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BreedingUniformityandBankingDiversity:TheGenescapesofIndustrialAgriculture,1935–1970
acceptedforpublicationinGlobalEnvironment,August2016
HelenAnneCurry
DepartmentofHistoryandPhilosophyofScienceUniversityofCambridge
FreeSchoolLane,CambridgeCB23RH,[email protected]
ABSTRACT: In the mid-twentieth century, American agriculturists began to fret about agrowingthreattokeyeconomiccrops:thelossorextinctionofmanifold localvarieties,orlandraces, resulting from the displacement of these in cultivation by recently introducedvarietiesthatwerebettersuitedforindustrial-styleagriculture.Manybreedersconsidereddiverselandracestobeavaluable,andindeedessential,sourceofgeneticmaterialfortheircrop improvement efforts—and therefore an essential resource for the very system ofagricultural production that appeared to threaten their continued existence. This paperexploreshowknowledgeof thisdilemma—that is, therelianceof industrialagricultureongeneticdiversitythatittendstodestroy—shapedeffortstoconservebiologicaldiversityandsimultaneously shapedthe landscapesandgenescapesof twentieth-centuryagriculture. Ittakes maize (corn) as its central example, as it was changes in the landscapes of maizeproduction,firstintheUnitedStatesandthenacrossLatinAmerica,whichspurredanearlyinternational collaboration for thepreservationof cropgeneticdiversity.As it showswithreferencetothisprogramandsubsequent internationaldevelopments intheconservationofcropdiversity,thetechnologyofthe'seedbank'wasconsideredacrucialadditiontothetechnologies of industrial agricultural production. Itwas understood to allowbreeders tocontinueresponsiblyinthecreationofhigh-yieldingbutecologicallyvulnerableinbredcropsby lessening the perceived risks inherent in the un-diverse landscapes of industrialmonocropagriculture.KEYWORDS:biodiversity,geneticconservation,industrialagriculture,maize,seedbank
Inthemid-twentiethcentury,Americanagriculturistsbegantofretaboutagrowing
threattokeyeconomiccropssuchasmaize(corn),wheat,andbarley:thelossorextinction
ofgeneticallydiversevarieties.AstheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)plant
explorerHarryHarlanandbotanistMaryMartinidescribedin1936,breedershad'every
reasontofeelgratified'attheirprogressincreatingimprovedcropsandconvertingfarmers
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totheuseofhigheryieldingvarieties.1Andyettheyharboredconcernaboutaproblem
createdbytheseverysuccesses.'Inawayweloseevenwhenwegain',theywroteofbarley
breeding,whichwastheirownspecialty.'Ouroldvarieties…containedalargenumberof
forms.Thepossibilitiesoffindingadditionalstrainsofmeritinthesevarietiesarefarfrom
exhausted.Buttheacreageplantedtothemisshrinkingrapidly.Itwillbedifficultto
maintainthisparticularreservoirofgermplasminitsentiretyagainstthedaywhenwemay
wantit.'Ifthroughneglecttheoldervarietiesdisappeared,thenbreedersinthefuture
wouldbedeprivedofthepotentiallyusefultraitstheirgenesmighthaveconferred.Harlan
andMartini'sconcernsextendedbeyondthelossofoldAmericanvarietiestothose
traditionallycultivatedinAfrica,Asia,andEurope.'Theprogeniesofthesefieldswithall
theirsurvivingvariationsconstitutetheworld'spricelessreservoirofgermplasm',but
increasedcommunicationandtrademeantthatlong-cultivatedvarietieswerebeing
replacedwithimportedimprovedseeds.Thesolution,intheirview,wastocreatea
collectionwhereseedsofthehundredsofbarleyvarietiesthathadenteredtheUnited
Statesthroughtheworkofplantexplorersandotherscouldbe'preservedwithoutloss'for
theuseoffuturebreeders.2
TheviewsarticulatedbyHarlanandMartiniin1936hadalreadybeenputforward
decadesearlier,forexamplebytheAustro-HungarianagronomistEmanuelvonProskowetz
whoreportedonthepotentialhazardsoflosinglocallandracestotheInternational
AgriculturalandForestryCongressinViennain1890andbytheGermangeneticistErwin
Baurwhoasearlyas1914expressedaworryaboutthelossofvarietiesnotonlyinEurope
1Inbarley(HarlanandMartini'ssubject),suchvarietiesincludedbothhomozygouslinesofestablishedlandracesandhybridtypescreatedbycrossingtwoestablishedvarietiesandthenselectingsuperiorprogeniesinsubsequentgenerations.2H.V.HarlanandM.L.Martini,'ProblemsandResultsinBarleyBreeding',inYearbookofAgriculture1936,pp.303–46(Washington,DC:USGovernmentPrintingOffice,1936),quotationsonpp.315–17.
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butaroundtheworld.3Suchconcernsgrewstrongerandmorewidespreadovertime,as
relianceonimprovedcommercialvarietiesbecamethenorminever-morecountriesandas
breedingtechniquesandagriculturaltechnologiesspurredtheproductionofever-more
uniformcrops.Bythe1970s,agriculturalistsfrettedasmuchabouttheincreased
vulnerabilityofnarrowlybred,high-yieldingcommercialvarietiesinaworldwithdecreased
'geneticresources'astheydidaboutdisappearanceofso-calledindigenousvarietiesand
landracesthemselves.Bothcouldbeseenasendangered.4
Inthispaper,Iexplorehowknowledgeofthisdilemma—thatis,therelianceof
industrialagricultureongeneticdiversitythatittendsitselftodestroy—shapedeffortsto
conservebiologicaldiversityandsimultaneouslyshapedthelandscapesandgenescapesof
twentieth-centuryagriculture.AswithHarlanandMartini,manybreeders'preferred
solutiontothepossiblelossofpotentiallyvaluablegenetictypeswasnottomaintainthese
incultivationbuttogatherseedsofthesevarietiesandarrangefortheirindefinitestorage
atseedstoragefacilities,todaycalled'seedbanks'or'genebanks'.Thecreationofthese
facilities,completewithtechnologiesforcleaning,packagingandstoringseedin
refrigeratedchambers,facilitatedthemigrationofgeneticdiversityincropplantsfromfarm
3ChristianO.Lehmann,'CollectingEuropeanLand-RacesandDevelopmentofEuropeanGeneBanks–HistoricalRemarks',DieKulturpflanze29,no.1(Feb.1981):29–40.30.FormoreonvonProskowetzandthechangesinplantbreedingandagriculturalproductionthatcontributedtohisinterestincollectinglandraces,seeJonathanHarwood,Europe'sGreenRevolutionandOthersSince:TheRiseandFallofPeasantFriendlyPlantBreeding(London:Routledge,2012),37–50,esp.45–47.4ThefullesthistoricalaccountofinterestinplantgeneticresourcesisR.PistoriusandJ.VanWijk,TheExploitationofPlantGeneticInformation:PoliticalStrategiesinCropDevelopment(Wallingford:CABI,1999).SeealsoRobinPistorius,Scientists,Plants,andPolitics:AHistoryofthePlantGeneticResourcesMovement(Rome:IPGRI,1997);TimothyFarnham,SavingNature'sLegacy:OriginsoftheIdeaofBiologicalDiversity(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2007),ch.4;MariannaFenziandChristopheBonneuil,'From"GeneticResources"to"EcosystemServices":ACenturyofConcernsandGlobalPoliciestoConserveCropDiversity',Culture,Agriculture,FoodandEnvironment,forthcoming.
