book chapters 6-8

7/30/2019 Book Chapters 6-8

1/19

84 Chapter 5

is_paid. Role-play this case with another person. when you finish,address the following questions.@asexDis:o.uss:ior.m@uestions1. \tvhich of the four key temperaments was most ciearly dis-played by the other person? Identify specific comments andbehaviors to support your assessment.2. which of the four key temperaments do you think your com-ments and behaviors most clearly displayed?3. Do you agree with each other's self and other assessments? Ifnot, why do you think you see the behaviors differently?

rffib

PERToRmHcE CoMPEiENct Es FoR THts CHnprERo To understand communication as a Processe To learn rules for effective iistening and speaking innegotiationr To learn communication filtering techniques for negotiationo To recognize signs of destructive conflict in negotiation andwhat to do when they ariseo To learn to watch body language in negotiationo To be cautious in written and electronic negotiation

"lt is a grealmisfortune neitherlo have enough wit

to talk well norenough judgment

to be silenl."La BruYere

85


2/19

86 ChaPter 6

Do you communicate when you speak, or do you just make noise?Is what is written here communication, or just noise? Communica-tion is essential for negotiating success. The opening quotationsummarizes the essence of negotiation communication. your goalshouldbe to say the right things in the right ways at the right timesand to hear. what you say must be understood as you iniend it tobe effective. saying the right things in the right ways is necessaryfor your message to be understood. Hearing the othei parties is nei-essary for you to say the right things at the right timei. Communi-cation is a two-way process.

..c9-mmunication is the effective transfer of intended meaning. Ifthe transfer falls short of that, it is just noise. The process oi-c6m-munication can be understood in parts. Noise can arise ir *y of theparts. Noise can arise from several factors. Howeveq, much noisecomes from interpersonal differences in key aspects of personalitydiscussed previously in this book.we are nafurally able to interact with those individuals who aremost similar to us. The more we have in common regarding theways in *ruCt we take in information, process inforriationJandstructure our outside world, the easier it is to communicate. In fact,enduring, close relationships are generally those between peoplewho share traits and characteristics of personality and tempera-ment as well as values. our attitudes and perceptions edit the mes-sages we hear from others. We have the greatest misunderstandingsand risk of conflict with those who differ from us.In this chapter we review key principles of communication asa process and identify communication skills necessary for effec-tive negotiation. our focus is on interpersonal complexities incommunication.Principles of effective coinmunication are divided into fourgeneral categories: (1) Iistening, (2) speakirg, (3) fittering, and(4) watching. The first two are important regardless of who is on theother side of the communication process. The latter two are partic-ularly important when the one with whom we are communkatingis the least like us.

The process of communication may be analyzed in steps. A messageflows through the following steps or rrr-bpro."rs"i' the souri,Nrclnon PRocess

' Communicating in Negotiationencoding, the channel, decoding, and the receiver (Berlo 1960). Thesoltrce is the person originating the message. That Person encodes-it-structut"J it according to his or her understanding. The channelis the medium through which the message is sent-the spokenword, the writter-t rygrd on PaPer or electronic medium, and bodylanguage. Deicodiig k the receiver's interpretation and understand-ing of the message. Much purported communication stops there. Ino.i"t to ensure that communication has, in fact, occurred, One morestep is needed-feedback.If the receiver re-sends the message in confirmation of what wasunderstood and that feedback coincides with what was intended,we can be fairly certain that communication has occurred. How-ever, if the original sender, or source, does nothear the feedback, noone will know whether communication occurred. Listening, there-fore, is critical to communication.Noise can occur at any step, even in feedback. we tend to en-code messages according to ont own way of taking in informationand subject to our own Perspectives and biases. Sometimes we useshortcuis and codes familiar to us that are not familiar to others.Our personalities, our cultufe, our language, and our attitudes canall cieate noise and present barriers to communication. Sometimeswe see and hear whitwe wan!.!o see and hear, despite the clarity ofthe message!Communication is difficultl The more people involved in theprocess, the greater the complexities and opportunities for noise.^So*a channels are richer than others. Direct, face=to.face commu-;i;;tb; ip-lhe iicheet If t;otides tfie gieit;iT$ilAil"o; infoiffi-tion E;;1i-;; the great"it oppo.tunities for immediate feqd!:S5,Verba!.gry! bgdy_ language are available in face-to-face interaction.wegoii;iio" li 6"Jt-.-6ndicted face to face. In telephone communi-cat6n, verbal tone and immediate feedback are available but bodylanguage is not. Written communication must be undertaken withrp"iiul.ure to avoid unintended offense or unintended meaning'

There are rules we can follow that will help us do our best. Wecan become aware of ourselves and our ways of encoding and de-coding. We can learn to listen. We can learn to speak effectively aswell ai request and give feedback. We can filter our messages inways that;id the other's understanding. we can observe. Finally, aswe continue to follow those rules we can learn more about PerceP-tion. We address the additional complexities of perception in laterchapters.

87

,!1Hcit,:TiPt:rlPractice listeningand speakingrules on topicsabout which youare passionate.


3/19

88 Chapter 6

Good negotiators,like good communicators generally are actil4e lis_teners. Most of us, absent.training and practice, are iututl".Iffilffiners. Extrovert: i:"illy haveiarticular difficulty in developinglisleniirgj&F-Qirietly lisie.,r.,g, on the other hand, comes natu-raily to introverts. All negotiators should follow the rules set forthin the following box.

Later, in other chapters, we address more particular or tactical state-ments used in negotiation. The following rules should be adoptedas general guidelines permeating all of your negotiatio., .r,"rrugus,/ Do not answer a question if you are not prepared.,/ Do not answer a question that was not asked, unless you are surethat it wili aid the process of mutual understanding.'/ Do not be afraid to answer a question with a question./ Do not answer a question if the timing does not suit your strat-egy, but promise to answer it later.,/ Do not ask a question that will trigger the reciprocal questionback to you if you are not ready or piepared to answer it.

IYE..SPEAKING IN NEGoTIATtoN

Communicating in Negotiation

After you ask a question, stop,close your mouth, and open youl *ikti$$'ilil$iifi$ii$iffiiears so that the Person can answer and you can hear! silence is golden."occasionally ask a question to which you already know theanswer in order to test the other's veracity.Restate or summarlze what you understood the other Personto say.State your understanding and appreciation for the other's position.Do not be offensive or rude.,/ Until you are ready to agree, use conditional statements andhypotheticals.,/ Do not say things to show off.,/ Do not be afraid of appearing stupid../ Do not be afraid to be silent.If you are surprised by the rule, Do not be afraid of appearingstupid, bear in mind that it is not the same as being stupid! MalYtimes we fail to seek clarification because of this fear. It is unlikelythat your counterpart will presume you stupid for seeking informa-tion. However, if that does happen, it will give you an advantage. We

discr-rss underestimating your counterpart fr-rrther in other chapters.

