traditional
tools used.
17
and lorgnettes made from this material.21
The ratio of usable turtleshell material that can be
produced from sea turtles can be explained with a rough mathematical formula: of two
hundred kilos weight for a sea turtle approximately 2 kilos of usable raw turtleshell (Fig.14)
can be produced22
, and if we consider the unwritten rule that around fifty percent of that
material is process waste23
we come to the shocking fact that 0.5 per cent of total body weight
of sea turtle is material that is actually used. Other than for turtleshell sea turtles were and
unfortunately still are hunted for their meat, skin and eggs.
21
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010 22
Caunes, p. 17 23
Caunes, p. 27
18
2.1. Growing public awareness and CITES agreement
It is almost certain that through the history there were attempts to protect these species from
extinction; however, they were insufficient to affect the growing greed of the consumer
society. Fortunately, public awareness of the issues of protecting wild fauna and flora
suddenly increased in the second half of the 20th
century, at the time when both elephant and
sea turtle species experienced the biggest population decreases, and since then hundreds of
organizations around the world were funded and great efforts have been made to protect
species threatened with extinction. One of the biggest results of that “growing awareness” is
an international agreement between governments: “the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora” also known as CITES. It was first formed in
1960s but it came into force on 1 July 1975, and its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.24
Endangered species
within this convention are divided into three Appendices: Appendix I, II and III (Appendix I)
depending on how badly their survival is threatened.
The elephant species were placed on CITES Appendices from an early stage due to
the huge decline in the number of elephants caused by ivory trade throughout the centuries.
Since 1975 the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was added on Appendix I, which means
that trade in this species is generally banned and possible only under special circumstances
(Appendix I), however, the African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) was first added to
Appendix III on request of Ghana in 1976, then transferred to Appendix II only one year later
and finally transferred to Appendix I in 1989. This inexplicably late decision to ban all trade
in ivory resulted in massive poaching in period between 1979 and 1989 which led to a huge
decrease in the population of the African elephant from an estimated 1.3 million to a
24
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml> accessed on 30 Jul 2010
19
disappointing 600,000.25
The populations of the African elephants of Botswana, Namibia,
Zimbabwe and South Africa were additionally transferred to Appendix II which allowed only
strictly controlled trade. Since then legal trade in ivory has been minimized (Fig.15) and only
on two occasions were one-off sales that were approved by CITES Standing Committee and
bigger amounts of ivory were sold. The last one took place in 2008 and after that it is
decided that no other larger sale of stockpiled ivory will take place until the end of a
minimum 9 year resting period.26
Unfortunately, despite all that has been achieved by CITES member countries considering the
trade of these species, the population of both African elephant and Asian elephant has been
decreasing rapidly due to illegal trade. Based on records of ivory seizures provided by the
Species Survival Network (SSN), an organization collecting records about seizures of
endangered species for CITES, there has been growing demand for ivory in consumer
countries over the last 15 years27
(Fig.16).
25
The Born Free Foundation, Inconvenient But True:The Unrelenting Global Trade in Elephant Ivory, Report
Prepared for the 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES, The Hague, 2007, p. 7 26
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Consideration of
Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II, Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Doha,
2010, p. 2 27
The Born Free Foundation, Inconvenient But True: The Unrelenting Global Trade in Elephant Ivory, p. 7
Figure 15 Imports of tusks (kg) of taxonomic family Elephantidae from 1989 to 2008.
20
Poaching represents a huge problem for the African countries and the fight against poaching
reached the point that governments of several countries even organized ceremonial burnings
of tons of ivory to send a clear message to poachers (Fig.17).
Figure 16 Ivory seizures between 1989 and 2006,
Species Survival Network (SSN).
Figure 17 Ceremonial burning of ivory in Kenya 1995.
21
Unlike the case of elephant species where man directly affected the decrease of their
population, population of sea turtles was affected both directly and indirectly. Directly by
hunting it for different reasons and indirectly as they accidentally get caught in fish nets and
because of degradation of their habitat on land and pollution of the sea. Another
inconvenient fact is that sea turtles reach sexual maturity at a relatively late stage28
which
makes it difficult for them to easily regenerate their population reduction. All three species
of sea turtles that were commonly used for producing turtleshell: the Green turtle (Chelonia
mydas), the Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) entered CITES Appendix II in 1975 and were then transferred to Appendix I in
1977 except the Atlantic Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata ssp. imbricata) that has
been in Appendix I since 1975. Japan acceded to CITES in 1980, but with a reservation on
the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)29
as turtleshell carvings of that species; in
Japanese known as bekko30
traditionally represented an important part of their culture. Their
reservation on this species was withdrawn in 1994 and since then trade within this species has
been prohibited, however, until that period a huge amount of turtleshell had been imported as
shown (Fig.18). Cuba still holds a reservation on this species and their proposal for selling
tons of stockpiled turtleshell to Japan and transferring Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) to Appendix I was rejected twice.
Even though the legal trade in sea turtles has decreased markedly since they have
been added to CITES Appendices (Fig 19), constant poaching for their eggs, accidental
catching in fishnets and continuous destruction of their natural habitat still represents huge
problems for their rapidly decreasing populations.
28
A. B. Bolten, K. A. Bjorndal, J. S. Grumbles, D. W. Owens, „Sex Ratio and Sex-Specific Growth Rates of
Immature Green Turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Southern Bahamas‟, Copeia, vol. 1992, no. 4, 1992, pp. 1098-
1103 29
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010 30
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010
22
Figure 18 Japanese Customs Statistics of imported Hawksbill
turtleshell to Japan from1950 to 1998.
Figure 19 Import of carapaces of Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Loggerhead turtle (Caretta
caretta) from 1994 to 2008.
23
3. Material from endangered species in restoration
This chapter considers the data on the legal materials and different practises within the
different countries. This gives an idea as to the quantities of these materials in the restoration
workshops and how accessible these materials are. Subsequently discussion will focus on
alternative materials both natural and artificial with the intention of finding the most suitable
alternative materials when restoring missing pieces of ivory and turtleshell on 18th
century
furniture.
Before mentioning all the different approaches and alternative materials that have
been used for imitating turtleshell and ivory through the centuries it is important to mention
what are the causes of missing pieces of material from endangered species from marquetry
decorations on furniture? The effect of changing relative humidity represents a huge problem
for any object made from organic material especially marquetry furniture pieces. Drastic
change of relative humidity will force the wooden surface under the marquetry design to
move which will then lead to breaking of the animal glue adhesive that is between the ivory
and turtleshell veneer and the wooden surface and finally to the pieces falling off. On Boulle
marquetry pieces it is brass or other applied metal that usually lifts as organic animal glue
adheres better with the turtleshell material of similar origin. However it does not necessarily
mean that metal parts suffer bigger losses compared to turtleshell. Logically as both
turtleshell and ivory are organic components31
changes of relative humidity will affect the
material itself causing them to deteriorate in a specific way. Constantly high relative
humidity will cause them to swell and warp and constantly low relative humidity will cause
them to crack. This phenomenon is particularly characteristic for ivory especially for thinner
31
S. Rivers and N. Umney, Conservation of Furniture, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2003, p. 315
24
pieces of ivory veneer32
used in marquetry designs. Another reason that causes loss of pieces
of turtleshell and ivory on marquetry furniture is vandalism and bad handling; perhaps not so
often but still significant.
Even though ivory and turtleshell have been used for decorating furniture for
centuries it is hard to believe that the furniture industry has been responsible for the drastic
reduction of the populations of these species. However killing even one sea turtle or elephant
to get the material for decorating furniture is contributing to the extinction of these species.
Furthermore if it would be possible to define accurate statistics on the amount of these
materials used by different industries we would certainly come to the conclusion that the
amount of these materials that were used for restoration purposes would be even more
insignificant and almost irrelevant. Legal natural new material of both turtleshell and ivory is
extremely rare on the market nowadays and they are usually small stocks of pre-banned
material, still illegal material is present to a large degree. Until recently huge amounts of
these materials were traded illegally through internet sales, particularly through the auction
website eBay33
. However trade in both materials was deservedly banned under pressure from
numerous organisations. One thing is certain: there would not be poaching if there was not
for desire, but to believe that restorers are the one that dictate this desire would be excessive.