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fieldstolaboratories,fromgeographicallyscatteredcultivationsitestocentralizedscientific
centers.5
Althoughlongoverlookedinhistoricalaccountsoftwentieth-centuryscienceand
agriculture,seedbankshavebeguntoreceivegreaterattention.Inrecentpublications,for
example,historianshavechartedthedevelopmentofseedcollectionsasnew'cosmopolitan
commons'inpost-warEurope,examinedbreeders'interestinestablishingsuchcollections
asarchivesofgeneticdiversity,andtracedtheemergenceoftheconservationof'genetic
resources'anobjectofinternationalconcerninthe1960sandsubsequenttransformations
ofthisconcernininternationalarenas.6
HereIexaminethedualroleofseedbanksasagriculturaltechnologies,emerging
afterWorldWarIIasessentialelementsofthetechnologicalassemblageofindustrial
agriculturalproduction,andasconservationtools,envisionedasthebestwaytoprevent
thelossofendangeredagriculturalplants.Ifocusonmaize,asitwaschangesinthe
landscapesofmaizeproduction,firstintheUnitedStatesandthenacrossLatinAmerica,
whichspurredanearlyinternationalcollaborationforthepreservationofcropgenetic
diversityandthecreationofseveralearlylong-termseedstoragefacilities.AsIshowwith
referencetothispan-Americanprogram,thetechnologyoftheseedbankwasconsidereda
crucialadditiontothetechnologiesofindustrialagriculturalproduction,onethatlessened
theperceivedrisksinherentintheun-diverselandscapesofindustrialmonocropagriculture.
Byenablingthelong-termconservationofvarieties,seedbankswerethoughttoallow5AsimilarperspectiveisfoundinThomVanDooren,'BankingSeed:UseandValueintheConservationofAgriculturalDiversity',ScienceasCulture18,no.4(Dec.2009):373–95.6SeeTiagoSaraiva,'BreedingEurope:CropDiversity,GeneBanks,andCommoners',inNilDiscoandEdaKranakis(eds.),CosmopolitanCommons:SharingResourcesandRisksAcrossBorders,pp.185–211(Cambridge:MITPress,2013);SaraPeres,'SavingtheGenePoolfortheFuture:SeedBanksasArchives',StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencePartC:StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences55(Feb.2016):96–104;FenziandBonneuil,'From"GeneticResources"to"EcosystemServices"'.Foranearlierhistoricalaccount,seeLehmann'CollectingEuropeanLand-Races'.
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breederstocontinueresponsiblyintheircreationofhigh-yieldingbutecologically
vulnerableinbredcropsasthesedisplacedmorediverseprogenitorsinfarmfields.
Thispaperbringstogethertwohistoriesthat,despitetheirdeepentanglement,are
rarelytoldasone.7Thehistoryofagricultureinthetwentiethcenturyisastoryof
industrializationandtechnologization,oftencharacterizedbyemphasisontheincreasing
homogeneityofagriculturalpractices—andagriculturalorganisms—acrossregionsand
nationsandthenaroundtheworld.8Inmanyrecentcases,scholarshavechartedthe
destructiveconsequencesofthisprocess(betheysocialorenvironmental)andimplicated
agriculturalexpertsofmanystripesinitsunfolding,includingbreeders,entomologists,soil
scientists,economists,waterengineers,andstillothers.9Thehistoryofbiological
7Thoughtherearenottomyknowledgedetailedaccountsthatbringtogetheragricultureandtheconservationofbiologicaldiversityasalignedactivities,thereareaccountsthatconsideragricultureanditsrelationshiptoresourceconservation,suchaswaterandsoilconservation.OntheU.S.case,see,e.g.,NeilMaher,Nature'sNewDeal:TheCivilianConservationCorpsandtheRootsoftheAmericanEnvironmentalMovement(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007);SarahT.Phillips,ThisLand,ThisNation:Conservation,RuralAmerican,andtheNewDeal(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007).Forashortreflectiononthelinkbetweendiminishinggeneticdiversityinindustrialagriculturalanimalbreedsandeffortstopreservegeneticdiversityintheseanimals,seeJoannaRadin,'PlanningforthePast:CryopreservationattheFarm,Zoo,andMuseum',inFernandoVidalandNéliaDias(eds.),RoutledgeEnvironmentalHumanities:Endangerment,Biodiversity,andCulture,pp.218–240(Florence,KY:TaylorandFrancis,2015),viaProQuestebrary.8JamesC.Scott,SeeingLikeaState:HowCertainSchemestoImprovetheHumanConditionHaveFailed(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2008),ch.8.SurveysofglobalagriculturalchangethatcoverindustrializationincludeMarcelMazoyerandLaurenceRoudart,AHistoryofWorldAgriculture:FromtheNeolithicAgetotheCurrentCrisis,translatedbyJamesH.Membrez(London:Earthscan,2006);MarkB.Tauger,AgricultureinWorldHistory(Abingdon,UK:Routledge,2011).UsefulstartingpointsonagriculturalindustrializationintheUnitedStatesareDeborahFitzgerald,EveryFarmaFactory:TheIndustrialIdealinAmericanAgriculture(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2003);J.L.Anderson,IndustrializingtheCornBelt:Agriculture,Technology,andEnvironment,1945–1972(DeKalb:NorthernIllinoisUniversityPress,2008);PaulK.Conkin,ARevolutionDownontheFarm:TheTransformationofAmericanAgriculturesince1929(Lexington:UniversityofKentuckyPress,2008).9See,e.g.,onbreeding,DeborahFitzgerald,TheBusinessofBreeding:HybridCorninIllinois,1890–1940(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1990);JackKloppenburg,Jr.,FirsttheSeed:ThePoliticalEconomyofPlantBiotechnology,1492–2000,2nded.(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,2004).Onchemistryandsoilscience,seeVaclavSmil,EnrichingtheEarth:FritzHaber,CarlBosch,andtheTransformationofWorldFoodProduction(Cambridge:MITPress,2004);HughS.Gorman,TheStoryofN:ASocialHistoryoftheNitrogenCycleandtheChallengeofSustainability(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2013).Onentomology,seeJoshuaBluBuhs,TheFireAntWars:Nature,Science,andPublicPolicyinTwentieth-CenturyAmerica(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2004);PeteDaniel,ToxicDrift:PesticidesandHealthinthePost-WorldWarIISouth(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,2007).Onwaterworks,seeJohnOpie,Ogallala:WaterforaDryLand,2nded.(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2000).Historiesofagriculturalassistancemayoftenbegeneralizedinthesameway;see,e.g.,DeborahFitzgerald,'ExportingAmericanAgriculture:The
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conservationrecountsthestrugglesofscientists,especiallyinthelatertwentiethcentury,
againstthisveryindustrializationandhomogenization,ofeffortstosaveuniqueplants,
animals,andecosystemswherevertheirexistencehasbeenthreatened.10Itisahistoryin
which,untilrecently,littleaccountwasgivenoftheroleoftechnologiesexceptasthingsto
beralliedagainst.11ThestorythatItellherereversesthesemoretypicalperspectives.On
theonehand,itisahistoryofagriculturethatemphasizesagriculturalscientists'knowledge
ofandeffortstomitigatethepotentiallydestructiveconsequencesoftheirown
homogenizingactivities.Ontheotherhand,itisahistoryofbiologicalconservationthat
callsattentiontohowconservationmightunderwritefurtherindustrializationandinfact
hastenthedestructionoflivingbiodiversity,includingthroughthepromotionofnew
technologicalsolutions.