The principle of filtering is premised on knowing who you are andwhai type of personality the person has with whom you are deal-ing. To be effective in the communication process, one must beu*ur" of his or her own internal editing, recognize ciues, and relatetransmissions to the personalities involved. We are largely unawareof our automatic editing. Our natural tendency is to assume thatothers are like us. We project our characteristics onto others. Our re-actions to others depend in large part on how we perceive them.While perception is addressed at greater length elsewhere in thisbook, our focus here is on practicing filtering techniques'Filtering removes the debris of our automatic editing and al-lows for effective transfer of intended meaning. There are two basicrules for filtering:1. Know your prejudices, biases, and tendencies, and allow for them.2. Listen and speak to the other in his or her language.

89

German Proverb


4/19

90 Chapter 6

It is the failure of the filtering process that accounts for muchtension, anger, destructive conflict, and many breakd.owns of thenegotiation process. The way to improve your filtering skilis and,therefore, your communication and negoiiation skiils"is to recog_nize how you interact, how you react to your opposites, and howyour opposites react to you._ usually the hardest part of that quest is acknowledging howothers perceive you. For example, to your opposite yo,, *iy6" p"r-ceived as argumentative or even abrasive *her, you think vou ur"merely getting to the p.oint and getting to resolution. To yo; oppo-site you may be perceived as scattered or wishy-washv when vouthink you arebeing open to alternatives and trying to accommodut".Lr order to imp_rove your filtering skills, makJ a note of your in-terpretation of and reaction to the characteristics and behaviors ofthe various personalities and temperaments described in otherchapters. Next, make a list of the effort you must make in negotia-tions with your opposites. Remember, the more you are able ti useyour nonpreferences, the fewer blind spots you will have in negoti-ation. some examples are provided to getyou started. Followinfthepractice examples is a general filtering approach to use in resoliringconflict caused by personality diffet".r.ei d,rring negotiations.

,, i; "iiIChoose the examples that apply to your personality characteristics,and practice.. I am an introvert. I get angry when someone states the obviousor repeats what has already been said. I need to be patient whennegotiating with people who do this, because they are notintending to annoy me. They are lli{lelqnt from me.o I am an intuitive. I am impatient witn aetuils and I cannot standit when someone cannot see the big picture. I need. to be patientwhen negotiating with a sensor, beciuse details are impoitantto him or her. In order to get through to a sensoa I must presentdetails.o I am a sensor. I can anger people when I interrupt to insert orcorrect facts. when negotiating with an intuitive, I mustremember that we have to discuss more than details. we mustdiscuss goals and broad issues.


o I am an intuitive. When dealing with a sensor, I must be awarethat he or she wants spgg{ilg-Uegtio]rrs and sPecific ansld.ers.r I am a sensor. When dealing with an intuitive, I must be awarethat he or she looks for the meaning of things. I must appreciatethe intuitive's need to think of concepts and to be relational.o I am a sensor. I must replace the word "you" with "I." Ratherthan saying "!our numbers are Hl," I must say, "I looked atit diff eien tly." =-----o I am a judger. I know when I am right. I think about thingsbefore I make uP my mind. I have no tolerance fordisagreement or alternatives. If something is worth doing, it is*orth doing right. I need to recoFnize that my wav is_Irot tt_reonly way. \Mhen nefotiaiinf with perceivers,,I must allow themto have ih"it own views. I must realize that they speak of theirid,eas and perdffTi6TG:Not everything they say represents theirjudgment or final view.. i u^ a perceiver. I can see a! s_idq!o an issue. when I voicealternJtives with a judger, I cieate anger. I must make it knownthat I am contemplating out loud, and I must increase theimportance of resolving issues expeditiously when I negotiatewith a judger.r I am a judfer. When dealing with a perceiver, I must make aneffort to collect and consider new-a-nd addilional informationthat may affect my ultimate decision.o I am a perceiver. I must make a conscious effort to come toclosure on issues.

I

r Privately consider whether the dispute is due in whole or inpart to temperament and personaiity differences or is a conflicton a substantive matter or issue.r If the problem is only one of personality/communicationdifferences, relate to the other Person on his or her terms and inhis or her language.r If conflict periists despite the filtering attempts, determine andagree on what is in disPute.. Then proceed with negotiation on that issue (or proceed withunderstanding that there was not a real dispute)'. If conflict escalates at any time, caII time out.

91

f-


5/19

92 Chapter 6

watching is paying attention to nonverbal clues-body language.Kinesics is the term used to refer to the sfudy of nonverbal com-munication in human interaction. Our emotions and motives arefrequently displayed in our nonverbal behavior. Motives in'this re-gard are our expectancies of pleasantness or unpleasantness. Theactivation of expectancies moves us into action-behaviors. Feel-i.gt, or emotions, also move us to actions. smiiing, frowning, andcrying are obvious examples. Some of these physical actions ar au-tomatic. That is, often we do not consciously decide to take the ac-tion or we are unaware of the action.- It is often possible to obtain information from observing bodylanguage. It is also important to recognize what your body languagemay- be signaling to the other person-your counterpart. you miyneed to guard against unintended communication. Some words ofcaution are in order, however. There are culfural differences in bodymovement and comportment, and people do have habits and idio-slmcrasies that may not have the meanings typically applicable tothose behaviors. In addition, individuals knowledgeable in kinesicsmay purposely attempt to convey a message through body tan-guage. A person can control many actions and expressions thatwould otherwise convey their emotions; however, it is usually notpossible to control for all of the available clues. Nevertheless, in acase of purposive body language, the conclusion you draw from thebehavior may not be appropriate to the situation.Therefore, in order not to be misled, the primary things to watchfor in the behavior of others are two: (1) body language that con-flicts with the verbal message being conveyed and (2) changes inbehavior relative to the situation or the person being observed. Inwatching the behavior of others, your overall guide should be to lis-ten to your inner feelings. Your subconscious reading of the non-verbal clues wiil usually be accurate. With those words of cautionand suggested use in mind, certain elements of body language,along with their typical meaning, are provided in the next section.Drawings depicting some of this language are also presented.