When thinking about all the seized material that is usually stockpiled and sometimes more
radically even burnt, one cannot resist the idea that those beautiful materials could be used for
so many ethically correct purposes such as restoration instead of decaying on the shelves or
being burnt, however the unethical origin of the materials should represent a barrier to the
restorer. One should also think about the consequences of allowing seized material to be
used as it would probably send the wrong message to the poachers that would inspire new
illegal hunting of these species.
32
S. Rivers and N. Umney, p. 315 33
E. Martin and D. Stiles, Ivory Markets of Europe: A survey in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK,
Care for the Wild International and Save the Elephants, London, 2005, p. 96
25
Despite the fact that most of the countries of the world, precisely 175 of them34
are
member of the CITES Convention there are certain dissimilarities when it comes to the
import and export and stocks of these materials. France has probably the biggest amount of
stocked legal ivory and turtleshell which is logical if we consider that France was the centre
of Boulle style furniture production at the time. However another interesting decision of the
French Government affected increasing of the stocks and supply of workshops particularly
with the turtleshell as in 1992 all turtleshell in France had to be declared.35
In this way a
stock of legal turtleshell was created and since then all recognized conservation workshops in
France have been supplied with legal genuine material. There are also private suppliers of
legal turtleshell in France like Monsieur George Veneers36
that bought old stocks of this
material from artisans that were forced to close their turtleshell workshops due to CITES
agreement and ban on trade of this material. Trade is however purely domestic because of
the agreement in place.
Talking about ivory it is quiet interesting to note that EU37
allows import of ivory
antiques if they are manufactured before 1 June 194738
and domestic trade in raw and worked
material is legal.39
Talking about stocked ivory in Europe Esmond Martin and Daniel Stiles
point out:
France and Germany are the only countries that stockpile and trade raw ivory. These stockpiles are held
mainly by craftsmen and museums and are registered with the government. France‟s stockpiles were
estimated at 50 tonnes in 2000 while Germany is believed to hold national stockpiles of at least 20
tonnes, since the Erbach Ivory Museum in Germany alone stocks 18-20 tonnes. 40
34
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010 35
Yannick Chastang, recognized restorer and marquetry furniture maker, Yannick Chastang Limited, Kent,
interviewed 12 Aug 2010 36
Paul Tear MBE, course leader for the BA (Hons) Furniture Conservation, Restoration & Decorative Arts
course, Bucks New University, High Wycombe, interviewed 5 Aug 2010 37
European Union 38
Martin and Stiles, p. 5 39
Martin and Stiles, p. 5 40
Martin and Stiles, p. 5
26
In the UK on the other hand the system regarding stocks and supply of ivory and turtleshell is
very different; it could also be regarded as somewhat obscure.41
There is no government
supported supply for museums and conservation workshops with these materials so genuine
material is mostly part of old stocks. In order to be classified as legal turtleshell had to be in
the country before 194742
and documentation verifying this has to be provided otherwise the
material is illegal. An exceptional case of importing some legal turtleshell from Paris took
place eleven years ago and it was available for sale through British Antique Furniture
Restorers Association (BAFRA).43
Undoubtedly, the UK is the biggest European exporter of worked ivory in the form of
antique furniture shipments to the USA.44
Furthermore it is amongst European countries that
import sizeable amounts of worked ivory from USA.45
In the UK there is basically no raw
ivory as there is no legal ivory manufacturing industry.46
Despite being part of the CITES when it comes to the import and export of these
controversial materials the USA implements different regulations and laws. In order to be
imported to USA an object completely or partially made of ivory or turtleshell has to be
antique which means it has to be at least 100 years old.47
Even if a piece of furniture made
using ivory or turtleshell is declared as antique according to this regulation any additionally
added material in shape of restoration repairs has also to be at least 100 years old48
otherwise
it will be treated as illegal and it will be seized or even more radically destroyed and the
owner at risk of huge financial penalties and prison.
41
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010 42
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010 43
C. R. Norman-Smith, „Development of Artificial Shell for Boulle Furniture‟, A Thesis for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty of Design, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Brunel University,
2003, p. 33 44
Martin and Stiles, p. 99 45
Martin and Stiles, p. 99 46
Martin and Stiles, p. 99 47
U. S. Custom and Border Protection website:
<http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation/kbyg/prohibited_restricted.xml#FishandWildlife> accessed on 14
Aug 2010 48
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
27
3.1. Alternative materials
Bearing in mind all previously mentioned facts together with the depletion of current stocks,
the obvious lack of new legal material on the market that is supported with rather
complicated regulation when importing these materials following CITES agreement the
restorer is in a way forced to use alternative materials to try to produce the effect of these
precious materials. Even though it can be questioned whether or not it is ethical to use
alternative materials i.e. imitations instead of original ivory and turtleshell, using these
products could not be compared with unethical usage of genuine but illegal materials that
would contribute to extinction of these species.
Human desire for imitating luxury materials exists for the centuries and materials like
gold, ivory, marble, ebony etc were successfully imitated. Reed Benhamou concludes:
The simulation of ivory must have been quite ancient since as early as 1485 the corporate statutes for
Paris guilds forbade the combination of ivory with horn.49
First recipes for imitating turtleshell were published in 17th
century50
, and were that
successful that in order to make distinction between genuine and imitation material a
thorough control had to be undertaken.51
The opinion of the public on imitation was divided,
however, as Reed Benhamou concludes in his article:
In eighteenth-century France and England, as is clear from their literatures of aesthetics and
technology, imitation was as accepted as it was accomplished.52
Another important fact about the imitations that has to be emphasised is that desire for
imitation did not exist exclusively for economic reasons so less wealthy people could afford
fashionable objects but also for other reasons such as the high cost and difficulty in supplying
49
R. Benhamou, „Imitations in the Decorative Arts of the Eighteenth Century‟, Journal of Design History, vol.4,
no. 1, 1991, pp. 1-13 50
C. D. Edwards, p. 99 51
R. Vuilleumier, „Werkstoffe der kunstschreinerei. Elfenbein, knochen, horn, perlmutter, fischbein und
fischhaut‟, Maltechnik restauro, vol. 86, no. 2, 1980, pp. 106-123 referenced by E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell
imitations‟, p. 27 52
R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
28
exotic materials for example ebony wood53
that was imitated by dyed similar grain cheaper
European wood species, as well as for reasons of being unsuitable for marquetry due to poor
physical properties as in case of lapis lazuli that was imitated with horn that had a blue paper
backing.54
If we consider the previously mentioned fact that the chemical structure of every
mammal‟s teeth and tusk is the same no matter from which particular species it derives55
we
will come to the conclusion that there are great numbers of natural ivory substitutes that can
be successfully used. The ideal natural and legal alternative to ivory is the Mammoth
(Mammuthus) tusk (Fig.20) as Mammoths are part of the same order Proboscidea as both
African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). The fact
that their tusk has been legal the Mammoth can ironically speaking credit to the unfortunate
truth that this specie has been extinct for 10,000 years. Despite the age of this alternative
material Mammoth tusk has been well preserved over the years because of specific
geographical nature of Alaska and Siberia56
where it can be found. Sadly but true the other
two remaining species of elephant are going in the same direction, and it could be question of
years that all ivory will be completely legal. Another natural traditionally used alternative to
ivory is Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) tusk. Walrus tusk has a similar shape to elephant tusk
and it is relatively easily carvable. It was especially popular in the European market at the
time of the Islamic conquests in 7th
and 8th
century AD when the import of ivory decreased
considerably. 57
This species is CITES listed, however trade is not completely prohibited as
it is listed in Appendix III (Appendix I). Other alternative sources that have the same
chemical structure as ivory include: Walrus, Sperm whale (Physter catodon) and Killer whale
53
Chastang, p.30 54
Chastang, p.28 55
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, „The history and significance of the Schreger pattern in proboscidean ivory
characterization‟,pp. 241-48 56
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, 2nd
edn, WWF
Publications, Baltimore, 1992, p. 10 57
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
29
(Orcinus orca) teeth, Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) tusk and canines of Hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus amphibius) and Warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus). Vegetable ivory
(Fig.21), a nut of the Tagua palm tree (Phytelephas macrocarpa) is another suitable
alternative material for ivory58
that was discovered in 19th
century.59
58
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, p. 24 59
R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
Figure 20 Tip of Mammoth tusk.