RockefellerFoundationinMexico,1943–1953',SocialStudiesofScience16,no.3(Aug.1986):457–83;JosephEugeneCotter,TroubledHarvest:AgronomyandRevolutioninMexico,1880–2002(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003);NickCullather,TheHungryWorld:America'sColdWarBattleAgainstPovertyinAsia(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2010).10ThehistoryofbiologicalconservationafterWorldWarIIisoftentoldthroughthehistoryofeffortstosavewildanimalsandplaces.ForthishistoryintheUnitedStates,see,e.g.,ThomasDunlap,SavingAmerica'sWildlife:EcologyandtheAmericanMind,1850–1990(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1991);FrederickR.Davis,TheManWhoSavedSeaTurtles:ArchieCarrandtheOriginsofConservationBiology(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007);MarkV.Barrow,Jr.,Nature'sGhosts:ConfrontingExtinctionFromtheAgeofJeffersontotheAgeofEcology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2009);EtienneBenson,WiredWilderness:TechnologiesofTrackingandtheMakingofModernWildlife(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2010);KristofferWhitney,'AKnotinCommon:Science,Values,andConservationintheAtlanticFlyway'(PhDdissertation,UniversityofPennsylvania,2012);PeterAlagona,AftertheGrizzly:EndangeredSpeciesandthePoliticsofPlaceinCalifornia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2013).11Recenthistorieshavebeguntoexploretherelianceofconservationbiologistsontechnologiessuchassurveillancetoolsandcaptivebreedingtechniquesandtochartthecomplicationstheseentailfortheprotectionofwildanimals.See,e.g.,PeterAlagona,'BiographyofaFeatheredPig:TheCaliforniaCondorConservationControversy',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology37,no.3(Oct.2004):557–83;Benson,WiredWilderness;KristofferWhitney,'DomesticatingNature?:SurveillanceandConservationofMigratoryShorebirdsinthe"AtlanticFlyway"',StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencePartC:StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences45(Mar.2014):78–87.Theimplicationofautomobilesinwildernessaccessandadvocacyoffersadifferentperspectiveontheintersectionoftechnologyandconservationactivities;seePaulS.Sutter,DrivenWild:HowtheFightAgainstAutomobilesLaunchedtheModernWildernessMovement(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2002).
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Improvementandimperilment
Seedcollectingandsavingareactivitieswithlonghistories,coextensivewiththehistoryof
cultivation.Plantingacropatthestartofoneseasonpresupposesthatsomeseedhasbeen
gatheredandsetasideinanticipationofthisplanting,mostlikelyduringtheharvestofthe
previousseason.Formostofhumanhistory,then,tobeacultivatorwastobeaseedsaver,
withthespecificpracticesofseedcollectionandstoragedependentonlocalknowledgeand
environmentalconditions,aswellasthedemandsofdifferentcrops.Itwasonlyinthe
twentiethcenturythattheagriculturalpracticesofseedsavingandstoragebecame,first,
disassociatedfromthelaboroffarmingand,subsequently,linkedtoconcernsaboutthe
potentialforpermanentlossorextinctionofparticulargeneticcombinations.
Thefirstofthesechangeshasbeenwelldocumentedbyhistorians.Thecreationof
commercialmarketsforseedsandtheincreasinginstitutionalizationandprofessionalization
ofbreedinginthelate-nineteenthcentury,especiallyintheUnitedStatesandpartsof
Europe,graduallytransformedseedproduction.Themaintenanceandimprovementof
varieties,onceafarm-basedactivity,becamethepurviewofagriculturalexperiment
stationsandcommercialseedhouses.Themethodsofimprovementshifted,too:awayfrom
massselection,inwhichtheseedssavedforfuturecultivationweredrawnandmixedfrom
thebestplantsofaparticularharvest,andtowardsmoreinvolvedapproachessuchaspure-
lineselection,inbreedingandhybridizationthataimedatproducingnewlineswithspecific
desiredtraits.IntheUnitedStates,varietiesproducedbythelatterapproaches,whichwere
fosteredbyinterestinthenewscienceofgeneticsandsupportedbystateinvestment,in
timewereseentooutperformoldervarieties.Thiscontributedtobothanexpansionof
commercialseedmarketsandincreasedgenetichomogeneityamongcropsgrown,asit
encouragedashiftfromthecultivationofheterogeneous,open-pollinatedlocalvarietiesto
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geneticallynarrowedlinesthatwereproducedormaintainedbyothers.Inmaize,the
introductionofdouble-crosshybridvarietiesbasedonthecombinationoffourinbredlines
beginninginthe1920sand1930sfacilitatedexactlythesetransitions.Becausehybridvigor
diminishesafterthefirstgenerationwhiletheinbredlinesneededtoproducehybridseed
arecostlytomaintain,farmerswhowishedtogrowthesehybridsneededtopurchasetheir
seedaneweachseason.Andbecausethehybridswerederivedfromhighlyinbredstocks,
theirusemeantincreasedgenetichomogeneityamongtheplantsofaparticularvariety
bothwithinandacrossfarms.12
Thesecondchange,inwhichseedsavingbecameaconservationactivity,hasbeen
lessextensivelyinvestigated.Ittooktimefortheconcernaboutirreversiblelossofgenetic
variationsexpressedintheearlytwentiethcenturytobecomewidelyshared—mostlikely
becauseittooktimeforthechangestheypredictedtobecomeapparenttomostobservers.
Considerthecaseofmaizeproduction.HarlanandMartiniwerewritinginthe1930s,justas
double-crosshybridmaizewasbeginningtobeadoptedonalargescaleintheUnited
States.Bythemid-1940s,thisadoptionwasnearlycomplete.13Itwasthischangeoverthat
finallyinducedagreaternumberofmaizebiologistsandbreederstoworry.Withhybrids
dominatingthelandscapesofUSmaizeproduction,geneticdiversitywasnolonger
12OnplantbreedingintheUnitedStates,includingthestoryofhybridcorn,seeDianeB.PaulandBarbaraA.Kimmelman,'MendelinAmerica:TheoryandPractice,1900–1919',inRonaldRainger,KeithR.Benson,andJaneMaienschein(eds.),TheAmericanDevelopmentofBiology,pp.281–310(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1988),http://www.mendelweb.org/MWpaul.html;Fitzgerald,BusinessofBreeding;DeborahFitzgerald,'FarmersDeskilled:HybridCornandFarmers'Work',TechnologyandCulture34,no.2(Apr.1993):324–43;Kloppenburg,FirsttheSeed.ForaccountsofplantbreedinginGreatBritain,Germany,andFrancesee,e.g.,PaoloPalladino,'BetweenCraftandScience:PlantBreeding,MendelianGenetics,andBritishUniversities,1900-1920',TechnologyandCulture34,no.2(Apr.1993):300–23;PaoloPalladino,'WizardsandDevotees:OntheMendelianTheoryofInheritanceandtheProfessionalizationofAgriculturalScienceinGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates,1880–1930,'HistoryofScience32(Dec.1994):409–44;ThomasWieland,'ScientificTheoryandAgriculturalPractice:PlantBreedinginGermanyfromtheLate19thtotheEarly20thCentury',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology39,no.2(Jul.2006):309–43;ChristopheBonneuilandFrédéricThomas,'PurifyingLandscapes:TheVichyRegimeandtheGeneticModernizationofFrance',HistoricalStudiesintheNaturalSciences40,no.4(Fall2010):532–568;Harwood,Europe'sGreenRevolutionandOthersSince.13Fitzgerald,BusinessofBreeding,ch.6;Kloppenburg,FirsttheSeed,ch.5.