Communicating in Negotiation 93

Anxiety and/or anger 93n be shown by tone of v.9]c9' tension in thei".i, L ti-," tc les, c lenih-qd tee th, clasp in g ou6$td ila te d p up il s' gen-eral body activity rather than stillness, stilt-iffiture, perspiration,short gl#ces, or uieit'est stares. . *'"^-tu?iif "*pr"rffionvey pleasure, anxiety, and relief and aregenerally "uii", to control than gross body movements. However,iook for ih" ir,uppropriate smile *nit" explaining a.problem. For ex-u*pt", a verbai rr,"rrug. explaining u ptobl"m and requesting help,r,uy Uu accompanied 6y a subconsliously generated smile that in-dicates no real conceqr.fg1. p-s.o!u!ion'-- ;t;6ffi;Afiigilil;.p;iil-or puzzrement. The mouth cansignal pleasure or disPleasule.'" \ rhilu a single head nod indicates permission for the other tocontinue talkin[, multiple head nods indicate a desire to speak' Itmay also proviJe a flag that theperson is no longer listening to youand, rather, being focused on what he or she wants to say'A person ioofs more at peopie he or she likes than at those he orshe dlstikes. However, intensegTilg can be used to intimidate andcan be aggressive.nrigfri1ght behind an individuai can create Power for them' Ifyo., ur; r"ut""d in front of the desk of someone whose back is to a|right wind.ow, the physical arrangement creates a Power imbal-urr."" i., favor of the Person behind the desk'Height d.ifferences create Power differentials. The unaided dif-ferencefn height of the individuals creates a differential' The Phy:-ical arrangement, such as variation in chair height, can create suchdifferential. The drawings in Exhibit 6-1 demonstrate effects of ver-tical space differentials.snirty eyes usually do not indicate dishonesty. Usuaily, they in-dicaTe d-u-bmissivene$ o. ,-r1'r*illingness to address an issue' Look-ing off to the left while i"lti"g i story, however' may indicatedeception. Remember that creativity comes^from the right side ofthe brain-the same sid.e that gontrols the left side of the body!Rapid or excessi"e eJ.S-bliiiB.4g may indicate that the person isuncomfortable, "tugg.6[ing, tense, lying, or very alert'BgUli3g gy-gt oii"n.indicates that the person is not acceptingwhat has been explained or Presented. This ian be a clue to the needfor more explanation or Persuasion'Using the lrands to iubstantially cover the face may indicatenonacceptance or a reaction to behavior interpreted as aggressive'


6/19

94

Epiiiii5'iliT+j6$;!il

Chapter 6

Vertical Space lllustrations.

Height power neutralized Woman has height power

- Placing the hands over the mouth while speaking may indicatefear of acceptance,-or it may indicate deception in whit is being said.A significant change in activity, such as substantial reduciion ingeneral body movement or an obvious attempt to make and holdeye contact after generally not having had significant eye contact,may indicate decep_tion. lt may also be an intimidation ploy.Body movementi that are inconsisieni *itn ihe 'spokenword may indicate deception. For example, shaking youi head"No" while saying "Yes" is likely to indilate either leception or49"!cot4rpitm.ent. , ,,, Istroking the chin or placing the knuckles under the chin indi-cates interest. The chin resting in the palm indicates boredom.while touching the bridge of the nose is a sign of concentration,stroking the nose may be 3 sign of exaggeration or lying. (It mayalso be a response to an itch!)when a man brings his hands to his chest, it usually indicatesopenness and sincerity. When a woman brings her hands to herchest, it usually indicates shock.The w{nging or twisting of hands indicates substantial frustra-tion. steepling [he. fingers conveys confidence. The meaning ofother arm and hand positions varies with the direction to which thepalm faces relative to the other person. The drawings in Exhibits 6-2,6-3, and 6-4 provide examples.

Man has height power


Hand Gesturing lllustrations.

95

Eviiiiii.$6'{2

Hand Gesturing lllustrations.

Open and friendlY Open and lriendly


7/19

96 Chapter 6

F.utiiHttilnOHand Gesturing lllustrations

lnoffensive, indicating emphasis Indicating power

sitting on the edge of the chair indicates interest in the conver_sation. Leaning back or putting one,s hands on the back of one,shead indicates either confidence or dominance. It may be aggres_sive behavior.Crossed armsor crossed legs with a closed body position indi_cate a closed or defensive attitude. Drawings presented in Exhibits 6-5and 6-6 depict samples of body demeano-r. 'G,IElectronic communication is becoming more important in negotia_tions. It is prudent to be aware of what has develtped in expre"ssingemotion through electronic forms. The use of all capital letters ex_presses shouting. other symbols are used to express various otheremotions as set forth here:

Colon followed by a close parenthesis is a smile. :-)A colon followed by a forward parenthesis is a frown. :-(;) is a wink. is a grin.

EtFifHiii6

F+Hibff 6-6


Open Body Demeanor lllustrations

Open and relaxed

Closed Body Demeanor lllustrations

Closed and withdrawn Closed and bored Closed and pensive


8/19

98 ChaPter 6

7@ is a yell.;-D is shock.;-e is disappoinfment.

Have you experienced a negotiation during which communicationseemed relatively easy and requirements were clear? Try to identifybriefly what.o.t"tribr.rled to the effectiveness of the communication.. Have you experienced a negotiation during which communica-tion was very difficult or, perhaps, so ineffective that negotiationsbroke down with no resolution whatsoever? Try to identifv brieflvwhat contributed to the difficulties. ' J J- If any portion of your answers to the preceding two questionsrelates to your counterp art's person aLity, temperam6nt, behavior, ordemeanor, identify whether or not those factors are similar or dis-similar to your personality, temperament, negotiating behavior, ordemeanor.Go to a place with which you have little familiarity. Do not talk.Listen and pay special attention to nonverbal behaviois. After mak-ing your observations,,identify how the behaviors affected your in-terpretations and conclusions regarding what you saw.Listen to a friend or associate for two minutes with no talkingon your part. Then try to provide a verbatim account of what wais.aid. Do this again with someone else. Do it again, but increasethe time to four minutes. Do this exercise while yon ut. watching atelevision program. watch the program for two minutes and thentry to provide an account of what was said.

Performance Checklist - *:i*"*r***y,r$ffi$llff $iffi,,Wffi/ Communication is_the process of effectively conveying in-tended meaning. communication is critical for negotiitionsuccess. Communication is complex. Key steps includ-e encod-ing, decoding, and feedback. Noise cun occui during any stepsin the process.z Much noise can be eliminated by understanding ourselves andour opposites and by following rules for speaking and listen,ing and watching body language.


z Filtering techniques will assist us in negotiation communication./ When conflict arises in negotiation, one should assess whetherit is substantive or due to temperament and/or other commu-nication failure, apply filtering techniques to determine theprecise substantive matter in dispute, or call time-out prior toescaiation./ Written negotiation is most vulnerable to unintendedcommunication.Kay#ermseRhnase-Wndfu,nce;ltsCommunicationFilteringWatchingSourceEncodingChannelDecodingReceiverFeedbackKinesicsReuiewlQ,uestions;*ir*s$r$siijMark each of questions L through 3 as Tiue (T) or False (F) and an-swer questions 4 through 10,T F 1. People typically look more at people they like than they doTF 2. at people they dislike.Muttipte head nods by the person to whom you are speak-

ing likely indicates that he or she has stopped listening'Shifty eyes may indicate submissiveness.What are the minimal feafures of conflict?What are the two most important things to rememberabout body language?

TF

6. Name the four general categories of principles foreffective communication.

99

3.A

5.


9/19

100 Chapter 6

7. \Nhy would it be true that we are able to commr.nicatebest with those who are most similar to us?B. Explain the importance of feedback in the negotiationProcess.9. \Alhat one thing can you do to increase uorrr -communication effectiveness in negotiation?10. Critically evaluate your typical body movements duringinteractions with others. \uvhat messages might you besending through your habits?