Figure 21 The Tagua palm tree nut.
30
Bones that have similar density as ivory have also been used traditionally. Shayne Rivers and
Nick Umney points out:
Bones with a comparative density to ivory, such as the long bones of cattle, camel (high density) or
horses may also be used to replace losses.60
Producing manufactured or artificial substitutes for ivory was the obsession of many
professionals over the centuries, however it was not until the 19th
century and the discovery
of celluloid and further development of the plastic industry in 20th
that more significant
artificial ivory substitutes were produced. To a large degree production of these specific
materials was inspired by ban on ivory trade in 1970s. The first celluloid based production of
artificial ivory was made for billiard balls and was produced by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868.
Despite being invented so long ago celluloid sheets of ivory can still be found on the market.
Probably the best material among the artificial alternatives is polyester resin, primarily used
in other industries for example in the automobile and marine industries, still it is widely used
for restoration purposes as a source for artificial materials and as wood filler. Artificial ivory
made from this material can look like genuine ivory to the extent that even an experienced
eye will have slight difficulties in distinguishing one from another (Fig.22).
60
S. Rivers and N. Umney, p. 670
Figure 22 Top: polyester resin, below: genuine ivory.
31
It also has good moisture and UV resistance. Combination of solid properties, great
similarity to ivory aesthetically and accessibility made this material an important element in
most of the restoration workshops. Ivory dust combined with styrene resin creates another
acceptable material however only to some extent as CITES restrictions are applied to any
particular form of ivory.
The desire to produce material that would imitate turtleshell on furniture is probably
as old as appearance of turtleshell on Boulle style furniture. Cattle horn is one of the best
natural materials that was and still is used as a successful alternative for turtleshell (Fig.23).
Even before the Boulle style furniture came into fashion and horn began to be massively used
as well for imitating turtle shell it was used independently for furniture decoration in many
furniture workshops across Europe. This specific craft was especially popular in England and
in many occasions „ready to use‟ turtleshell was even exported to France.61
61
P. Verlet, Les Meubles Français Du Xviii° Siecle, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris Cedex, 1959,
referenced by R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
Figure 23 Left: cattle horn, centre: semi transparent sheet of cattle horn,
right: Transparent sheet of cattle horn.
32
The key to this phenomenon of horn as a very good alternative material for turtleshell is
based on the fact that both materials are keratin based natural plastics which means that they
have similar properties and something that was particularly important at the time when this
method was invented the same tools and same method could be used62
in the processes of
getting sheets of these materials. In addition to previously mentioned reasons cattle horn was
also popular among the cabinet makers because of low price and accessibility. To get sheets
of horn, to start with it is necessary to cut horn in specific way (Fig.24) and then the method
of boiling and pressing horn that is used for producing sheets of turtleshell could be applied.
In general outer layers of horn appear to be less transparent.63
Historically transparent sheets
of horn were backed with painted paper to produce characteristic the pigmentation of turtle
shell, today the use of special paste that reacts with the sulphur in horn to form lead
62
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 31 63
Chastang, p. 34
Figure 24 Cutting the horn sheet, from Planches de l'encyclopédie by
Diderot et d'Alembert.
33
sulphide64
helping coloured marking penetrate deeply into the horn.65
In this way it is
possible to create an extremely realistic illusion of genuine turtleshell pigmentation. In order
to achieve the effect of this precious material in some cases neither more nor less ordinary
paint backed with metal leaf was used or even paint by itself66
, however as Donald C.
Williams concludes:
Since this is not an „in the round‟ approach but purely an applied surface decoration, it is not entirely
clear if this method should be included in any survey of imitation tortoiseshell.67
Another successful method for imitating horn and turtleshell that was introduced in 19th
century was making sheets by dipping wire netting into fish glue solution several times until
the required thickness was achieved. When dry, sheets were coloured to provide the
particular pattern and finally polished. A great combination of both artificial and natural is a
specific technique introduced only recently by Donald C. Williams Senior Furniture
Conservator at the Smithsonian Institution's Centre for Materials Research and Education and
it is characterized by using modified collagen derived from hide glue that once formed into
plates has similar working properties to the original keratin based sea turtle plates.68
It would
be harsh to say that this method is based on the previously mentioned technique however it is
certainly inspired by it. After one layer of glue is dried a specific pattern imitating turtleshell
is applied and then another layer of glue is cast over it. With the addition of plasticiser and
cross-linking agents, the stability and working properties of this material are significantly
improved. Dr. Campbell Norman-Smith‟s PhD titled Development of Artificial Shell for
Boulle Furniture offers an interesting technique that allows restoring missing pieces with
shellac based filling (Fig.25). The shellac that is the main resin in this material is improved
by adding plasticisers whereby the shellac‟s flexibility and resistance to moisture are
64
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 30 65
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 30 66
D. C. Williams, „Tortoiseshell and imitation tortoiseshell‟ in P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting of
East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture
Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p. 37 67
D. C. Williams, p. 37 68
D. C. Williams, p. 37
34
significantly improved, as shellac on its own would be unsuitable69
.Furthermore heating the
composition under precise temperature will improve this material‟s resistance to heat and
impact.70
Working in the workshops of Bucks New University in High Wycombe I have had
the opportunity to personally evidence the high quality and characteristics of this particular
material. A whole range of different natural and synthetic materials like waxes (Fig.26),
resins, cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, acrylics and polyvinyl chloride, but also: phenol,
formaldehyde, polyester and epoxies have been used for making artificial turtleshell, all of
them with certain advantages but still with great many disadvantages. Of the above
mentioned materials sheets of artificial turtleshell made of cellulose acetate and polyester
resin are the most common ones in restoration workshops around Europe especially in private
ones.
69
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 164 70
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 164
Figure 25 Restoration treatment using shellac based artificial turtleshell on 19th
century card table, a student project at Bucks New University in High Wycombe.
35
Figure 26 Filling the gaps using red colour wax filler on 19th
century card table, a
student project at Bucks New University in High Wycombe.
36
3.2. In search of the perfect approach
For one not completely familiar with this subject a title of this sub-chapter could seem
ineffective considering the fact that the only perfect approach when restoring missing pieces
of turtleshell and ivory on 18th
century furniture is using genuine materials. Yet the reality is
that not all pieces of furniture will get to be treated using this approach. It is ironic that in
some cases even using genuine turtleshell when restoring 18th
century furniture would not be
completely correct as the stocks of this material consist to a large part of turtleshell obtained
from plates of the Hawksbill turtle71
(Eretmochelys imbricata) the most common one before
the CITES‟s ban on trade of sea turtles, so in the case that the piece of furniture was
decorated using turtleshell of the other two species sometimes it would not be possible to use
that specific type of turtleshell. However the differences between turtleshell of these three
species are minimal which makes the previously mentioned fact almost irrelevant. Most of
the recognized restorers and conservators who work with 18th
century marquetry furniture
and most of the museum workshops that have this type of furniture in their collection have
stocks of both legal ivory and turtleshell. However stocks held by some of the museum
workshops in the UK like the Wallace Collection and the Victoria and Albert Museum are
much smaller compared to workshops in Paris.72
Nevertheless 18th
century furniture held in
UK collections is generally in very good condition73
and old stocks are used wisely.74
A
recently demonstrated method by the Wallace Collection workshop where plates of genuine
turtleshell are sliced with a micro-planer and then laminated to a support75
clearly evidences
the practice of the careful consumption. A similar method of gluing thinner pieces of ivory
71
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010 72
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33 73
Based on site visits to both of these museums 74
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33 75
D. C. Williams, p. 39
37
on wood supports usually of Balsa wood (Ochroma pyramidale)76
in order to achieve a
thicker layer of ivory is also common practice. Despite all the well-known issues related to
supply of genuine materials both private restorers and museum workshops manage to build
up stocks of these materials due to the interesting method of “recycling” removing ivory and
turtleshell form a breaker77
or extremely damaged piece of furniture. Describing this method
Dr. Campbell Norman-Smith wrote:
This method of building up a stock is not new and is practised by many restorers and conservators
wishing to use authentic materials for the restoration and conservation of valuable pieces.