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maintainedinsitubyfarmersgrowingdifferentvarietiesindifferentregions.Thisinturn
posedapracticalconcernforfuturebreedingprojects.Forexample,ifanewpathogenwere
tothreatencommonmaizevarieties,wherewouldbreederslookfortraitsthatmight
potentiallyconferresistancetothatpathogen?Lossofdiversitymeantfeweravenuesfor
breederstopursue,whichinturnmeantincreasedvulnerabilityforcropsand,ultimately,
farmers.Theconcernextendedtomanycrops:a1946meetingattheUSNationalAcademy
ofSciences,intendedtoaddresstheneedforbettermaintenanceofgeneticallydiverse
breedingstocks,broughttogetherbreedersworkingwith'barley,corn,flax,floriculture,
fruits,grasses,legumes,oats,potatoes,soybeans,sugarbeets,tobacco,[and]wheat'.14
TheUSDA,actingonthegrowingawarenessofthetrendtowarduniformityandits
consequences,initiateda'NewCrops'programinthelate1940sthataimedtobringin'crop
germplasm'fromaroundtheworld,toevaluatethisgermplasm,andtomaintainit.15The
latterwasanovelstepfortheUSDA,whichhadhadglobalcollectorsforalongtimebut
neverasystemforthepermanentmaintenanceofcollecteditems.Atnearlythesametime,
thegovernmentprovidedfundsforcollectingtheearlyopen-pollinatedmaizevarietiesof
theUnitedStates,assumedlybecausetheywererecognizedtobebothusefulandrapidly
disappearing.16In1950,ajointUSDAandstateexperimentstationscommitteeformally
advocatedthecreationofa'nationalseedstorageunit'thatwouldensurethat'thenational
14LandauertoMembersoftheCommitteeonPlantandAnimalStocks,23Nov.1948,NationalAcademyofSciences(NAS),Biology&AgriculturalDivisionFiles(B&A),Folder:Comm.onPlant&AnimalStocks,1946–48.Seealso,Landauer(1945)and"ProposedPlanforaCooperativeNationalProgram[…]"(1946),NationalRecordsandArchivesAdministration,CollegePark,Maryland(NARA),RecordsoftheAgriculturalResearchService(RG310),DivisionofPlantExplorationandIntroduction,PlantExplorationRecords,Box9,Folder:COOP(RMA)MemorandumofUnderstanding.15SamBurgess,ed.,TheNationalProgramforConservationofCropGermPlasm(Athens:UniversityofGeorgia,1971).16W.L.Brown,'MaizeGermplasmBanksintheWesternHemisphere',inO.H.FrankelandJ.G.Hawkes(eds.),CropGeneticResourcesforTodayandTomorrow,pp.467–72(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1975),referenceonp.467.
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responsibilityfortheconservationofvaluablegermplasm'wouldnotbeneglectedasit
sometimeshadinthepast;anewstandingcommitteesubsequentlytransformedthis
tentativerecommendationintoaformalsetofproposals.17Astheseinstitutionalresponses
suggest,theperspectiveamongAmericanagriculturistsabouttheneedtoharborgenetic
diversitywaschanging.Manywerebeginningtofeelalarmaboutthepossiblelossofuseful
typesandtotakestepstowardspotentialsolutions.
Fromcollectiontoconservation
Americanagriculturists’concernsaboutdwindlingdiversitymostoftendrewtheirattention
beyondthebordersoftheUnitedStates,towardscountriesandregionsbetterendowed
withgeneticdiversityinkeyeconomiccrops.Thisisevidentintheactivitiesofasmallgroup
ofmaizebiologistsandbreederswhointhe1950slaunchedaninternationalproject
dedicatedtogathering,studyingandpreservinginperpetuitythemanytypesofmaize
cultivatedacrosstheAmericas.Thisconservationprojectwasthefirstofitskindand
stronglyinfluencedsubsequentglobaleffortstoamassandpreservegeneticdiversityin
variouscrops.Acloseexaminationofitsunfoldingillustrateshowandwhythecreationof
seedstoragefacilities,orseedbanks,becamethego-tosolutionfortheproblemof
maintainingplantgeneticdiversity.
Thehistoryofthismaizecollectionprojectbeginswiththatofadifferent,andmuch
better-known,agriculturalprogram:theRockefellerFoundation'sMexicanAgricultural
Program.InOctober1943,thefoundationenteredintoanagreementwiththeMexican
governmentinwhichitwastoprovideMexicowithtechnicalexpertiseinagricultural
17'ReportoftheSub-committeeonNationalSeedStorage',NARA,RG310,CropsResearchDivision,NewCropsResearchBranch,PlantExplorationRecords,1953–1972,Box6,Folder:NationalSeedStorageLaboratory–1957.
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researchviaanewAmerican-staffedOfficeofSpecialStudiesintheMinistryof
Agriculture.18AnearlygoalforstaffattheOfficeofSpecialStudieswastoestablish
programsincropplantimprovement,asthecreationofhigher-yieldingvarietiespossessing
greaterdisease-anddrought-resistancepromisedastraightforwardroutetoincreased
agriculturalproduction.Oftheseveralcropsslatedforattention,maizewasgivenpriority.
ThisstaplecropformedthebasisofsubsistenceformanyMexicangrowers,mostofwhom
plantedvarietiesthathadbeenadaptedfortheirlocalityovergenerations,withseedsaved
fromyeartoyear.Manyalsostruggledtoproduceenoughfromsmalllandholdingsthat
oftenhadpoorqualitysoilsandwheredroughtwascommon.Thefoundationthereforesaw
maizebreedingasanidealroutetoimprovingthelotofalargenumberofpoorMexicans
whilealsoboostingoverallagriculturalproduction.19
Oneofthefirstactivitiestobeundertakeninthemaize-breedingprogram,which
wasdirectedbytheAmericangeneticistandbreederEdwinWellhausen,wastoestablisha
collectionofMexicanmaizetypesthatwouldserveasthebasisfordevelopingand
distributingimprovedvarieties.Togathersamplesofmaizefromacrossthecountry,
Wellhausenreliedonthehelpofmanyassistants,mostlyagriculturalstudentsfroma
nearbyuniversity.ByMarch1944theOfficeofSpecialStudieshadassembledmorethan
400samples;withinfiveyears,thereweresome2000.Thecollectionrepresentedthe18AnearlyaccountoftheMexicanAgriculturalProgramisfoundinE.C.Stakman,RichardBradfieldandPaulC.Mangelsdorf,CampaignsAgainstHunger(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1967).SubsequentscholarlyaccountsincludeFitzgerald,'ExportingAmericanAgriculture';BruceJennings,FoundationsofInternationalAgriculturalResearch:ScienceandPoliticsinMexicanAgriculture(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1998);Cotter,TroubledHarvest;KarinMatchett,'PlantSciencesResearchandAgricultureinMexico:TensionsandCollaborationAmongMexicanandU.S.Scientists,1935–1965',(Ph.D.,UniversityofMinnesota,2002);JonathanHarwood,'PeasantFriendlyPlantBreedingandtheEarlyYearsoftheGreenRevolutioninMexico',AgriculturalHistory83,no.3(Summer2009):384–410.19Ontheimportanceofmaize,see'AgriculturalConditionsandProblems',Reportofthe1941SurveyCommissionoftheRockefellerFoundation,RockefellerArchiveCenter(RAC),RockefellerFoundationArchives(RF),RG1.1,Series323,Box1,Folder2.Onthemaize-breedingprogram,seeKarinMatchett,'AtOddsoverInbreeding:AnAbandonedAttemptatMexico/UnitedStatesCollaborationto"Improve"MexicanCorn,1940–1950',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology39,no.2(Jul.2006):345–72;andadditionalreferencesinfn.18.
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extraordinarydiversityofmaizeseenacrossMexico.Thecobsandseedsreturnedtothe
stationcamefromplantsthatrangedwidelyinheight,inthesizeofcobs,incolor,intimeto
maturity,andsoon,displaying'analmostbewilderingmultiplicity'ofdifferenttraits.20
Althoughthecollectingefforthadbegunwiththeaimofprovidingstocksforthe
breedingprogram,itsoontookonenergyofitsown.In1948,staffoftheOfficeofSpecial
Studiesgatheredasmallgroupofresearcherstoclassifyanddescribethemanifoldvarieties
ofmaizetheyhadgathered.21Thepublicationofthesestudies,inSpanishin1951andin
Englishin1952asRacesofMaizeinMexico,wasintendedbothtoelucidatethe
evolutionaryhistoryofmaizeinMexicoandtomakethecollectionamoreusefulresource
forscientistsandbreedersacrosstheAmericas.Italsoidentifiedaloomingproblem.The
authorsrecognizedthatmaize-breedingprogramsinMexico,ifsuccessful,wouldproduce
typestoreplacethemanydiverselandracestheynowencountered.Withoutfarmersto
growthesemanyhistoricandprehistoricstrainsofmaize,andtosavetheseedfromyearto
year,theywouldbelost.AndtheywouldbelostnotonlytoMexicanfarmers,butto
breederslikethemselveswhoreliedonsuchdiversitytocarryouttheirwork.
