brain function and adult learning
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A Review of Brain Function and Adult Learning: Implications for PracticeJonathan West ADLT 603, Spring 2010 Instructional Strategies for Adult Learners Virginia Commonwealth University Dr. Gretchen Schmidt Due: 11 Mar 2010RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative ProcessOverview of article The article “Brain function and adult learning: Implications for practice” by Kathleen Taylor (2006TRANSCRIPT
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
A Review of
Brain Function and Adult Learning:
Implications for Practice
Jonathan West
ADLT 603, Spring 2010
Instructional Strategies for Adult Learners
Virginia Commonwealth University
Dr. Gretchen Schmidt
Due: 11 Mar 2010
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
Overview of article
The article “Brain function and adult learning: Implications for practice” by Kathleen
Taylor (2006) seeks to connect the functioning of the brain with adult learning methods primarily
associated with meaningful learning. The author defines meaningful learning and then examines
different learning practices and conditions which she suggests contribute towards it. The
practices the author explores in this context are constructivism and experiential learning;
narrative, journals, autobiography, and writing-to-learn; nonveridical learning; and
transformational learning and reflection. The author then reviews the role of emotion and how it
can influence learning and explores the act of teaching as care.
Meaningful Learning
Taylor references neuroscience’s observation that learning at the synaptic level is always about
creating lasting neural connections or memory. She notes that this definition could also apply to
behavioral training involving stimulus and reward as well as learning involving the creation of
meaning through self-reflection. The author chose to focus on meaningful learning, specifically
learning that promotes greater cognitive complexity, “in other words, learning that changes not
just what people know but how they know” (original emphasis, Taylor, 2006, p. 72) Taylor’s
interest is in changes that go beyond the acquisition of specific content for a learner and connect
with the overarching goals of adult learning. Some of these goals are described as the realization
that knowledge is constructed rather than gotten or given; the understanding that development
and learning are valuable life-long aspirations; and the capacity to examine one’s own beliefs.
Taylor suggests that educators that have a developmental interest will be better able to help their
learners comprehend and take effective action to the challenges and conditions of a global world.
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative ProcessA key premise for the article is that recent findings in brain research appear to link best practices
in adult learning to the following practices.
Constructivism and Experiential Learning
Recent brain research (although there are opposing views) confirms the basic premise of
constructivism – that learning is formed in the mind of the learner. While there are many
elements from the outside that contribute such as lectures, books, and media as well as
sociocultural influences, Taylor suggests that if such “data are not connected to neural networks
as meaningful information they are not really learned, in the sense that information is useful for
little but recall” (Taylor, 2006, p. 73). Data that have limited meaning, and therefore limited
neural pathways, are most often only accessible for recall for a short timeframe. There are
exceptions to this generalization found in rote learning like math tables or mnemonics. However,
in order for learning to be meaningful and lasting together, according to how the brain represents
images, it should be experienced.
Taylor then connects neuroscience’s view on the brain’s architecture suggested by James
Zull to David Kolb’s learning cycle. Zull portrays the brain design that supports four
cornerstones of learning which he calls “gathering, reflecting, creating, and testing” (Taylor,
2006, p. 73). Zull’s four pillars correspond to the four stages in Kolb’s learning cycle, concrete
experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Zull
suggests, “a teacher must start with the existing networks of neurons in a learner’s brain, because
they are the physical form of her prior knowledge” (in Taylor, 2006, p. 73). This first step
corresponds with Kolb’s stage of concrete experience.
However, most instructors introduce new content to adult learners in a way that seems
more like a literature review – starting with the big picture, placing it in context with the wider
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Processfield of their expertise, and then focusing on specifics. They then show the connections to
previous course material and relate it to what will follow. In such cases, rather than concentrating
on what the learner understands, instructors concentrate on what they themselves understand, and
assume that the learner is moving in that direction. In these situations the learner’s concrete
experience is likely just listening to the instructor make meaning. Taylor points out that “if adult
learners are not given the opportunity to create such an experience or encouraged to find existing
connections that they can build on, they may revert to treating the material as something to be
memorized rather than understood” (Taylor, 2006, p. 74).