Alternatively, those wishing to purchase turtleshell for repairs may find an obliging fellow restorer
willing to sell a piece.78
Ivory “recycling” by using old ivory piano keys79
is a very common practice for building
stocks of this material.
When thinking about all the mentioned alternatives, both natural and artificial, it is
obvious that there is wide range of these materials; however their quality varies from very
good and acceptable to completely unacceptable. Most of the natural alternatives are present
on the market nowadays to only a limited extent. Their price is another potential problem; a
good quality raw Mammoth ivory is more expensive then African and Asian elephant raw
ivory.80
On the other hand most of the artificially made ones are completely unacceptable
particularly aesthetically (Fig.27) when talking about the artificial alternatives of turtleshell.
When talking about properties of that artificial turtleshell Donald C. Williams concludes:
Thus we have ideal model of the desired physical properties for imitation tortoiseshell:
1 partially thermoplastic;
2 partially thermosetting;
3 manipulable by heat and moisture for moulding and shaping while retaining physical integrity and
toughness;
4 easily worked by traditional craft tools and abrasives in the hardened cured state;
76
K. Z. Gillis and D. P. Curry, „Conservation of an ivory-clad drop-front secretary from Vizigapatam, India‟ in
P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth
International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p.15 77
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33 78
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33 79
Donald C. Williams, Senior Furniture Conservator, Smithsonian Institution's Centre for Materials Research
and Education, Washington, D.C., interviewed 17 Aug 2010 80
Martin and Stiles, p. 95
38
5 able to be glued to a wooden substrate with traditional hot animal glue;
6 able to be varnished or polished;
7 able to be made to mimic desired mottled appearance and laminar morphology;
8 coloration is internal to the material, not applied to its surface.81
This list of requirements reinforced with unsurprisingly important long term stability and
reversibility that can be applied to some extent to the ivory imitation narrows down
drastically the number of good and acceptable methods. A significant caution should be
applied when deciding the “perfect” approach as using unacceptable materials would not only
mean that piece of furniture will have to be treated again within a short period of time82
which will mean the new stress of restoration for the piece and new financial expenses, but it
can permanently harm the integrity of the piece of furniture.
81
D. C. Williams, p. 35 82
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
Figure 27 Examples of common artificial turtleshell material.
39
Conclusion
Today all elephant and sea turtle species are seriously endangered and their populations are
critically reduced. The precious materials of ivory and turtleshell obtained from those species
were used as materials for decorating furniture surfaces for centuries. Even though ivory has
been used constantly for those purposes, turtleshell on the other hand was not often used as a
material for decorating furniture until the 17th
century and development of the Boulle
marquetry technique. It is important to note that the more frequent usage of these materials
was a logical result of progress that appeared in 17th
and continued through 18th
century that
affected every field of science and society. More frequent maritime travel inspired by the
search for the “New World” established new trade routes that enabled import of huge
quantities of these materials into European markets. In parallel with development of science
and all other aspects of life in subsequent centuries the amounts of imported ivory and
turtleshell were also increasing. In the 19th
century the Industrial Revolution focussed the
main purpose of these materials from exclusively artistic to the completely new direction of
industrial purposes. Despite the fact that these materials have been used for centuries for
decorating furniture and producing all kind of artistic and industrial objects it was not until
last century that significant damage was inflicted on to the population of elephants and sea
turtles. Unfortunately these animals are still threatened directly because of constant poaching
and indirectly by the destruction of their natural habitat. International agreement between the
governments: “the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora” also known as CITES that entered in force on 1 July 1975 significantly reduced
international trade of these animal species. However poaching and illegal trade continued
despite all the strict rules and regulations. By researching this subject in a way it remained
40
unclear how CITES agreement actually impacts on the reduction of poaching. However this
issue is beyond the restoration profession.
After detailed research on different rules and regulation related to these two materials
a clear distinction is made between legal and illegal material which successfully answers the
main question of this dissertation: Is it Ethical to Use Material from Endangered Species in
the Restoration of 18th Century Furniture? Using legally obtained ivory and turtleshell is
completely ethical and it certainly does not contribute to the extinction of elephants or sea
turtles. Despite the fact that considering all the statistics there should be enough legal
genuine ivory and turtleshell many restoration workshops around the world are experiencing
serious lack of these materials. It is obvious that regardless of serious effort from many
organisations around the globe these materials have still been used for production of new
objects. Just the material obtained from animals that died by natural and accidental death that
is very often in case of sea turtles that get caught in fishnets would suffice to meet the
demands of the conservation and restoration workshops that certainly do not represent serious
danger for populations of these species. A legal way should be defined in order to deliver
these materials for probably the most ethical purpose of all: namely the restoration of
beautiful antique furniture that was originally decorated with ivory and turtleshell.
A whole range of different alternative materials both natural and artificial that can
imitate genuine ivory and turtleshell are present on the market. By a large degree these are a
result of the current rather complicated situation when building stocks of legal genuine
materials and the development of materials particularly in the plastic industry. Even though
their ethicality could be questioned as the only correct approach when restoring missing
pieces of these materials is using genuine ivory and turtleshell, using an alternative is
certainly more ethical then using illegally obtained material. Still when using alternative
materials a significant caution should be used as most of the products offered on the market
41
are completely unacceptable and could have dire consequences for the piece of furniture‟s
long term stability.
42
Endnotes
1 Turtleshell or tortoiseshell
2 E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, „The history and significance of the Schreger pattern in proboscidean ivory
characterization‟, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, vol. 32, no. 3, 1993, pp. 241-48