Thisconundrumencouragedaconservationistperspectiveamongthoseexamining
thediversityinMexicanmaize.Astheywroteintheforewordtotheirbook:
20E.J.Wellhausen,L.M.RobertsandE.HernandezX.incollaborationwithPaulC.Mangelsdorf,RacesofMaizeinMexico:TheirOrigin,CharacteristicsandDistribution(BusseyInstitutionofHarvardUniversity,1952),foreword,pp.9–10;Matchett,'AtOddsoverInbreeding',pp.363–64;Stakman,etal.,CampaignsAgainstHunger,pp.61,260.21Insomeways,thisprojectextendedexistingresearchprograms.AmericanbiologistssuchasPaulMangelsdorfandEdgarAndersonwerealreadyengagedinthestudyofmaizediversityasameansofunderstandingitsevolutionaryhistory.Mangelsdorf,aconsultantoftheRockefellerFoundationwhohadbeenintegraltothelaunchoftheMexicanAgriculturalProgram,participatedintheinitialclassificationeffortsattheOfficeofSpecialStudies,whileAndersonandothersbecameinvolvedasthecollectionandclassificationeffortsgrew.Ontheearlyclassificationeffort,seeWellhausenetal.,RacesofMaize.Seealsoindividualrecollectionsoftheeffort:PaulC.Mangelsdorf,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,69–73;LewisM.Roberts,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,34–39;EdwinJ.Wellhausen,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,133–43.
13
MaizeisthebasicfoodplantinmostoftheAmericasanditsdiversity…isoneofthegreatnaturalresourcesofthishemisphere.Toloseanypartofthatdiversityisnotonlytorestricttheopportunitiesforfurtherimprovementbutalsotoincreasethedifficultiesofcopingwithfutureclimaticchangesorwithnewdiseasesorinsectpests.Themoderncornbreeder,therefore,hasaresponsibilitynotonlytoimprovethemaizeinthecountryinwhichheworks,butalsotorecognize,todescribe,andtopreserveforfutureuse,thevarietiesandraceswhichhisownimprovedproductionstendtoreplaceandinsomecasestoextinguish.22
Inotherwords,theseresearchersrecognizedthetangledrelationshipbetweentheirefforts
totransformagriculturalproductionandtheimperativetoconservebiologicalresources.
Geneticdiversityincropplantswasneededforthecreationofimprovedvarieties.Butthe
successoftheseimprovedvarietiesinturnthreatenedgeneticdiversity,anddemandedthat
effortsbemadetoprotectsuchdiversitysothatcropimprovementcouldcontinueinthe
future.Thecyclewasonethatseemedlikelytointensify.Thegreaterthesuccessincreating
anddisseminatingimprovedvarieties,thegreaterthethreattodiversity,andthereforethe
greatertheeffortsatconservationthatwouldhavetobemade.
TheworkundertakentoclassifymaizevarietieswithintheOfficeofSpecialStudies
sooncatalyzedamuchlargerefforttocollect,classifyandpreservethediversityof
Americanmaize.Onepersonwhowasparticularlykeenthatsuchaneffortbeundertaken
wastheGermangeneticistFriedrichBriegeroftheUniversidadedeSãoPauloinBrazil.On
encounteringtheMexicanmaizeworkhebecameconvincedthatthestudyneededtobe
extendedacrossallofCentralandSouthAmerica.23In1949hespokeofthisconcerntothe
botanistRalphCleland,whowasthenchairmanoftheDivisionofBiologyandAgricultureof
theUSNationalResearchCouncil(NRC).Brieger'sdireprediction—thatmany'nativestrains
22Wellhausenetal.,RacesofMaize,foreword.ThissentimentmayhaveoriginatedwithPaulMangelsdorf;seeEdwinJ.Wellhausen,'TheIndigenousMaizeGermplasmComplexesofMexico:Twenty-fiveYearsofExperienceandAccomplishmentsinTheirIdentification,Evaluation,andUtilization',inRecentAdvancesinConservationandUseofGeneticResources:ProceedingsoftheGlobalMaizeGermplasmWorkshop,pp.17–28(México:CIMMYT),referenceonp.17.23Mangelsdorf,OralHistory,p.73.
14
ofmaize'would'begoneintenyearsunlessrescued'—convincedClelandoftheneedto
act.24
Cleland'ssubsequentconversationswithvariouswell-positionedmaizebiologists
andwiththeagriculturalscientistsoftheRockefellerFoundationresultedinthe1951
formationofaCommitteeonthePreservationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize,rununderthe
auspicesoftheNRC.This'MaizeCommittee'movedrapidlytoobtainagrantfromtheUS
TechnicalCooperationAdministration(TCA),agovernmentagencywhoseColdWar
mandatewastoprovide'technicalassistance'todevelopingcountries,inordertofinancea
hemisphericefforttocollectandpreserveimperiledmaizevarieties.Thecommittee
believedthatthelossofthesevarietieswouldbe'amajordisaster'forseveralreasons,
including:first,thelossofgeneticvariationneededtoimprovemaizeinLatinAmerica;
second,thelossofvariationneededintheUnitedStates,wherebreedingprogramswere
describedas'alreadyreachingthepointofdiminishingreturns';and,finally,thelossof
materialsinvaluabletoresearchersindisciplinesrangingfromanthropologytogenetics.25
TheMaizeCommitteedecidedthatitwouldensurecontinuedaccessforbreeders
andotherresearcherstothiscrucialresource,geneticdiversity,viathestill-novel
agriculturaltechnologyofdedicatedlong-termseedstoragefacilities.Fromitsmembers'
perspective,onewouldnotwanttostopthetransitionofLatinAmericanfarmerstohigher-
yieldingvarieties.Todosowouldcertainlystemthetideofvarietallossitperceivedas
threating.Butthistransitionwasseenasaninevitable—indeed,desirable!—change,one
24ClelandtoMiller,17Dec.1949,RAC,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder2.25'ProposedPlanfortheCollectionandMaintenanceofNativeRacesofMaize'(undated),HarvardUniversityArchives(HUA),PapersofPaulC.Mangelsdorf(PCM),HUG(FP)37.10,Box5,Folder:NationalAcademyofArtsandSciences,1954–(1of2).Apublishedaccountofthecommittee'sworkisJ.AllenClark,'Collection,Preservation,andUtilizationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize',EconomicBotany10,no.2(Apr.–Jun.1956):194–200.
15
thatwouldincreaseagriculturalproductionacrosstheregion.Becausethecommittee
memberswantedtoencouragethisagriculturalshift,long-termorindefinitepreservationof
varietiesasseedincentralizedseedstoragefacilitiesappearedtobetheonlysolution:a
much-neededadditionalelementofthetechnologicalsystemthatundergirdagricultural
production.Oncegatheredandcatalogued,seedscouldbemadeaccessibletobreedersand
otherresearchersaroundtheworld,assumingthatsomearrangementcouldbemadefor
continuousstorage,periodicrenewalofstocksanddistributionofseedsuponrequest.