Gasedwlwjack asked, "How is the southwestern project coming along_?,,Ms. Lee said, "I need to talk to you aboui that." ',I donl want"tol:ur any excuses, just get this project done," ]ack yelled to wei Lee.Ms. Lee said, "Fine. I quit. Do it yourself." Ms. Lesis the senior proj-ect manager and -is in charge of completing a customized trainingprogram for the firm's largest client. Jack was hired from the outlside just two months ago as vice president of rraining. Ms. Lee be-lieves that her credentials are more appropriate anld impressivethan are Jack's. Ms. Lee expected the jbb. she has no alternativeslined up. Jack has already earned a reputation for being harsh ina place where people formerly enjoyed working. The "particularproject in question includes extensive material/course manualpreparation as weli as classroom sessions. Before the interruption,Ms. Lee was attempting to communicate to Jack that the client hadreques-ted a significant variation from what was originaliy con-tracted. The good news that Ms. Lee had to share was thlt the clienthad agreed to double the fee.Gase,lrD lscu ss i o,H;Ou est i o n st. I.y r]u.y rules for effective ristening and speaking has JackDroKen a2. How well has wei handled this conflict? Can you suggest anyaltemative actions that would have been consistent witn gooipractices?3' If you learned that Jack disrikes female professionals, whatadditional insight does that provide regarding communicationdifficulties between him and Ms. Lee? wnut rriight you suggestto Jack?

ee#&MwTo understand what culture isTo appreciate culturai differences in negotiationTo consider potential gender differences in negotiation

aoa

"ll civilization is losurvive, we musl

cullivate thescience of human

relationships-theability ol atl

peoples, of allkinds, to livetogether, in the

same world atpeace. "

Franklin D. Roosevelt

101


10/19

102

ifi i:t6'f tb*'fldittlfi TiW'$fficulture is whatdetermines howpeople behave whenthey are nol beingwalched. "Thomas Tierney, formerCE1, Bain & Company(The Economist,July 27, 2002)

Chapter 7

iji'4culture consists of all of the beliefs, behaviors, and products com-mon to members of a particular group. It includes'oulrres, customs,language, rules, tools, technologies, goods, laws, instifutions, andorganizations. A national culfure is the set of values, beliefs, atti-fudes, and behavioral expectations-or norms-shared by the ma-jorify of individuals residirg ir the counfry.- culture shapes the way individuars think, the way they viewthe world, and the way they interact. Most individuals ire rrrru-u..of the magnitude to which the dominant culture in which they wereraised affects them.Each of us leams norms of behavior that intersect all phases ofour lives. The culture may prescribe acceptable roles by gender aswell as acceptable behavior by gender. The lulture may alsJprescribemany things by race, ethnicity, and other human characteristics.we can think in terms of national culture and many subculturesthereof. There exist subculfures by ethnicity or national heritage,such as Amish settlements or American Indian reservations, for Jx-ample. Subcultures may exist by geographic region as well. Institu-tions and organizations possess culfures of their own that aresubculfures of the country culfure.The culture with which an individual has the most significantcontact is likely to be the culture that most affects that individual,svalues, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Similarlv the dimension ofindividual similarity determines the strength of ihe culture. That is,the less diversity existing within a country or smaller social group,the stronger the culture. A srrong c_ulture places pressure on dirr.i-sity and creates conflict with diversity.\Mhat is written down in institutionai strucfure, laws and regu-lations, and history is referred to as theformal culture. However, c"ut-ture goes beyond that to what is termed the informal culture. Eventhough the informal culture may be more diffiiult to understand, itsignificantly affects behavioral norms and expectations.

A Note on Cultural and Gender Differences

Many d.imensions differentiate cultures at all levels.l Some key di-m"ttiiotrt are noted here due to their relationship to interpersonalinteraction. Those dimensions are time orientation, formality' powerdistance, individualism versus collectivism, and context.Time orientation is a dimension that describes the relative focuso^'tiile. Th" A*&can culture tends to perceive ti$e as importantand scarce. Such view leads to impatience as well as to valuingpunctuality. Eastem culhrres tend toward the opposite.Formality rcferchere to pomp and ceremony, tradition, and for-mal-ru1es.-Relative to other cultures, the American culture israther devoid of such formalities. Latin Americans enjoy pomp andceremony-and formality generally. Middle Eastern, Eastern, andsouthern European culfures favor relatively more formality ascompared to the American culture.the dimension of power distance refers to the degree of social sta-tus stratification embedded in the culture. This dimension may beviewed as high- or low-power distance accePtance. Countries withlow-po,wer distance include the United States, Great Britain,Canida, Austria, Finland, Norway, Ireland, Germany, Sweden,Denmark, and Israel (Hofstede 1980). Countries with high-Powerdistance include Mexico, South Kotea, Japan,lndia, Pakistan, Thai-land, Argentina, frdzil, Chile, France, Spain, Italy, Belgium, andSouth Africa (Hofstede 1980).The conterf dimension refers to the extent to which the context,sifuation, and individuals involved may affect behavior and Tgal-ing in interaction. In a low-context culture such as the United States,u p.rco.r is expected to.say what he or she means and expectsthe meaning to be consistent across situations (Wilson 7992). Low-context cultures include the North American, German, Swiss, Scan-dinavian, and British. In a high-conte.xt culture, context is central tomeaning-nonverbal and subtle cri6s are critical in communication(Borisoff and Victor 1989). High-context cultures include the Chi-nese, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese, Arabian, Greek, and to a lesserextent Spanish and Italian.I One of the most often cited approaches for differentiating cultures is that used by GeertHofstede (1980). Hofstede's sbudy was limited to one large organization, and the dataare now old. The material in this chapter borrows two dimensions and other findings fromHofstede's work-power distance and individualism versus collectivism-but presentsmore recent thinking on cultural differences as well.

103


11/19

104 Chapter 7

The dimension of indiaidualism aersus collectiaism refers to theexpectation and preference for individual effort, benefit, andrecognition versus collective effort, benefit, and recognition.Country cultures that are relatively collectivist include"Japan,Denmark, and singapore (Hofstede 19g0). Country cultures thaiare higher in individualism incrude Greece, Germany, Hungary,-E^grt,,^Hong Kong, and North American countriei (Hofs"tede1980). some researchers consider row-context cultures to be indi-vidualistic and high-context cultures to be collectivist (wilmotand Hocker 2001, 35).

If what is discussed in the preceding section sounds like some of thepersonality traits discussed elsewhere, it should. Culture affects de-velopmentof personality characteristics by placing value on certainbehaviors. For example, a culturar emphasis on tirie scarcity is con_sistent with producing Type A personalities. Capitalistic economiesmay foster development of theType A characteristic.some research has reported ihat low-context curtures generateTu.y internal locus of control ind ividiials;-while,high_coniext ..,t_tures generate external locus of control individuals (lriandis 1980).That is consistent with the high-context person emphasizing pri-vate goals and control in negotiation while the low-context personemphasizes interdependence and group benefit, as noted in thenext section.other research reports that low-context curtures stress linearlogic, whiie high-context cultureb .stress. 11tesrg1r_ve thinking(Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey 19gB). In high-lontext cultures,members rely heavily on inferred meaning wh"ile low-context peo_ple strive hard to find a iiteral meaning (Eorisoff and victo, ig}g,141). This is consistent._with reports thit more than z0 percent ofAmericans are sensors (Kroeger and T'heusen 19Bg). - Iwe should also expect culturai differences in tire need for per_sonal and social power. some research has found that individualsfrom high-context cultures are more willing to use sociai powerto. accomplish goals, at least for the gro.tf (Rarston, cusfufson,Cheung, an{ Je1rstra1993;and Rarstoi, c"rtufson, Terpstra, Holt,Cheung, and Ribbens 1993).