3 F. St Aubyn (ed.), Ivory: A History and Collector’s Guide, Thames and Hudson Ltd , London 1987, p. 16
4 Y. Chastang, Paintings in wood: French Marquetry Furniture, The Wallace Collection, London, 2001, p. 13
5 P. Ramond, Masterpieces of Marquetry: From the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los
Angeles, 2000, p.9
6 C. Penny, The Fascination of Marquetry, English Universities Press, London, 1954, p. 9
7 E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟ in P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the
Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Stichting
Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p. 26
8 Chastang, p. 16
9 Ramond, p.32
10
Chastang, p.31
11
Chastang, p.19
12
Chastang, p.34
13
B. Ford (ed.), Eighteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, referenced by C. D.
Edwards, Eighteenth-Century furniture, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1996, p. 5
14
Chastang, p.20
15
Chastang, p. 29
16
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
17 L. de Caunes, L’écaille, Éditions Vial, Dourdan Cedex,1997, p. 12
18
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
19
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
20
Caunes, p. 14
21
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010
22
Caunes, p. 17
23
Caunes, p. 27
24
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml> accessed on 30 Jul 2010
25
The Born Free Foundation, Inconvenient But True:The Unrelenting Global Trade in Elephant Ivory, Report
Prepared for the 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES, The Hague, 2007, p. 7
43
26 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Consideration of
Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II, Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Doha,
2010, p. 2
27
The Born Free Foundation, Inconvenient But True:The Unrelenting Global Trade in Elephant Ivory, p. 7
28
A. B. Bolten, K. A. Bjorndal, J. S. Grumbles, D. W. Owens, „Sex Ratio and Sex-Specific Growth Rates of
Immature Green Turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Southern Bahamas‟, Copeia, vol. 1992, no. 4, 1992, pp. 1098-
1103
29
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010
30
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010
31
S. Rivers and N. Umney, Conservation of Furniture, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2003, p. 315
32
S. Rivers and N. Umney, p. 315
33
E. Martin and D. Stiles, Ivory Markets of Europe: A survey in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK,
Care for the Wild International and Save the Elephants, London, 2005, p. 96
34
CITES website: <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> accessed on 2 Aug 2010
35
Yannick Chastang, recognized restorer and marquetry furniture maker, Yannick Chastang Limited, Kent,
interviewed 12 Aug 2010
36
Paul Tear MBE, course leader for the BA (Hons) Furniture Conservation, Restoration & Decorative Arts
course, Bucks New University, High Wycombe, interviewed 5 Aug 2010
37
European Union
38
Martin and Stiles, p. 5
39
Martin and Stiles, p. 5
40
Martin and Stiles, p. 5
41
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
42
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
43
C. R. Norman-Smith, „Development of Artificial Shell for Boulle Furniture‟, A Thesis for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty of Design, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Brunel University,
2003, p. 33
44
Martin and Stiles, p. 99
45
Martin and Stiles, p. 99
46
Martin and Stiles, p. 99
47
U. S. Custom and Border Protection website:
<http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation/kbyg/prohibited_restricted.xml#FishandWildlife> accessed on 14
Aug 2010
48
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
49
R. Benhamou, „Imitations in the Decorative Arts of the Eighteenth Century‟, Journal of Design History, vol.4,
no. 1, 1991, pp. 1-13
44
50 C. D. Edwards, p. 99
51
R. Vuilleumier, „Werkstoffe der kunstschreinerei. Elfenbein, knochen, horn, perlmutter, fischbein und
fischhaut‟, Maltechnik restauro, vol. 86, no. 2, 1980, pp. 106-123 referenced by E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell
imitations‟, p. 27
52
R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
53
Chastang, p.30
54
Chastang, p.28
55
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, „The history and significance of the Schreger pattern in proboscidean ivory
characterization‟,pp. 241-48
56
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, 2nd
edn, WWF
Publications, Baltimore, 1992, p. 10
57
F. St Aubyn (ed.), p. 18
58
E. O. Espinoza and M. J. Mann, Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, p. 24
59
R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
60
S. Rivers and N. Umney, p. 670
61
P. Verlet, Les Meubles Français Du Xviii° Siecle, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris Cedex, 1959,
referenced by R. Benhamou, pp. 1-13
62
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 31
63
Chastang, p. 34
64
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 30
65
E. Grall, „Tortoiseshell imitations‟, p. 30
66
D. C. Williams, „Tortoiseshell and imitation tortoiseshell‟ in in P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting
of East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture
Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p. 37
67
D. C. Williams, p. 37
68
D. C. Williams, p. 37
69
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 164
70
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 164
71
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
72
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33
73
Based on site visits to both of these museums
74
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33
75
D. C. Williams, p. 39
45
76 K. Z. Gillis and D. P. Curry, „Conservation of an ivory-clad drop-front secretary from Vizigapatam, India‟ in
P. van Duin and H. Piena (eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth
International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, p. 15
77
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33
78
C. R. Norman-Smith, p. 33
79
Donald C. Williams, Senior Furniture Conservator, Smithsonian Institution's Centre for Materials Research
and Education, Washington, D.C., interviewed 17 Aug 2010
80
Martin and Stiles, p. 95
81
D. C. Williams, p. 35
82
Yannick Chastang, interviewed 12 Aug 2010
46
Account of Sources
Bibliography
The Born Free Foundation, Inconvenient But True: The Unrelenting Global Trade in
Elephant Ivory, Report Prepared for the 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to
CITES, The Hague, 2007
Caunes, L. de, L’écaille, Éditions Vial, Dourdan Cedex, 1997
Chastang, Y., Paintings in wood: French Marquetry Furniture, The Wallace Collection,
London, 2001
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II, Fifteenth meeting of the
Conference of the Parties, Doha, 2010
Edwards, C. D., Eighteenth-Century furniture, Manchester University Press, Manchester and
New York, 1996
Espinoza E. O. and Mann M. J., Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, 2nd
edn,
WWF Publications, Baltimore, 1992
Gillis K. Z. and Curry D. P., „Conservation of an ivory-clad drop-front secretary from
Vizigapatam, India‟ in van Duin P. and Piena H., (eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the
Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture
Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, pp.10-17
Grall E., „Tortoiseshell imitations‟ in van Duin P. and Piena H., (eds.), The Meeting of East
and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood and
Furniture Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, pp. 26-32
Martin, E. and Stiles, D., Ivory Markets of Europe: A survey in France, Germany, Italy,
Spain and the UK, Care for the Wild International and Save the Elephants, London, 2005
Norman-Smith, C. R., Development of Artificial Shell for Boulle Furniture, A Thesis for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Brunel
University, High Wycombe, 2003
Penny, C., The Fascination of Marquetry, English Universities Press, London, 1954
Ramond, P., Masterpieces of Marquetry: From the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul
Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2000
Rivers S. and Umney, N., Conservation of Furniture, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2003
St Aubyn, F. ,(ed.), Ivory: A History and Collector’s Guide, Thames and Hudson Ltd,
London, 1987
47
Williams D. C., „Tortoiseshell and imitation tortoiseshell‟ in van Duin P. and Piena H., (eds.),
The Meeting of East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International
Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Stichting Ebenist, Amsterdam, 2003, pp.
33-43
Journals
Benhamou R., „Imitations in the Decorative Arts of the Eighteenth Century‟, Journal of
Design History, vol.4, no. 1, 1991, pp. 1-13
Bolten A. B., Bjorndal K. A., Grumbles J. S. and Owens D. W., „Sex Ratio and Sex-Specific
Growth Rates of Immature Green Turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Southern Bahamas‟,
Copeia, vol. 1992, no. 4, 1992, pp. 1098-1103
Espinoza E. O. and Mann M. J., „The history and significance of the Schreger pattern in
proboscidean ivory characterization‟, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, vol.