In1951,theMaizeCommitteeimaginedthatitwouldrequireverylittletosetupand
maintainsuchafacility.Arefrigeratedstoragespacewasoneessentialcomponent,
'sufficienttoaccommodateapproximately30004-oz.bottles'ofseed,butitwasfarfrom
enoughtoensurethepreservationofthreatenedmaizevarieties.Becauseseedsareliving
materials,whichgraduallylosetheircapacityforgermination,theymustberenewedat
regularintervalsbycultivatingacropandharvestingfreshseed.Thecommitteeestimated
thatastoragefacilitymaintainingafewthousandvarietieswouldthereforealsoneedan
acreoffarmorgardenland,whichwouldprovideenoughspace'togrow10–20specimens
ofupto600strainsofcorn'.Cultivatingmaizevarietiesinordertoreplenishstocks
obviouslydemandedongoingseasonallabor,andthistoohadtobeaccountedforinthe
proposal.Aninitialestimateassumedthateachvarietyinthecollectionwouldneedtobe
grownouteveryfiveyearstoregeneratetheseed,butthatthisandotherstock
maintenanceactivities'wouldnotrequirethefulltimeofanyoneindividual'.The
committee'sfinalestimatedinvestmentforaseed-storagefacilityofthedesiredsizeinLatin
Americawasminimal:aninitialcostofabout$8000forequipmentand$1500peryearin
maintenance(essentially,ayear'ssalaryforastationworkerinLatinAmerica).Those
writingtothefacilitytorequestsamplesofanyofthestocksheldtherewouldbeexpected
16
topaythecostsofshippingthemselves.Relyingontheseassumptionsandcalculations,the
MaizeCommitteecouldeasilyimaginethecreationofanendowmenttosupportseveral
newseedstoragefacilities,eachofwhichwouldtakeonthetaskofnotonlystoringbutalso
continuouslyreplenishinganddistributingitsstocks,inperpetuity.26
Outofthefieldandintothebank
ThefirsttaskoftheMaizeCommitteewascollection.Inadditiontosecuringathree-year,
US$85,000grantfromTCA,ithadalsofinalizedacooperativearrangementwiththe
RockefellerFoundation.Thefoundation,alreadyonthegroundinLatinAmericaandby
1951workingwithagriculturistsinanumberofcountriesbesidesMexico,wouldsupervise
thecollectingmissionsandprovidelandandspaceformultiplyingandrenewingtheseed
collections.TheNRC,usingTCAfunds,wouldpayforequipment,supplies,travelexpenses,
andsalariesassociatedwiththecollectingmissions.TCAfundswouldalsosupportthe
creationofthree'SeedCenters'forthecollections—locatedinMexico,Colombiaand
Brazil—withadditional'stand-by'storagemadeavailableataUSDAsiteatGlennDale,
Maryland.BoththeMexicanandColombianSeedCenterswouldbeaffiliatedwith
establishedRockefellerFoundationoperations.TheMexicancenterwastobelocatedat
Chapingo,thefieldsiteoftheOfficeofSpecialStudiesandhometoWellhausen'searlier
maizecollections.TheColombiancenterwouldbeatMedellín,whereanewRockefeller
Foundationinitiativehadbeenestablishedin1950withobjectivessimilartothoseofthe
OfficeofSpecialStudies.InBrazil,theNRCenteredintoanagreementwithBrieger'shome
institution,theUniversidadedeSãoPaulo,andplacedBriegerinchargeofthenewBrazilian
26'ProposedPlanfortheCollectionandMaintenanceofNativeRacesofMaize'(seefn.25).AdministratorsattheRockefellerFoundationwereskepticaloftheseestimatesandmoregenerallyoftheprojectedeaseofkeepingupstockcollections;see,e.g.,BarnardtoHarrar,17Sep.1951,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder2.
17
SeedCenteratPiracicaba.Thecollectionsateachofthesesiteswouldnotbenational,as
theoriginalRockefellerFoundationcollectionofMexicancornhadbeen,butregional,with
eachhostingseedsfromacrossadesignatedswatheofLatinAmerica.27
CollectingmissionsintheregionsdesignatedfortheMexicanandColombianSeed
Centersgotunderwayalmostimmediately,inlargepartbecauseoftheexisting
infrastructureandnetworksputinplacebytheRockefellerFoundation.ByJune1952the
Mexicoofficehadtwofulltimecollectorsandahandfulofstudents—allworkingunderthe
directionofWellhausen—scouringthemanyregionsnotcoveredbytheRockefeller
Foundation'spreviouscollectingactivities.Wellhausenfurtherreportedhavinghiredaman
fromGuatemalawhohadworkedwiththeMexicoprogramtostartcollectinginthat
country.HehadmadesimilararrangementsforcollectioninCostaRicaandtherestof
CentralAmerica.MeanwhileinMedellín,underthesupervisionofLewisRoberts(directorof
theRockefellerFoundation'sagriculturalprograminColombia),collectionwassaidtobe
'half-completed'.28AtbothChapingoandMedellín,storagerefrigeratorswereinstalledby
theendoftheyear,technologiesneededtokeeptheincreasingnumbersofseedsviablefor
longerperiodsoftime.29ThingsweremuchslowertogetoffthegroundinBrazil,where
BriegerwasexpectedtocoordinatecollectionsthroughouteasternSouthAmerica.30While
thiscollectingworkwasongoinginCentralandSouthAmerica,additionaleffortsweremade
27MinutesofMeetingofCommitteeonPreservationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize(MaizeCommittee),26Oct.1951,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Meetings,1951–1958.28MaizeCommittee(1952),SecondReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.29MaizeCommittee(1952),ThirdReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.30TheproblemsencounteredinBrazilcomeuprepeatedlyincommitteereportsandinternalcorrespondence.See,e.g.,MangelsdorftoClark,29Apr.1953,HUA,PCM,HUG(FP)37.10,Box5,Folder:NationalAcademyofArtsandSciences[sic],1954–(2of2);MaizeCommittee(1953),FifthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.
18
tosecuremaizevarietiesintheislandsoftheCaribbeanandinCanadaandtheUnited
States.31MaizeCommitteememberswerewellawarethatthevastmajorityofmaizegrown
northofMexicoconsistedof'newhybridcorns'—typesthatwereoflittleinteresttothe
project—soheretheyfocusedonNativeAmericancommunitieswhereolderopen-
pollinatedvarietiesweremostlikelytohavesurvived.32
Regardlessofwhowascollectingandwheretheywerecollecting,thebasicplanfor
gatheringandconservingmaizeseedwasthesame.Acollectorwouldtraveltoaregionand
collectcobsofmaizefromvarioussites,ideallyaboutfiveofeachtypesoastoensurean
adequatesampleofseed,andthenmakeanon-sitedescriptionofthecollectedtypes.The
cobsmightbepurchasedatmarkets,gatheredfromIndiansettlementsorcollectedon
commercialfarms.Becauseitinvolveddifficulttravel,oftenthroughremoteareas,
collectorsendedupspendingweeksandmonthsinthefield.33Oncecollectionsweremade,
thecobswereshippedbacktothedesignatedcentralstoragefacility—eitherChapingo,
Medellín,orPiracicaba—wheretheyweretobemeasuredandphotographed,andthen
driedandshelled.Theseedswerethenfurtherdriedtoamoisturelevelconducivetoalong
lifespan,packagedinairtightcontainers,andplacedinrefrigeratedstorage.34TheMaize
Committeeaskedthatsmallsamplesofeachtypebesenttothestand-bystoragecenter.
Thisfacilitywouldmaintainacompletesetofthecollectionsfromwhichvarietiescouldbe
31MaizeCommittee(1952),ThirdReport(fn.29).32MaizeCommittee(1953),SeventhReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.33ThecaseofthebotanistandmaizecollectorVictorPantiño,whowasdispatchedtopartsofSouthAmerica,offersagoodexampleofatypicalcollectingexperience.SeeMaizeCommittee(1953),FourthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.34MaizeCommittee(1955),'CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn,I',NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn:I.