A Note on Cultural and Gender Differences 105

Cross-cultural differences in communication and negotiation are atthe forefront of interest today. Key problems include semantics,connotation, tone, and expectltions. As to semantics, be aware that,o*u word.s do not translite between languages. As to connotations,t" u*u." that word.s may mean different things in different lan-guages and in different settings. As to tone,be aware that in someIult ttes a personal and informal style is preferred while in others arnore formal style is expected. These expectations relate to the gen-eral degree of formality in the culture.ThJse countries high on the formalify dimension identified ear-lier are where u *ot" formal approach is expected. Choosing thewrong style can be embarrassing and insulti.S. L many cultures itis cuJomary to have pers-onal, social discussion prior to and in con-junction wiin busineJs meetings. Such behavior is expected as parttf tfr. formality. Negotiators from less formal cultures, as well asfrom mole time-oriented cultures (such as Americans), are well ad-vised to allow time for necessary formalities. They are also well ad-vised to allow their counterparts from other cultures to be lesspunctual or time focused, and they should allow the other partytimeto come to decision or agreement. Harmonizers and action seekers,as described. in another chaptea are likely to adapt to these culturaldifferences more readily than will controllers and pragmatists'Individual spatial boundaries differ among cultures' When indoubt, maintain a respectable distance and refrain from personalcontact. However, iet your counterpart take the lead in initial greet-ings and in spacial distance. Take your cues from your counterpart'Gift giving, style of dress, and the use of alcohol vary amongcuitures."It is Lest to inquire ahead of time when possible' Be pre-pared for ali options and foilow the examples of your counterpartswhen you are unaware of the rules.In'many collectivist and high-context cultures, self-interest isnot valued. Self-expression that does not further the needs of thegroup may be met with disapproval. In high-context cultures, ag-[r"rrl.r. and direct confrontation may be considered rude or ig-iorant (Borisoff and Victor 1989). Individuals from individualisticcultures, particularly Western cttltures, will find that in negotiat-ing with a counterpart from a high-context culture, particularlyAJian cultures, whit must be stressed is harmony and common/ orgroup, good.

Culturalsensitivity willenhance yournegotiationperformance.


12/19

106 Chapter 7

Negotiators from individualistic cultures typically balance theadvantages and disadvantages of relationships with the perceivedindividual benefit to them. Negotiators from collectivist culturesare fpicaily willing to commit for the benefit of their group, even ifthe action is not most advantageous personally. Negotiators fromcollectivist cultures are more likely to criticize themselves than arethose from individualistic cultures, because collectivists placehigher value on the group than on themselves (Heine, Thkata, andLehman 2000).Based on the research cited earlier, it is likely that many nego-tiators from high-context cultures will use an intuitive approachorexemplify the harmonizer temperament. It appears more likely thatmany negotiators from low-context cultures will use a sensing ap-proach to information and exemplify the pragmatist or actionseeker temperaments,: - - Fale saving is important in all cultures; however, it may be ex-empiified differently by culture. It is widely recognized that facesaving is often paramount in Asian culfures. In those_,cultures, of-fensive, directive, or power-over negotiation may be perceived asloss of face and bring an end to negotiations.It is also widely recognized that being wrong is perceived as los-ing face in Arabian cultures. value is placed on expertise and sup-porting evidence. The nature of face saving in cultures such as thesepresents a greater challenge in using collaborative negotiation thanin other cultures. The solution must in no way be interpretable asinconsistent with the party's position.In all high-context cultures, face saving is very important. sav-ing face includes receiving personal respect and having one's val-ues and beliefs respected. Such values and beliefs includ"e thebelief that interpersonal relations are important and that a stronggroup best guarantees individual benefits (Triandis 1980). It i;good practice to be respectful in all negotiations, even in individ-ualistic cultures,In learning cultural sensitivity, you should also recognizethat the issues discussed in this vein are not relevant only *he.,negotiating across national boundaries. In view of the culturaldiversity in the United states (as well as other countries), theseissues and differences may surface within home borders. wher.-ever they occur, cultural differences can result in communica-tion failures, unnecessary conflict, and failure to come toagreement.


While practicing your communication skills in your quest tobecomea more effective negotiator, you may consider research regardi^gsfyle differences between men and women. There is renewed inter-est in gender differences in communication and negotiation.Some research has concluded that men as a group are morelikely to use conversation to emphasize sJg.g?, k4A*lq,qge, and/orcontrol, while women as a group are more likely to use conversa-ti-oTTo create gnderstanditg and connection between _FtP-utti"t(Tannen 7gg7,flfS). ft-nas atioE-e" t"fottil tltGten wfienacttialbehaviors appear identical, the genders may conceptualize differ-ently (Wilmot and Hocker 2001). Wilmot and Hocker state that menare more likely to see the self as ${epen{gnt, while women tend tosee the self in relatio-nsffipffitive negotiation re-quires a view toward_inlgrdepe.ndence rather than Power over oth-ers. It also requires mutual empathy. According to the research, itmay be that women come to the negotiation task more likely to pos-sess the more effective perspective and approach.Studies also have indicated that in male-female interactions,males tend to dominate the conversation (Wilmot and Hocker2001). Furthermore, studies show that females may be morewilling to trust but are unforgiving of lrust violations (Wilmot andHocker 2001).Gender differences, in sifuations where they truly exist, may re-late to culturalization. That is, in some cultures (such as the UnitedStates), men may perceive an accommodating approach to be weakwhile women may perceive a direct approach as aggressive or in-suiting. Variations in culture create variations in what are presumedto be gender-typed behavior and roles.Craver (2002) compared negotiation performance of male andfemale law students over sixteen years in a law school negotiationcourse. His data suggest that gender does not significantly influ-ence negotiation results. \{hile what is known about gender differ-ences may be little, one thing is certain: Those males whounderestimate their female counterparts do so at their perii!

Pe if o r m a n Ce, oh'd.d k| ift*;,",z Culture is a set of iaws, instifutions, technologies, goods, values,customs, beliefs, language, attitudes, behavioral expectations,

107


13/19

108 Chapter 7and norms shared by the majority of individuals in a country.M*y subculfures exist around ethnicify, heritage, and geog-raphy and in institutions, organizations, and groups.,/ Key dimensions of culture relevant to negotiation includetime orientation, formality, power distance, individualismversus collectivism, and context. Certain cuitural dimensionsmay influence the development of certain personality charac-teristics, such as Type A, locus of control orientation, andsensing versus intuiting. Cultural differences should be rec-ognized and observed in negotiation, particularly as they im-pact style of interaction./ Some research suggests a gender difference in negotiationcommunication style as well,

ff eywTnnmssP*hr,ase-spandffiqn:eeptsCultureNormsTime OrientationFormalityPower DistanceIndividualism versus CollectivismContextHigh-Context Culture versus Low-Context CultureCultural EmphasisCross-Cultural Differences in Communication and NegotiationSemanticsConnotationToneRey,ie-w;'Questiol1s',i.',,'.,.,,'Mark each of questions 1 through 4 as True (T) or False (F) andanswer questions 5 through 10.T F 1. People in collectivist cultures such as china and Israel mayperform better in groups than alone.