32, no. 3, 1993, pp. 241-48
Websites
CITES <http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml> (Accessed on 30 Jul 2010)
CITES <http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> (Accessed on 2 Aug 2010)
CITES species database <http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/CITES/Taxonomy/tax-species-
result.cfm?Genus=Caretta&Species=caretta&source=animals&tabname=all> (Accessed on 4
Aug 2010)
CITES species database <http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/CITES/Taxonomy/tax-species-
result.cfm?Genus=Chelonia&Species=mydas&source=animals> (Accessed on 4 Aug 2010)
CITES species database <http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/CITES/Taxonomy/tax-species-
result.cfm?Genus=Eretmochelys&Species=imbricata&source=animals&tabname=legal>
(Accessed on 4 Aug 2010)
Tour Egypt <http://www.touregypt.net/museum/tutl58.htm> (Accessed on 4 Aug 2010)
UNEP-WCMC Species Database <http://www.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/Taxonomy/tax-species-
result.cfm?SpeciesNo=7140&tabname=legal> (Accessed on 4 Aug 2010)
UNEP-WCMC Species Database <http://www.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/Taxonomy/tax-species-
result.cfm?SpeciesNo=12392&tabname=references> (Accessed on 4 Aug 2010)
48
CITES trade data dashboards<http://cites-dashboards.unep-wcmc.org/global?id=Mammals>
(Accessed on 5 Aug 2010)
CITES trade data dashboard http://cites-dashboards.unep-wcmc.org/global?id=Reptiles
(Accessed on 5 Aug 2010)
My learning < http://www.mylearning.org/image-zoom.asp?picid=3&jpageid=973>
(Accessed on 5 Aug 2010)
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species < http://www.iucnredlist.org/> (Accessed on 6 Aug
2010)
Roger Hall Scientific Illustration < http://www.inkart.net/art/wildlife_art/> (Accessed on 6
Aug 2010)
Zambales Turtle Conservation Program
<http://environmentalprotectionofasia.com/ztcp/biology/taxomorph.htm> (Accessed on 6
Aug 2010)
Christie‟s Ltd 2009
<http://www.christies.com/features/auctions/0709/7745/index.aspx?h=1#highlights>
(Accessed on 7 Aug 2010)
The Magazine Antiques <http://www.themagazineantiques.com/news-opinion/farther-
afield/2009-07-27/summer-fare/> (Accessed on 7 Aug 2010)
Bush Warriors < http://bushwarriors.wordpress.com/tag/photography/> (Accessed on 10 Aug
2010)
CITES < http://www.cites.org/eng/com/sc/58/E58-36-1A2.pdf> (Accessed on 10 Aug 2010)
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des
metiers<http://portail.atilf.fr/cgibin/getobject_?a.144:16./var/artfla/encyclopedie/textdata/IM
AGE/> (Accessed on 10 Aug 2010)
Concrete Jungle <http://www.madeinhalifax.com/concretematerials.htm> (Accessed on 11
Aug 2010)
Ivory Carvings Netsuke & Okimono < http://woolis.com/Ivory.htm > (Accessed 11 on Aug
2010)
U. S. Custom and Border Protection
<http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation/kbyg/prohibited_restricted.xml#FishandWildlif
e> (Accessed on 14 Aug 2010)
49
Interviews
Mr. Paul Tear MBE
Course leader
BA (Hons) Furniture Conservation, Restoration & Decorative Arts
Bucks New University
Queen Alexandra Road
High Wycombe
Bucks HP11 2JZ
Dr. Campbell Robert Norman-Smith
Course leader
MA Furniture Conservation, Restoration & Decorative Arts
Bucks New University
Queen Alexandra Road
High Wycombe
Bucks HP11 2JZ
Mr. Yannick Chastang
Recognized restorer and marquetry furniture maker
Yannick Chastang Limited
1096 Galley Drive
Sittingbourne Research Centre
Sittingbourne
Kent ME9 8GA
Site Visits
The Victoria and Albert Museum Burghley House
South Kensington Stamford
Cromwell Road Lincolnshire
London SW7 2RL PE9 3JY
(Visited 26 Jun 2010) (Visited 11 Jul 2010)
The Wallace Collection
Hertford House
Manchester Square
London W1U 3BN
(Visited 7 Aug 2010)
50
Correspondence
Donald C. Williams (Senior Furniture Conservator)
Museum Conservation Institute
Smithsonian Institution
Museum Support Center
Suitland MD 20746
USA
Email correspondence 17 Aug 2010
51
Picture credits
Front Page Detail from console table, late 17th
or early 18th
century attributed to attributed
to André-Charles Boulle, from Ramond, P., Masterpieces of Marquetry: From
the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2000,
p.24
Figure 1 A 19th
century carved ivory tusk from Nigeria made between 1880 and 1897,
Museums Sheffield, from My learning < http://www.mylearning.org/image-
zoom.asp?picid=3&jpageid=973> (Accessed on 5 Aug 2010)
Figure 2 Area range for African and Asian elephants, made using photos from the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species < http://www.iucnredlist.org/ >
(Accessed on 6 Aug 2010)
Figure 3 Area range for sea turtles, from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <
http://www.iucnredlist.org/ > (Accessed on 6 Aug 2010)
Figure 4 Three species of the sea turtles commonly used for the production of
turtleshell for furniture decoration:1) The Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata),2) The Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), 3) The Loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta), made using photos from Roger Hall Scientific Illustration <
http://www.inkart.net/art/wildlife_art/> (Accessed on 6 Aug 2010)
Figure 5 Child‟s chair decorated with gold and ivory, found in Tutankhamun‟s tomb,
from Tour Egypt http://www.touregypt.net/museum/tutl58.htm (Accessed on 4
Aug 2010)
Figure 6 Fretsaw, the 18th
century drawing from L‟Art du Menuissier by Jacques-André
Ruobo, from Ramond, P., Masterpieces of Marquetry: From the Beginnings to
Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2000, p. 37
Figure 7 The Louis XIV cabinet-on-stand from British Collection of about 1680,
attributed to André-Charles Boulle, This extraordinary piece of furniture
embellished with ormolu mounts (1) clearly demonstrates the skill of using
turtleshell (2) in combination with different types of wood (3) and metal (4),
from The Magazine Antiques <http://www.themagazineantiques.com/news-
opinion/farther-afield/2009-07-27/summer-fare/> (Accessed on 7 Aug 2010)
Figure 8 Carapace of the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), made using photo from
Zambales Turtle Conservation Program
<http://environmentalprotectionofasia.com/ztcp/biology/taxomorph.htm>
(Accessed on 6 Aug 2010)
Figure 9 Pair of Louis XIV coffres en tombeau, Left: contre-partie and right: première-
partie, attributed to André-Charles Boulle, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, from
Christie‟s Ltd 2009
52
<http://www.christies.com/features/auctions/0709/7745/index.aspx?h=1#highl
ights> (Accessed on 7 Aug 2010)
Figure 10 The 18th
century marquetry donkey, drawing from L‟Art du Menuissier by
Jacques-André Ruobo, from Ramond, P., Masterpieces of Marquetry: From
the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2000,
p. 36
Figure 11 The 18th
century shoulder knife, drawing from L‟Art du Menuissier by
Jacques-André Ruobo, from Ramond, P., Masterpieces of Marquetry: From
the Beginnings to Louis XIV, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2000,
p. 12
Figure 12 Cutting a marquetry design on the custom made marquetry donkey, workshops
of Bucks New University, High Wycombe, photo: Ivo Kipre
Figure 13 Principal trade route in 18th
century (green) and trade route used by Portugese
in the 16th
century (red), from Thames and Hudson, Ivory: A History and
Collector’s Guide, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, 1987, p. 16
Figure 14 Raw turtleshell sheets and traditional tools used, from Caunes, L. de, L’écaille,
Éditions Vial, Dourdan Cedex, 1997, p. 9
Figure 15 Imports of tusks (kg) of taxonomic family Elephantidae from 1989 to 2008,
from CITES trade data dashboards
<http://citesdashboards.unepwcmc.org/global?id=Mammals> (Accessed on 5
Aug 2010)
Figure 16 Ivory seizures between 1989 and 2006, Species Survival Network (SSN), from
CITES < http://www.cites.org/eng/com/sc/58/E58-36-1A2.pdf> (Accessed on
10 Aug 2010)
Figure 17 Ceremonial burning of ivory in Kenya 1995, from Bush Warriors
<http://bushwarriors.wordpress.com/tag/photography/> (Accessed on 10 Aug
2010)
Figure 18 Japanese Customs Statistics of imported Hawksbill turtleshell to Japan
from1950 to 1998, from CITES
<http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/hbt/bg/trade_status.shtml> (Accessed on 2
Aug 2010)
Figure 19 Import of carapaces of Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Green turtle
(Chelonia mydas) and Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) from 1994 to 2008,
from CITES trade data dashboard http://cites-dashboards.unep-
wcmc.org/global?id=Reptiles (Accessed on 5 Aug 2010)
Figure 20 Tip of Mammoth tusk, from Ivory Carvings Netsuke & Okimono
<http://woolis.com/Ivory.htm > (Accessed 11 Aug 2010)
53
Figure 21 The Tagua palm tree nut, from Concrete Jungle
<http://www.madeinhalifax.com/concretematerials.htm > (Accessed on 11
Aug 2010)
Figure 22 Top: polyester resin, below: genuine ivory, photo: Ivo Kipre
Figure 23 Left: cattle horn, centre: semi transparent sheet of cattle horn, right:
Transparent sheet of cattle horn, photo: Ivo Kipre
Figure 24 Cutting the horn sheet, from Planches de l' encyclopédie by Diderot et
d'Alembert, from Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des
arts et des metiers
<http://portail.atilf.fr/cgibin/getobject_?a.144:16./var/artfla/encyclopedie/textd
ata/IMAGE/> (Accessed on 10 Aug 2010)
Figure 25 Restoration treatment using shellac based artificial turtleshell on 19th
century
card table, a student project at Bucks New University in High Wycombe,
photo: Ivo Kipre
Figure 26 Filling the gaps using red colour wax filler on 19th
century card table, a student
project at Bucks New University in High Wycombe, photo: Ivo Kipre
Figure 27 Examples of common artificial turtleshell material, photo: Ivo Kipre
54
Appendix I
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora
Signed at Washington, D.C., on 3 March 1973
Amended at Bonn, on 22 June 1979
Articles: I, II. III. IV, V, VI
Article I
Definitions
For the purpose of the present Convention, unless the context otherwise requires:
(a) "Species" means any species, subspecies, or geographically separate population thereof;
(b) "Specimen" means:
(i) any animal or plant, whether alive or dead;
(ii) in the case of an animal: for species included in Appendices I and II, any readily
recognizable part or derivative thereof; and for species included in Appendix III, any readily
recognizable part or derivative thereof specified in Appendix III in relation to the species; and
(iii) in the case of a plant: for species included in Appendix I, any readily recognizable part or
derivative thereof; and for species included in Appendices II and III, any readily recognizable
part or derivative thereof specified in Appendices II and III in relation to the species;
(c) "Trade" means export, re-export, import and introduction from the sea;
(d) "Re-export" means export of any specimen that has previously been imported;
(e) "Introduction from the sea" means transportation into a State of specimens of any species
which were taken in the marine environment not under the jurisdiction of any State;
(f) "Scientific Authority" means a national scientific authority designated in accordance with
Article IX;
(g) "Management Authority" means a national management authority designated in
accordance with Article IX;
(h) "Party" means a State for which the present Convention has entered into force.