19
restoredintheeventofloss.35Thegoalofamassingseedsofdiversetypeswasquickly
achieved.By1955,thecommitteehadamassedatotalof11,353samplesofmaizefrom
acrosstheAmericas,10,922ofwhichhadbeenofficiallycatalogued.36
Unfortunately,itprovedfareasiertogatherthismassivecollectionthantoarrange
foritspermanentmaintenance.AsearlyasJuly1953,withthecollectionsalready
substantive,theMaizeCommitteefounditselfwonderingabouttheremaining'problem'
whichincluded'providingforperiodicrenewal,theclassification,agronomicandgenetic
studyofthecollections,andthepublicationsoftheresultsofthisresearch,andthecostof
distributingthemostpromisingcollectionstointerestedcornbreedersaroundtheworld'.37
Ensuringthattheseedsremainedaliveandincirculation—evenbeyondthetermsofthe
grant,letaloneinperpetuityasthecommitteemembersultimatelyhoped—proveda
significantchallenge.Theinitialthree-yeargrantfromTCAhadsupportedthecreationof
thethreeSeedCenters,includingfacilitiesforrefrigeration,andthecollectionand
preparationofseedstocks.Thecommitteeobtainedasecondthree-yeargrant,which
enabledresearchintotherelationshipsamongthemanycollectedsamples,their
consolidationintoafewhundreddistinct'races'ofmaize,andthepublicationofaseriesof
booksaboutthese.38However,theMaizeCommittee'seffortstofundanendowmentto
supportthecontinuedexistenceoftheseedstoragefacilities,themaintenanceoftheir
35MaizeCommittee(1954),NinthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.36MaizeCommittee(1955),'CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn,II',NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn:II.37MaizeCommittee(1953),SixthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.38Between1957and1963,theNASpublishedtentitlesonthe'RacesofMaize'indifferentcountriesandregionsofLatinAmerica.Thesehavebeendigitizedandareavailablealongwithsimilarpublications(andtheoriginalRacesofMaizeinMexico)atwww.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=24766.
20
stocks,andthedistributionofseedonrequestwereunsuccessful.39Althoughithad
assembledsomeoftheinfrastructureneededtoaddressthelossofimperiledmaize
varieties,crucialelementsremainedoutofreach.Withthelong-termsurvivalofmany
thousandsofseedsamplesdependentonthecontinuedinterestoftheinstitutionsthathad
initiallybeenchosentohousethese,thetechnologyofseed-storagefacilitieslookedatbest
likeaprecarioussolutiontothecommittee'sconcerns.
Seedbanksascendant
PerhapsonereasontheMaizeCommitteewasunabletoconvincefunderstolaydown
resourcesforitsSeedCenterswasthattheserepresentedanas-yetuntestedtechnology.In
theeyesofcommitteemembersandothercollaborators,theneedtopreservetheextant
diversityinmaizewasbothobviousandpressing.Equallyapparentwasthesolutionof
bankingthisdiversityasseed.Butlivingseedstocks,thoughlesslaborintensivetomaintain
thanfieldsofcropsfromyeartoyear,werebynomeansmaintenancefree.Norwerethe
mechanicsofbankingseedinthismannerwellworkedout.Whattemperatureandhumidity
wouldextendseedlifethelongest?Howwouldrenewalofcollections,whichrequired
growingoutaportionofanaccessionandallowingittointerbreed,affecttheirgenetic
composition?Wasitnecessarytomaintaineachaccessionofthethousandsmade,orwould
geneticdiversitybeequallywellpreservedinpoolingaccessionsfromacrossregionsthat
weredeemedtobeofthesameoriginal'race'?Theseandmanyotherquestionswere
mostlyupforgrabs,andnotsurprisinglyso,astheproposalofindefiniteseedstoragefor
39RockefellerFoundationadministratorsbristledin1953whentheyencountereddocumentsdraftedbyamemberoftheMaizeCommitteeindicatingthattheCommitteeassumedthatfoundationstaffandfacilitieswouldbeusedindefinitelyforthemaintenanceandregenerationofstocks.SeeNRC,MaizeCommittee(1953),'Proposedplanforaresearchgrant[…]',October;HarrartoClark,5Nov.1953;andHarrar,memo,16Nov.1953;bothlocatedinRAC,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder4.
21
conservationpurposeswasstillnovelinthe1950s.40TheUSgovernmentonlyapproved
fundingfortheconstructionofalong-termseedstoragefacilityin1957,aftermanyyearsof
petitioningonthepartofinterestedagriculturists.TheUSNationalSeedStorageLaboratory
(NSSL)wasthefirst-everfacility,worldwide,builtsolelyforlong-termseedpreservation.It
didnotholdworkingcollectionsormaintainlandandresourcesfortheregenerationofseed
stocks.Itwassimplyatemperature-andhumidity-controlledwarehouseforvaluablelines,
designedtokeepthesefromgoingextinctasaresultofneglectoroversight.41
TheinsecurityfeltbytheMaizeCommitteeasregardsthefutureofitscollection,
anditsfaithinthetechnologyoflong-termseedstorageasthesolutiontoitsconservation
needs,canbeseenintherapiditywithwhichitmobilizedtosecurespaceinthenewNSSL.
Eventhoughconstructionofthefacilitywasonlyjustgettingunderway,thecommittee
proposedinJune1957thatone-pecksamples(15pounds)ofallthepublishedracesof
maizebepreparedforstorageinthefutureNSSL,'toinsureareserveseedsupplyavailable
forfuturebreedingandindustrialuses'.42Thisrepresentedaconsiderableeffortforthose
curatingthecollectionsinLatinAmerica,butby1961,77suchsampleshadbeenprepared
andsenttotheNSSL,andmoreweretofollow.43
40Currentguidelinesforseedbanksofferaglimpseintothenumberandextentofbiologicalaspectsofseedmaintenancetobeinvestigatedandoperationalprotocolstobeagreedupon;see,e.g.,FAO,GenebankStandardsforPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(Rome:FAO,2014),http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3704e.pdf.Suchguidelineshavechangedovertime(andcontinuetochange)asknowledgeaboutseedlongevityinstorageandgeneticdriftwithincollectionshasdeveloped.41TheNSSLwouldeventuallyprovideamodelandstandardforequivalentnationalandinternationalcollections.OntheNSSL,seeEdwinJames,'OrganisationoftheUnitedStatesNationalSeedStorageLaboratory',inE.H.Roberts(ed.),ViabilityofSeeds,pp.397–404(London:ChapmanandHall,1972);GeorgeA.White,HenryL.ShandsandGilbertR.Lovell,'HistoryandOperationoftheNationalPlantGermplasmSystem',inJulesJanick(ed.),PlantBreedingReviews:TheNationalPlantGermplasmSystemoftheUnitedStates,pp.5–56(Portland:TimberPress,1989).42MaizeCommittee(1957),SecondReport,NAS,BA,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:ReportsProgress,1956–1961.43SpraguetoGoodman,21Dec.1967,NAS,BA,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:General.