T F 2. Culture includes values, customs, language' technology'and more.T F 3. Culture does not impact a person's way of thinking.T F 4. Countries tend. tohave their ownunique culture of business'5. List at least six things that differ by culture with examplesof sPecific cultures.For questions 6 through 10, identify a country you might be in if theshtehent were true in your particular situation'6. Personal questions are not asked in business situations'Privacy of others is highly respected'

7. It is August and most people are on-vacation while theconduci of business slows to a crawl'8. Time is observed' in ,,ishes.,, Meetings regularly begin ahalf hour behind the appointed time'9. Cold calls are considered offensive. Formal introductionsare exPected.

L0. Hugs are not given in Pubiic'Gases*7,@It was reported on Jtrne I1,Igg7 ,by NBC Nightly.Nezus that accord-ing to u ,t.,ay completed, women are genetically predisposed tode"vetoping interpersonal skills such as perceiving the attitudes andneeds of others.GasenB is.eussi o Ra@uest i o n s1. Which personaiity dimensions relate to emotional intelligence,such as sensitivity to the needs of others mentioned in the case?2. Does culture affect development of certain personality charac-teristics bY gender? If so, how?3. Do you think that this phenomenon has changed over time? ln

which countries do you think the conclusion reported in thecase is true todaY?

109


14/19

$&

"00 nol lel whatyou cannol do

inlerlere with whalyou can do."

John Wooden

S$ffiryr,PEnronur.r ao To understand the major types of interests and goalsrelevant in negotiationr To learn how to identify and rank goals in negotiationo To understand that goals change in negotiationr To learn how goals affect your negotiation strategy

110

lnterests and Goals in Negotiation

With this chapter, webegin the first step toward commencing actualnegotiations. Once you have assessed and diagnosed the conflictand identified a potential overall goal to manage or resolve the con-flict through negotiation, you are ready to begin preparation for theinteraction. Yotr-should arrive at this step with some understandit gof your personali ty, styLe, and temperament along with the ability toobserve rules for effective communication and cultural differences.

This chapter describes general types of interests and goals in-volved itt *y negotiation and that exist on all sides of a conflict. Wediscuss how to come to GR/P-how to identify and rank yourinterests and goals as well as the interests and goals of the otherparty or parties. We also explain how interests and goals affect ne-gotiation strategy and how they may change during negotiation.Additiot ul complexities in recognizing and understanding inter-ests and goals are addressed in a separate chapter.

You should identify four types of goals in order to come to GR/Pwith the negotiation challenge. The letter G stands for the substan-tive gain you desire. The letter R stands for the relationship inter-ests and goals you desire or that may be intertwined in thesubstantive issues. The ietter I stands for you in the problem ortransaction-your seif-esteem'and face-saving needs and goals. Th9letter P stands for the Process-your goal regarding the nature andsfyle of the process to be used. Each Tpe of goal is addressed in thefollowing sections.GAIN AspinnrtoNs '''

When a conflict is presented, external things are typically sought bythe parties. It is helpfut to think of these as gain aspirations-thesubJtantive and tangible things sought. Examples of G goals mightbe to complete a project by a specified date, to complete two proj-ects within the same time period, to work half days, to get a Pro-motion or raise, to receive a specified amount of money, to be witha particular person, to sell a particular asset with a certain net cashflow, to generate a certain number of doliars in profits, or to moti-vate someone to work more hours or with more efficiency.Your external, or G goals, are likely to be the easiest to identi$r.You should also attempt to identify G goals held by the other party

111


15/19

112 Chapter 8

or parties to the conflict. It is common, particularly if you tend tohold a negative view toward conflict, to assume that G goals ofothers conflict with your own. That may, indeed, be true. How-ever/ the view that G goals are incompatible is typically a false per-ception. You may be surprised how often the exercise ofhypothesizing potential alternative goals on both sides leads tocommon ground that meets the most valued goals of ail parties.More often than not, people do not want the same things. At a min-imum, you can anticipate that individuals will value and rankthings differently. We introduce empathy and finding commonground later in this chapter and then discuss them further in aIater chapter.

Relationship goals or relational goals are the ones that go to the typeof relationship sought or sought to be maintained. These goals de-scribe the nature and value you desire for the particular relationshipand the particular person or persons involved, respectively, in theconflict. For example, you may desire to build a new friendship orbusiness relationship or to continue an existing one undamaged. Youmay desire not to hurt the other's feelings, because you value thatperson. You may desire the other person to feel your fondness for himor her. You may desire the other person's commitment to your projector to the organization. You may desire your boss to like you and tolike working with you. To distinguish R goals from G go-als,note thatstaying employed may be a C goaI, while the nature and quality of therelationship would be the R goal. You may see from these examplesthat relational goals reflect on all of the individuals in the conflict.You will likely find it more difficult to identify relationalgoals-both yours and the others-than to identify G goals. Oftenrelationship goals masquerade as G goals. The complexities ofperception that are addressed in the next chapter present greaterdifficulties in understanding relationship goals, as well./ Gonls

When considering / goals, /ou are finding yourself in the conflict.Ask "Who am I and where am I in this conflict?" Your self-image,your self-esteem, your ego needs, and your fears will be present tosome extent in every conflict. These goals can be closely related toHor Trp! : :/ goals also oftenmasquerade asG goals,

lnterests and Goals in Negotiation 113

relationshipgoals.Forexample,letushypothesizethatyouhave.,.epared an extensive analysis and recommendation that you ryur.ttfi;;;;t yo", peers or your boss. while there may certainly be ae6d or ltiuirrlrig the lgnggle lesults anticipated in your recom-*u".,aurion, there T, urro rt"ry to be an I goal-of being viewed assmartoreffective.There'''uyu"anlgoalofnotwantingtobSviewed us irr.ompetent or de"ficient in *y *uy. sometimes we al-lowlgoalstoovershadowGgoalstoourlaterregret.Identifying your fears wilfassist yo-li^ identiging your-I goals'Wf",ut utu yt.r lfraia of? Do you fear looking stupid? Do yo,l fear los-ilt D" y'o., feu," getting hurt, either emotionally or tangibly?.Fearsurr?, tn.iufore,I g"ouls riay also relate to types of power. we discusspo*., and fear a't $ulleilength in other chaptersof this book.Other e*umpl""s of I goals"include wanting to be viewed as theoeacemaker or problemiolver, or wanting to be viewed as fair, oril;;;6";;;;" treated unfairly, or wan-ting to be respected-andto be treated with respect. As noted in previous chapters, face-saving is important in all cultures and rises to a level that permeatesthe eritire negotiation Process in some cultures'-^ - i gouts tend to make us inflexible and either avoidant or com-petitive. The resulting competitive behavior is often to attack the