55
Article II
Fundamental Principles
1. Appendix I shall include all species threatened with extinction which are or may be
affected by trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be subject to particularly strict
regulation in order not to endanger further their survival and must only be authorized in
exceptional circumstances.
2. Appendix II shall include:
(a) all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so
unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid
utilization incompatible with their survival; and
(b) other species which must be subject to regulation in order that trade in specimens of
certain species referred to in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph may be brought under
effective control.
3. Appendix III shall include all species which any Party identifies as being subject to
regulation within its jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation, and
as needing the co-operation of other Parties in the control of trade.
4. The Parties shall not allow trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and
III except in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.
Article III
Regulation of Trade in Specimens of Species Included in Appendix I
1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix I shall be in accordance with the
provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior
grant and presentation of an export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the
following conditions have been met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such export will not be
detrimental to the survival of that species;
(b) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not
obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora;
(c) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will
be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment; and
56
(d) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that an import permit has been
granted for the specimen.
3. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior
grant and presentation of an import permit and either an export permit or a re-export
certificate. An import permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been
met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of import has advised that the import will be for
purposes which are not detrimental to the survival of the species involved;
(b) a Scientific Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the proposed recipient of a
living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and
(c) a Management Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the specimen is not to be
used for primarily commercial purposes.
4. The re-export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior
grant and presentation of a re-export certificate. A re-export certificate shall only be granted
when the following conditions have been met:
(a) a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that the specimen was
imported into that State in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention;
(b) a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that any living specimen
will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment; and
(c) a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that an import permit has
been granted for any living specimen.
5. The introduction from the sea of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall
require the prior grant of a certificate from a Management Authority of the State of
introduction. A certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been
met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of introduction advises that the introduction will not be
detrimental to the survival of the species involved;
(b) a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that the proposed
recipient of a living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and
(c) a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that the specimen is not
to be used for primarily commercial purposes.
Article IV
Regulation of Trade in Specimens of Species Included in Appendix II
57
1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix II shall be in accordance with the
provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior
grant and presentation of an export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the
following conditions have been met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such export will not be
detrimental to the survival of that species;
(b) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not
obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora; and
(c) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will
be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment.
3. A Scientific Authority in each Party shall monitor both the export permits granted by that
State for specimens of species included in Appendix II and the actual exports of such
specimens. Whenever a Scientific Authority determines that the export of specimens of any
such species should be limited in order to maintain that species throughout its range at a level
consistent with its role in the ecosystems in which it occurs and well above the level at which
that species might become eligible for inclusion in Appendix I, the Scientific Authority shall
advise the appropriate Management Authority of suitable measures to be taken to limit the
grant of export permits for specimens of that species.
4. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior
presentation of either an export permit or a re-export certificate.
5. The re-export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior
grant and presentation of a re-export certificate. A re-export certificate shall only be granted
when the following conditions have been met:
(a) a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that the specimen was
imported into that State in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention; and
(b) a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that any living specimen
will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment.
6. The introduction from the sea of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall
require the prior grant of a certificate from a Management Authority of the State of
introduction. A certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been
met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of introduction advises that the introduction will not be
detrimental to the survival of the species involved; and
(b) a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that any living specimen
will be so handled as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
58
7. Certificates referred to in paragraph 6 of this Article may be granted on the advice of a
Scientific Authority, in consultation with other national scientific authorities or, when
appropriate, international scientific authorities, in respect of periods not exceeding one year
for total numbers of specimens to be introduced in such periods.
Article V
Regulation of Trade in Specimens of Species Included in Appendix III
1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix III shall be in accordance with the
provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix III from any State which
has included that species in Appendix III shall require the prior grant and presentation of an
export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have
been met:
(a) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not
obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora; and
(b) a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will
be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment.
3. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix III shall require, except in
circumstances to which paragraph 4 of this Article applies, the prior presentation of a
certificate of origin and, where the import is from a State which has included that species in
Appendix III, an export permit.
4. In the case of re-export, a certificate granted by the Management Authority of the State of
re-export that the specimen was processed in that State or is being re-exported shall be
accepted by the State of import as evidence that the provisions of the present Convention
have been complied with in respect of the specimen concerned.
Article VI
Permits and Certificates 1. Permits and certificates granted under the provisions of Articles III, IV, and V shall be in
accordance with the provisions of this Article.
2. An export permit shall contain the information specified in the model set forth in Appendix
IV, and may only be used for export within a period of six months from the date on which it
was granted.
59
3. Each permit or certificate shall contain the title of the present Convention, the name and
any identifying stamp of the Management Authority granting it and a control number
assigned by the Management Authority.
4. Any copies of a permit or certificate issued by a Management Authority shall be clearly
marked as copies only and no such copy may be used in place of the original, except to the
extent endorsed thereon.
5. A separate permit or certificate shall be required for each consignment of specimens.
6. A Management Authority of the State of import of any specimen shall cancel and retain the
export permit or re-export certificate and any corresponding import permit presented in
respect of the import of that specimen.
7. Where appropriate and feasible a Management Authority may affix a mark upon any
specimen to assist in identifying the specimen. For these purposes "mark" means any
indelible imprint, lead seal or other suitable means of identifying a specimen, designed in
such a way as to render its imitation by unauthorized persons as difficult as possible.
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Appendix II
Recipe for making turtleshell using horn
From: Grall E., „Tortoiseshell imitations‟ in van Duin P. and Piena H., (eds.), The Meeting of
East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth International Symposium on Wood
and Furniture Conservation
We have said that horn may be lined with painted sheet as described by Ruobo; yet it is also
possible to create blackish markings that imitate the tortoiseshell pigmentation, producing a
perfect illusion. These markings are made using a paste, which reacts with the sulphur in horn
to form lead sulphide.
This is the recipe:
1. Prepare the horn with care. Choose a light-coloured, transparent sheet, the horn
should be colourless or slightly yellow, but not greenish. Sand the veneer to the
desired thickness and then polish.