Research suggests that the brain symbolizes experience and that doing comes before
understanding, especially in the development of thought. Interactions with the world through our
biological, psychological, and social systems do not entail direct transmission of information.
First we much make meaning of the information before it develops into our own. Taylor suggests
that based on the findings of brain functioning, it would be more effective to start with an
experience than starting with the instructor’s ‘big picture’. This would allow the adult learner to
‘back into’ new material rather than confront it head-on with very little context (Taylor, 2006).
A thoughtfully structured activity facilitated by the educator could allow the learners to
draw out a framework from their common experience that informs an assignment to read relevant
theories on a subject. The course texts or materials would then become an expansion of the
learning already embodied, first from their own experience and then from the shared experience
of the facilitated class activity. Such and experience that anticipates connections between what
adult learners know already – that is, what they have experienced through their bodies and minds
– and new material is more probable to help them move from passive to active readers. In a
sense, their synapses have been primed so further study is more than just a task, but rather likely
to be of interest (Taylor, 2006).
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative ProcessPeople who already have an expertise of a specific subject would have extensive neural
networks based on prior experiences and it could be just as effective to connect to new
information through listening to a lecture, reading, or even just thinking as having a more
concrete experience. As a result of this the author proposes that experienced-based learning
strategies are not confined to introducing new material. Learning can be enhanced by activities
that utilize tacit or prior knowledge. One category of such activities is founded on personal
narrative and writing-to-learn (Taylor, 2006).
Narrative, Journals, Autobiography, and Writing-to-Learn
Taylor looks at the four teaching and learning tools of narrative, journals, autobiography,
and writing-to-learn a group because they all are characterized by learning through articulation.
These four approaches are considered forms of the narrative process. The article links these
approaches to how the brain changes and learns. The focus in this section points out how
narrative based learning methods build and rebuild neural networks integrating thoughts,
feelings, sensations, and behaviors. One feature of these approaches is to increase self awareness
through making explicit aspects of the self that were previously implicit or hidden. As a result
more inclusive and flexible ways of knowing are developed. Another feature of using one of the
forms of narrative is that by telling and retelling our stories there is the possibility of editing our
narratives and potentially finding new ways of experiencing ourselves and our lives. By telling a
different story there is the possibility of changing perceptions of the self. This can be a powerful
influence on the way we are and who we become (Taylor, 2006).
Nonveridical Learning
The author points out that most teaching concentrates on veridical learning or getting the
correct answers to problems which have been designed for that purpose. Brain research suggests
that getting precise answers uses a different part of the brain than choices involving
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Processinterpretation, approximation, and comparison. Looking for exact answers uses the part of the
brain associated with memory and the concrete past. Whereas exploring open-ended problems
with many possible solutions – the kinds of problems likely to occur in the real world – requires
reflection and uses a part of the brain that makes choices, plans, and decisions and looks
imaginatively towards the future which. Using approaches such as case studies and problem-
based learning that include reflection on learning as a process are likely to increase neural
network development (Taylor, 2006).
Transformational Learning and Reflection
Neuroscience assumes that optimal health and functioning are linked with the
communication and integration of neural systems dedicated to sensation, cognition, behavior,
and emotion. Psychology considers that integration is the capacity to experience life using a
minimum of defensiveness. According to Mezirow, transformational learning can lead to points
of view that are increasingly, “inclusive, discriminating, and integrative of experience [as well as
open] to alternative perspectives” (Mezirow in Taylor, 2006, p. 79).
Transformational learning focuses on practices that make meaning based on discourse
and critical reflection. A significant aspect of such reflective learning is to discover and challenge
one’s own and others assumptions as a stage in developing new meaning perspectives. New
meaning perspectives can lead to more complex ways of knowing and understanding.
Neuroscience suggests that the process of developing new meaning most likely occurs in the
‘executive brain’ where it can manipulate and transform models of the world it has created. The
work of questioning assumptions is different than simply acquiring knowledge or modifying
behavior. It can ultimately lead to more compelling choices for a learner. However, developing
different perspectives is often in contrast to the continuity that is prized by communities,
cultures, and families.