other,s person-to attick hii or her self-esteem. Such behavior is re-active and will *,rr" a spiral of increasingly negative conflict' Inidentifying I goals, the chilienge is to control youl own ego and usethe I gt"6 oi the other towarid constructive ends' Recognize thatotherJneed to feel respected and justified'In a later chapter, we expiainhow to own up to and express yourfeeiings in nono?fensive *uyt. In another chapter, we also explainhow t-o incorporate the other's / goals_ into persuasive arguments'To underscore the importance of Igoals, note that they are used ineffecting resolution of ".r"t the most extreme conflict situations'Face-saving is a primary tool used by hostage negotiators'1Pnocrss'Golus :

process goals describe how you want the interaction to proceed'process includes the approich discussed in an earlier chapter1.or,rtr.r.tive/destructive), the style discussed in an earlier chapteriint. glutirre / distributive), the manner of communica tion, p rocedures'and the voice or participation expected and permitted by ali parties'I See, for example, Rogan and Hammer (1994)'


16/19

114 Chapter 8

Selection of the appropriate process will be affected by the person-alities involved, G goals, R goals, I goals, and the context. youshould ask yourself what process will work most effectively tomanage or resolve this particular conflict. As is further explained inanother chapter, sometimes the process is the first thing requiringnegotiation.The process is important to the interaction in many ways. processis sometimes more important than the actu_a,l tangible outcome. Aprocess perceived as unfair by one party can cause dissatisfactionwith an otherwise acceptable outcome. Procedural justice studiesconsistentiy demonstrate that people are more dissatisfied by whatis perceived to be an unfair process than they are with less than op-timal results derived in what is perceived to be a fair process.2

_The more parties involved, the greater will be the comprexityand number of process choices. For example, in a work team, wiiieveryone receive an equal vote? In a multiparty transaction to benegotiated, does each party get equal time or equal review? processis critical even in negotiations between fwo parties, regardless ofhow simple the substance. If one party leaves the negotiation tablefeeling like he or she was not permitted to fairly present his or herposition or feeling pushed into an agreement, the agreement maynot hold. That paffy may break the agreement, upon which a newconflict will arise.The process may accentuate preexisting power differentials ormay tend to disperse power. Empowering others can be effective ingenerating creativity as well as in developing support and agree-ment. These concepts are addressed further in chapter 10. Theprocess may be directive or competitive. The process may be coop-erative and collaborative.If you hold the ultimate authority along with the responsibilityfor outcome, you have adequate information, and time iJshort, youmight choose a directive process. Sometimes cooperative proceisesinitiated run out of time and call for a directive termination. An ex-ample might be a president's declaration of war. Aiternatively, in acontext where face-saving is of paramount importance, you shouldplace high importance on ensuring a cooperative process viewed asfair by all parties. A good rule of thumb is to design and use col-laborative processes except and only when clear reasons exist notto do so.2 see, for example, LaTour (1978); Lind (1992,1994); Ltnd, Kulik, Ambrose, and De Vera park(1993); Thibaut and walker (1975); Tyler and Lind (1992); and walker, LaTour, Lind. andThibaut (1974\.

Interests and Goals in Negotiation

Once you have identified what you believe to be all interests andgoals involved in the conflict, you must begin to evaluate and rankthem. Look at them critically. Take a systems approach, as explainedelsewhere in this book. Look at interrelationships among goals. Lookat subsidiary goals and interactive rePercussions of attaining goals.

It is necessary to assess the relative value and importance of thegoals. Some types of goals may not exist in some conflicts. For ex-fmple, when yo.t ut" Larter-inf with someone whom you never ex-pect to see again, relationship goals will be virtually nonexistent!This step involves assessing which goals may be incompatibleor, perhaps, the same thing by different names. It may also disclosethat some goals are relatively unimportant. It will help you deter-mine what you truly want and help you to find common groundand trade-offs. It wiil help you begin to think creatively toward res-olution. Once you have evaluated and ranked your goals, you maybegin to develop a coordinated plan.Exercise 8.1As practice in identifying interests and goals, think of your twomost recent negotiation interactions. For each one, seParately, goback to the conflict that triggered the need to negotiate and come toGRIP using the preceding material.

EvllualoruIf you found that you negotiated the wrong thing or used an inap-propriate process, you have perhaps learned something about eval-uating and ranking goals. If you are pleased with your approach andthe result obtained, that is great! You may have found that the goalschanged during negotiation. Alternatively, you may want to recon-sider the approach used and, the results you obtained. The phenom-ena of changing goals and hindsight are discussed in the next section.-r. i /'tiii::1:J j:r;.r :r.:': :lilcfiltxoix6'Goars IGoals may change during and after negotiation. Part of the changephenomenon involves our perceptions and our resolution of psy-chological discomfort, which are addressed in the next chapter.Goals also change and new goals arise in response to new informa-tion during the interaction. Our original goals may Prove to be un-attainable. Our perception of the other party's goals may have been

115

;ri,1.,1;


17/19

116 Chapter 8

incorrect. other assumptions and information used in setting yourgoals may have been incorrect. we address more specifically how todeal with changing goals in later chapters. The following subsec-tions are intended to infroduce you to the changing naturJof goals.

Prospective goals are the ones we hold going into the negotiation.T"y represent specific intentions that *. *urtt to accomfhsh andthat can be communicated.Exercise 8.2Identify the prospective goals from the two interactions in exercise 8.1.Also identify any new goals that arose during the interaction andhow any of your prospective goals changed during the interaction.Now evaluate those changes relative to the o,ltco.r," of the ne-gotiation. Did l goals arise and cause face-saving to dominate yourother goals? Did face-saving on either side cauie deterioration inthe interaction? Did l goals arise on either side due to the processused? Did unanticipated G or R goals arise? Did negotiation failto produce an agreement? what interests and goals are primarilyresponsible for the failure?

EvnuuarrollIf much of the foregoing occurred in your negotiation and no agree-ment was reached, you might look toward more preparatio.r, mo."analysis of your GRIP, and more focus o.r pro.ujs next time. If, onthe other hand, unanticipated goals urosb that accomplished asmuch or more than you originaily sought, one of three things islikely true: (1) you adapted very well and did very well; (2)"youset your goals too low; or (3) your view has changed. we furiheraddress setting goals and adapting to new information in a laterchapter. Reason 3 is discussed in the next subsection.RernospEclvE Gonr_s .Retrospective goals are the most complex. people have a need tomake sense of their behavior and decisions. Sometimes we adjustour perspective retroactively to make ourseives feel better. we maytell ourselves that what we did not get was not important after ailor that what we got is much better.. The phenomenon of developing retrospective goals mayhelp in future interactions. For example, r,tppor" you determinl

One thing isconstant-change.