2. Next, prepare the colorant paste using two parts quicklime, one part lead oxide
(yellow or red are equally good) and a few drops of potassium carbonate. Slake the
lime with water to form a paste and then add the lead oxide and potassium carbonate.
3. Spread thick layers of the paste on the area of the horn where markings are to be
created. Leave the mixture in place for 30 minutes to 3 hours, depending on the
desired colour. To prevent the paste from drying out, cover with plastic film.
4. Remove the paste by brushing and rinse with water, then place the horn between
newspapers and press to dry.
The coloured markings will penetrate deeply into the horn and are indelible.
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Appendix III
Imitation of turtleshell by Donald C. Williams
From: Williams D. C., „Tortoiseshell and imitation tortoiseshell‟ in van Duin P. and Piena H.,
(eds.), The Meeting of East and West in the Furniture Trade: Proceedings; Sixth
International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation
The general formulation and process for creating imitation tortoiseshell in this manner is to
employ collagen in the form of granulated hide glue as the fundamental material component,
with some portion of miscible plasticiser as an anti-fracture additive, and a minute amount of
either internal or external cross-linking agent to harden or cross-link the material to a partly
thermoset state. This document will describe only three general option from nearly endless
number of variations possible for accomplishing imitation tortoiseshell.
Option I
1. Prepare the basic material through the use of 100 parts granulated hide glue and 10
parts water-soluble plasticiser (such as glycerine, sorbitol or low-molecular-weight
polyvinyl alcohol resin) by soaking in water for at least twelve hours, followed by
another twelve hours of cooking at 125-140 degrees Fahrenheit
2. When this hot glue solution is ready, add approximately 1 part of internal cross-
linking agent.
3. Cast out this hot solution onto an acetate or mylar sheet to a thickness of
approximately 2 millimetres.
4. When the hot solution begins to gel, immediately introduce the mottled tortoiseshell
pattern with water-soluble or water-compatible colorants, using artists‟ brushes, air
brushes or other tools appropriate to the task. With a practiced hand working wet-into-
wet, a minute degree of colorant diffusion will be achieved.
5. As soon as the colorant pattern has begun to dry and no longer flows of its own
accord, cast a second hot glue lamina of a similar thickness, directly on top of the
pattern to complete the laminar structure of the imitation tortoiseshell. Step 3 through
5 may be repeated and varied as often as necessary to achieve the desired thickness
and number of laminae of the manufactured imitation shell.
At this point the creation of the raw material is complete, requiring only air drying.
Only further manipulation by heat and moisture, or tools and other craft or
manufactured processes identical to those employed for working on genuine
tortoiseshell, are required to complete the application for the end use of the imitation
tortoiseshell.
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Option II
1) Prepare the basic material through the use of 100 parts granulated hide glue and 10
parts water-soluble plasticiser (such as glycerine, sorbitol or low-molecular-weight
polyvinyl alcohol resin) by soaking in water by at least twelve hours, followed by
another twelve hours of cooking at 125-140 degrees Fahrenheit.
2) When this hot glue solution is ready, add approximately 1 part of internal cross-
linking agent.
3) Cast out this hot solution onto a very fine denier nylon fabric (or similar) on a mylar
sheet to a thickness of approximately 0.5 millimetres.
4) Once this sheet has dried sufficiently, it may serve as a foundation for printing a
scanned image of the mottled tortoiseshell pattern with an inkjet printer or other
printing technology employing water-soluble or water-compatible ink
5) The printed sheet may then be placed on an acetate sheet and the hot glue solution
cast over it to a thickness of approximately 2 or 3 millimetres.
6) As soon as the cast film gels and no longer flows of its own accord, flip the printed
sheet to the verso, and cast a second hot glue lamina on top of the pattern to complete
the laminar structure of the imitation tortoiseshell.
At this point the creation of the raw material is complete, requiring only air drying.
Only further manipulation by heat and moisture, or tools and other craft or
manufactured processes identical to those employed for working on genuine
tortoiseshell, are required to complete the application for the end use of the imitation
tortoiseshell.
Option III
1) Prepare the basic material through the use of 100 parts granulated hide glue and 10
parts water-soluble plasticiser (such as glycerine, sorbitol or low-molecular-weight
polyvinyl alcohol resin) by soaking in water by at least twelve hours, followed by
another twelve hours of cooking at 125-140 degrees Fahrenheit.
2) When this hot glue solution is ready, cast out this hot solution onto an acetate or
mylar sheet to a thickness of approximately 2 millimetres.
3) When the hot solution begins to gel, immediately introduce mottled tortoiseshell
pattern with water-soluble or water-compatible colorants, using artists brushes, air
brushes, or other tool appropriate to the task.
4) As soon as the colorant pattern has begun to dry and no longer flows of its own
accord, cast a second hot glue lamina of a similar thickness, directly on top of the
pattern, to complete the laminar structure of the imitation tortoiseshell. Step 3 through
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5 may be repeated and varied as often as necessary to achieve the desired thickness
and number of laminae of the manufactured imitation shell.
5) When the laminar film has dried to hard, hand-leable condition, immerse for a couple
minutes in a bath of protein fixatives to cross-link the collagen. This may be
accomplished by employing either commercial leather tanning chemicals or mixtures
such as those described in patent or technical literature pertaining to the hardening of
photographic gelatine or the making of waterproof glues, or similar.
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Appendix IV
Correspondence with Donald C. Williams
Senior Furniture Conservator
Museum Conservation Institute
Smithsonian Institution
Museum Support Center
Suitland MD 20746
USA
Is it ethical to use materials from endangered species in restoration of 18th century
furniture?
That is essentially a theological or even whimsical question. If we were to rephrase the
question, “Is it ethical to currently harvest endangered species to provide materials for
restoration?” the answer is ethically , “No,” “ethics” being a statement of behavioural
preferences for a set of circumstances in a particular time and place based on any number of
dynamic inputs. Perhaps a larger question might be, “Is the arbitrary protection of
„endangered species‟ a rational political expression?” Personally I have my doubts on both
philosophical and utilitarian perspectives.
If the original question is rephrased to read, “Is it ethical to utilize already existing materials
from previously deceased endangered species for restoration?” I personally have no
difficulty in utilizing per-existing materials from almost any source for restoration in this
context. I have a drawer full of vintage ivory piano keys and use them with impunity. I have
bags of vintage ivory which I also use.
What is your opinion on US government law on ivory and tortoiseshell and 100 year rule?
Personally I am opposed to the law. I am certain that the Smithsonian Institution (my
employer) is in favour of the law. My own perspective leans toward the private marketplace
to resolve these controversies based on the maximum expansion of private property rights,
about which I am personally a near- absolutist. Anderson and Leal wrote a thought
provoking book on environmentalism about twenty years ago, which included a discussion of
elephant ivory.
In short, where elephants are property, there are plenty of them. Where elephants are a
“natural treasure” their population has been almost eradicated.
Admittedly sea turtles are a challenging problem for domestication, but that is a utilitarian
problem, not a philosophical hurdle.
In general I find most political policies related to the environment, including species, to be
irrational silliness. Again, my employers are strident opponents to my personal view.
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Do you use genuine ivory and tortoiseshell when restoring and is there any "legal" ivory
and turtleshell on the USA market?
Yes, I use both genuine tortoiseshell and my artificial tortoiseshell in restoration, although I
use much more of my artificial material.
I use genuine ivory exclusively when restoring ivory.
Yes, there is an excellent source for legal genuine ivory in the US, David Warther in Ohio
whose web site is www.ivorybuyer.com.
My reputation result in people sending me scraps of genuine tortoiseshell occasionally, and I
have a small box of same.
What alternative material do you use when restoring missing pieces of ivory?
Given the availability of genuine ivory, that is the material I use. If I had to use something
else, I might use some vintage celluloid in good condition, or prepare some holly or box
wood for that use.