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative ProcessA key factor in transformational learning that develops more complex neural functioning
and thinking is to reflect on and question presuppositions. Taylor suggests that learning situations
must be constructed to include such premise reflection. In today’s world of constant change and
challenge learning that is meaningful, substantive, and lasting and can alter how people
understand themselves and their world. This type of learning can be a transformative catalyst,
bringing a learner into greater self-awareness and greater awareness of their relation to the wider
world (Taylor, 2006).
The Role of Emotion and Teaching as Care
Brain research suggests that emotions are integrally connected with learning. If the brain
is activated in a positive way, emotions can enhance learning. However, if there is perceived
threat then emotions will be activated that will cause the brain to be less available for learning.
Long-term memory is especially influenced by emotions. Memory is the representation of
emotion connected with experience. If negative emotions such as anxiety or defensiveness are
present, the neural networks connected with the higher brain functions will not perform
effectively. If higher brain functions are not working the possibility for changes in our ways of
knowing are limited. “A safe and empathic relationship establishes emotional and
neurobiological context conducive to the work of neural reorganization. It serves as a buffer and
scaffolding within which [an adult] can better tolerate the stress required for neural
reorganization” (Cozolino in Taylor, 2006, original emphasis, p. 82).
Larry Daloz characterizes the relationship of learner and teacher in the following account:
“When we no longer consider learning to be primarily the acquisition of knowledge, we can no
longer view teaching as the bestowal of it. If learning is about growth and growth requires trust,
then teaching is about engendering trust, about nurturance – caring for growth. Teaching is thus
preeminently an act of care” (Daloz in Taylor, 2006, p. 82). However, this nurturance and care
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Processneeds to involve adequate challenge. The nurturing atmosphere is also described as a ‘holding
environment,’ the environment on which all development relies (Taylor, 2006).
My reaction to the article
I found the article to be fascinating in that it helped to connect some different areas of
interest and experiences that I have had. I have had an ongoing interest in experiential and
transformative learning as well as the reflective process and the importance of positive climate.
While the literature has espoused the value of these practices and there has been research to
support these ideas, neuroscience seems to give more substance to the relevance of and
interrelatedness of each.
For example, I have used a modified Kolb cycle in the design of some experiential
learning activities. The piece mentioned in the article about having learner’s connect with their
prior experience before introducing new material or concepts confirmed some of my own
experiences. I have found that creating an activity that connects an individual learner with their
own prior experience as well as the experiences of others in the group, helps to engage learners
in an active way and prepare them for exploring new material. I have also seen that creating an
atmosphere of respect and trust seems to allow learners to be more open to alternate perspectives
and even question their own assumptions. While adult learning theory and literature proposes
some of the points made in the article, I often had intuitive evidence based on my own
experience of the value.
While it is encouraging to find the research in neurobiology to support key principles of
adult learning relating to deeper meaning making, I do have a little hesitancy in fully accepting
the articles conclusions, despite my own interest. I think this questioning encourages my interest
to read some the recently published findings on the neurobiology of learning and also see if there
are any opposing views.
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RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
How I can use the information in my teaching
There are several ways I can use the information in Taylor’s article in my teaching. The
first would to consider how to include more experiential activities in curriculum design. A
second point that I will take from this article is to incorporate the questioning of premises,
discussion, and critical reflection into learning events. Another key idea that I will explore how
to utilize is the use of various forms of narrative. The last main point is to consider further how
to put into practice teaching as an act of care. A important aspect to see that any of the above
interests actually come to some fruition is for me to engage in critical self-reflection.
I know that I have interests in putting into action the practices mentioned above,
however, I realize that there may be some of my own assumptions or presuppositions that could
hinder this interest. The continued practice of discussion, critical reflection, and critical self-
reflection will help to ensure the possibility of incorporating some of the practices from Taylor’s
article in the portfolio of curriculum design options.
References
Taylor, K. (2006). Brain Function and Adult Learning: Implications for Practice. New Directions
for Adult and Continuing Education,110, p.71-85. DOI: 10.1002/ace.221