Krv,Po'trut ',: '::",'We are allMonday morningquarterbacks!

lnterests and Goals in Negotiation

ptrospectively that process was much more important than you thoughtit wal prospectively. In-y_ogq n-ex! neggtiqtion with that person or in asimilarconfext, you can increase the relative value of your P goals.Dweloping Teffobpective goals may also serve libtle functionother than iationalization and intemal face-saving. Care should betaken to keep this phenomenon from creating retaliatory goals forthe next inteiaction as well. Further explanation of this psychologi-cal process is presented in another chapter of this book.

Identifying and ranking your goals and the goals__o{_yourcounteiparts-what we designate here as coming to GRIP-arenecessary in order to develoP your overall plan or negotiation strat-egy. Coming to GRIP is a key ingredient in preparation, as noted inchipter 1,4. Vou need to come to GRIP before making your decisionto avoid, manage, or resolve the conflict. Coming to GRIP enablesyou to choose whether or not to negotiate at all. Il for example, yourR goals in a particular case ale much more important than yourc_p4{y_qg_ mlght choose not to negotiate the G matters at all. Yout"t f"*;-n"gotiution efforts on R goals. As an example, _consideran occasion when your best friend did something you dislike verymuch and you reacted in conflict. If it is something unusual and notlikely to reiur, your primary focus may be on mending hurt feelings.Furthermore, you need your GRIP to know what you want. Be-fore you decide how to get there, you must have a pretty good ideawheie you want to go! Coming to GRIP is a prerequisite to findingcommon ground necessary for a successful outcome in negotiation.Identifying interests and goals requires some understanding of per-ception und po*"r, which are addressed in the next two chapters.After identifying your goais, you should clarify them h a man-ner that can be communicated to and understood by your counter-part. Clarity will be required to assert your interest and goals. Youihould search for common goais---common ground, which is the ba-sis for collaborating and persuading as addressed in other chapters., :'Y: a"r:i '-'i

Thinking of what you want and what your counterpart wants interms of typ.r of goals discussed in this chapter will help yousucceed in negotiation. As noted already, identifying your

117


18/19

118 Chapter 8

counterpTt's goals requires empathy and will likely require morethought than that necessary in identi$zing your own goals. onceyou understand the concepts presented heie, the only riay to mas_ter the skill is to practice. Cases 8.1 through 8.3 at tire "rrd of thi,chapter may be "r:g:r role-prayrng dramitizations as you practicedeveloping your GR/P and your empathy simultaneo,rrly. ^

/ There are four types of goals to be identified in every negotia-tion. These are gain aspirations (G goals), relationship "goals(R goals), ego issues (/ goars), and p*."rt choices 1n goai;y.r It is helpful to identify and rank these goals from the perspec-tive of each party in the conflict.z Goals may change during and after negotiation. sometimesnegotiation should be interrupted to evaluate and addressnew information or a shift in goals. An individual may adjusthis or her goals retrospectivery to make sense of the ,.,ugotiu-tion outcome. Retrospection can, however, assist one to im-prove future negotiation performance.,t The step of identifying and ranking goals enables you to cometo GR/P with your negotiation chailenge. It provides informa-tion necessary for the choice and development of appropriatestrategies. It also facilitates finding common grorrr,^a t'hat iscritical to collaborating for mutual Jatisfaction.l(ey'.xTenmS;xRh:ras-esisandli@oneeptsGain AspirationsRelationship GoalsI GoalsProcess GoalsProspective GoalsRetrospective GoalsRgvi gwiiQ uestio ns i:,-,,: ::,r, ;-r rMark each of questions 1 through 4 as True (T) or Farse (F) and an-swer questions 5 through 10.T F 1' The substantive, tangibre things I want are G goals.T F 2. My ego in the fransaction or issue generates I goals.

Interests and Goals in Negotiation

T F 3. The relationships between or among individuals who arenegotiating generate R goals.T F 4. The way I plan or anticipate the negotiation to unfold com-prises P goais.5. \iVhich of the fwo types of goals are easily confused?6. \Alhich two types of goals are most difficult to identi$r?7. \Mhat might you do to improve your skill in identifying

the interests and goals of others?B. \Alhat care must you take regarding relrospective goals?9 and 10. Fill in the blank: I must come to GRIP before Idecide whether to ---- ,

-,

otresolve a conflict.

GaseSMBuvrNc a Gusstc CnRAssume that one Parfy has always wanted a particular make, model,and color of car. Now that party is prepared to purchase it and hasfound the car of his or her dreams offered for sale by the owner. Aseach party (the buyer and the owner), come to GRIP with the negoti-ation-chailenge they decide what type of slrategy is appropriate foreach. (You should fill in the car details that are fondest to your heart!)Gas-exB"is-eu ssi onx.Q u"est i o n sL. What are the interests and goals of each patty?2. Is there anything that either or both parties may want to avoid?3. How may either or both parties collaborate for mutual success?

Gas,eri8r2,w*mmgmYsrr.ti*lxiw*nNew BustttEss Reualousrttp ScENlRtoOne party's work organization, based in Washington, D.C., has."c"t-rtly begun a project in Wichita, Kansas. The project will requirefifteen to twenty employees to travel to Kansas and spend, on aver-age, three weeks in residence there. It is expected that the project*ill rputt a period of nine months to completion' This first party haslocated an apartment complex nearby the location where theproject work will be done. The apartment complex has traditionally

119

.rfl


19/19

120 Chapter 8

required minimum lease terms of one year but does have a few va-cancies. The organization desires to have its people in this apart-ment complex rather than in hotels..@s#),i:sc,ursSiro.naGlue-st i o n s1. How would you identify and rank the interests and goals ofeach party?2. What common ground can you find between the parties?3. what sfrategy would you use as the organization's representa-tive? what strategy would you use as the apartment comprexrepresentative?

@asex8x$wPReruuprrnl AcReeruerurTwo romantic partners have decided to tie the knot. one has spenta great number of years in a very financially lucrative career and hassubstantial net worth and positive cash flow. The other has spent anequal number of years working hard as a dedicated teacher ind haspaltry savings and little extra regular cash flow, Both desire to agreeon how living expenses will be shared, how parenting duties will bedivided (if that should arise), and how things will be divided andorganized upon the unlikely event that they separate or one experi-ences an untimely death. Analyze how each party comes to GRIpwith the negotiation challenge and what each party's overall strat-egy might be.Gase,',Di scu ssj.o n,l.Qu est i o n s1. Can you identrfy any critical differences in the goals of the par-ties? Are there any real incompatibilities?2. what strategy do you suggest each party use in the negotiation?3. How directive might either party be, if at all?

t$ls*

PEnronmucE CoMpFIENclEs FoR THF CHAPTERo To understand basic psychological principles of perceptionr To learn how individual differences affect perceptiono To recognize that there are differences between self andothers' percePtionso To learn how perception affects attitude, goals, anddecisions in negotiation

"ll's not whal wedon'l know that

gives us trouble;it's what we know

that ain't so."WillRogers

121

book chapters 6-8

Documents