22
TheMaizeCommittee'sseedstoragefacilitiesinLatinAmericaandtheNSSLshared
asacentralgoalthepreservationofpotentiallyusefulcropvarietiesfromextinction—an
aimthatwasstillfairlyunusualamonginstitutionsharboringseedcollectionsinthe1950s
andearly60s.44Theywouldnotremainsoforlong.Fromthemid-1960sonward,biologists
andagriculturistsbecameincreasinglyworriedaboutthelossofgeneticdiversityincrop
plants.Whereastheirexpressionsofconcernaboutthisissuehadappearedintermittently
fromtheturnofthetwentiethcenturythroughWorldWarII,thesenowcoalescedintoa
continuouschorusofalarm.Manyhadobservedtherapidglobalizationofimproved
varietiesoftheworld'smajorcrops,includingmaize,wheatandrice,transitionsaccelerated
bytheinterventionsoftheRockefellerFoundationandothersinagricultureinmany
developingcountries.Andmanyincreasinglyfearedthataglobalagriculturalsystem
foundedonanarrowgeneticbasewouldbevulnerabletocatastrophe.45
ThelatterfeartookespeciallystrongholdintheUnitedStatesin1970followinga
diseaseoutbreakinmaize.AmutationinthefungusHelminthosporium—theagentofa
diseaseknownasSouthernCornLeafBlight—gaverisetoavirulentformthatthrivedon
maizeplantswithaspecificcytoplasmicgeneticmakeup.By1970some85percentofmaize
grownintheUnitedStatescarriedgenesformale-sterility,atraitthattheneedforthe
expensiveandtime-consumingprocessofdetasselingwhenproducinghybridlines.
UnfortunatelythegenesconferringthisdesirabletraithadbeenderivedfromaloneTexas
plantinthe1940s.Anditwasthesesamegenesthatwererecognizedin1970tobethe
sourceofmaize'ssusceptibilitytothemorevirulentformofSouthernCornLeafBlight.
44ThenoveltyoftheNSSLconceptcanalsobeobservedthroughtheeffortsthathadtobemadetoconvinceAmericanbreederstouseit.SeeEricE.Roos,'EarlyHistoryofNSSLandContributionsofEdwinJamesandLouisN.Bass',JournalofSeedTechnology17,no.2(1993):25–40,referenceonpp.28–30.45Pistorius,Scientists,Plants,andPolitics;Farnham,SavingNature'sLegacy,ch.4.
23
Approximately15percentoftheAmericancropwaslostthatyear,valuedatanestimated1
billion1972USdollars.46
Theblightdirectedattentiontothevulnerabilitycreatedbygeneticuniformityin
cropplants.Itledtorenewedcallsfrombreeders,biologists,agriculturaleconomistsand
policymakerstoacknowledgethedangersinherentinthetrendtowardsuniformityandtake
stepstoredressit,especiallyinmajorcrops.TheNRCquicklyformedaCommitteeon
GeneticVulnerabilityofMajorFoodCropstostudytheproblem.Initsfinalreport,the
committeerecommendedthegreateruseof'exoticgermplasm'inbreedingprograms,in
spiteofthecostsandchallenges;theyemphasizedtheneedtoharborgeneticdiversityby
ensuringthecontinuanceof'primitivevarieties','localvarieties'andthewildrelativesof
crops;andtheycalledforcontinuedeffortsatplantintroductionandsupportoftheNSSL,
whilealsoencouragingthefurtherdevelopmentoflivingcollectionsofgeneticallydiverse
varietiesthatwouldbemoreimmediatelyaccessibletobreeders.47Inshort,theydemanded
thefurtherdevelopmentanduseofseedbanks.Thiswasthebeginningofaperiodofmore
sustainedattentiontotheissueofgatheringandmaintaininggeneticallydiversetypesinthe
UnitedStates,whichwouldinturnleadtotheexpansionofthe'NationalPlantGermplasm
System'inthe1970sand1980s—withtheNSSLatitscenter.48
Meanwhiletherewasalsoagrowingdeterminationtomaintainanduseglobalcrop
geneticdiversityattheinternationallevel.Oneofthefirstorganizationstorespondtothe
increasinglyvocalworriesofplantbreedersandconservationistswastheFoodand
AgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO).Inthemid-to-late1960s,workingin46A.J.Ullstrup,'TheImpactsoftheSouthernCornLeafBlightEpidemicsof1970–1971',AnnualReviewofPhytopathology10(Sep.1972):37–50.47NationalAcademyofSciences,GeneticVulnerabilityofMajorCrops(Washington,DC:NAS,1972),ch.16.48See,e.g.,descriptioninAgriculturalResearchService,TheNationalPlantGermplasmSystem,ProgramAidno.1188(Washington,DC:USDA,1977).
24
conjunctionwiththeInternationalBiologicalProgramme(IBP),FAOorganizedacommittee
andaseriesofconferencestoconsidertheexplorationandconservationof'plantgenetic
resources'.A1967FAO/IBPTechnicalConferenceontheExploration,Utilizationand
ConservationofPlantGeneticResourcesresultedinoneofthedefinitiveearlydocumentsof
thisburgeoningconservationagenda,theIBPhandbookGeneticResourcesinPlants.Asthe
handbookexplained,thegreatvariationseenwithinandacross'primitive'cultivarswould
notwithstandthetransitionto'modernscientificagriculture'withitsemphasisonthe
creationofgeneticallyuniform'purelines'andthespreadofcultivationmethodsthat
'minimizeorevenremoveenvironmentaldifferencesoverwideareas'.49Though
participantsdisagreedaboutthecomparativevirtuesofexsituversusinsituconservation
strategies(e.g.,seedbanksversuscontinuedcultivation)forimperiledcultivarsandtheir
equallythreatenedwildrelatives,theconferencereportdid,intheend,endorsetheexsitu
approachforreasonsofpracticality.'Thereis…oneneedofgeneralandoverriding
importance,andthatistheneedforinternationalseedstoragefacilities',declaredthe
introductiontotheIBPhandbook.50
TheFAO/IBPconferenceparticipantsclearlyrecognizedthattheywerelivingthrough
atimeofdramaticchangeinglobalagriculturalproduction.Itwasalsoamomentof
dramaticchangeintheorganizationofinternationalagriculturalresearch.Duringthe1950s,
theRockefellerFoundationhadextendeditsagriculturalassistanceprogramsthroughout
LatinAmericaandthenintoSouthAsiaandbeyond.Theseeffortsareusuallydescribedas
49O.H.Frankel,andE.Bennett,eds.,GeneticResourcesinPlants—TheirExplorationandConservation,IBPHandbookNo.11,(Oxford:Blackwell,1970),pp.7–9.50FrankelandBennett,GeneticResourcesinPlants,p.15.
25
havinglaunchedtheGreenRevolution.51Bythe1970s,nowworkingwiththeFord
Foundation,theRockefellerFoundationlookedtofurtheradvancethisagriculturalagenda,
notleastbyencouragingotherstobankrollthekindsofon-site,research-drivenprograms
theyhadcometobelievewouldbemosteffectiveinaddressingtheirsharedconcern—the
'worldfoodproblem'.FollowingaseriesofmeetingsinitiatedinBellagio,ItalyinJuly1969,
thefoundations,togetherwiththeWorldBank,FAO,UNDevelopmentProgrammeand
backedbythegovernmentsofanumberofdevelopedcountries,formedtheConsultative
GrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR).Thisorganizationwouldcoordinate
internationalaidforagriculturalresearchindevelopingcountries,largelybychanneling
fundsthroughaglobalnetworkofagriculturalresearchcenters.Theearliestofthese
researchcenterswerefourthathadalreadybeencreatedbythefoundationsinpreceding
decades,includingtheInternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI,launchedin1959–60in
thePhilippines)andtheInternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter(CIMMYT,
foundedin1966inMexicobutinmanyrespectsacontinuationoftheRockefeller
Foundation'searlierresearchorganizationsthere).52
OneofthefirstissuestoarisewithinCGIARasapressingconcernforglobal
agriculturaldevelopmentwasthatoftheconservationofplantgeneticresources.In1971,
representativesfromFAOputforwardaproposalinwhichFAO,withfundingfromCGIAR
andtheassistanceofotheragenciesandorganizations,wouldleadanddirectinternational
effortstocollectandpreservecropgeneticdiversity.AcentralfeatureoftheFAOplanwas51OnthehistoryoftheGreenRevolution,withparticularattentiontoitsgeopoliticaldimensions,seeJohnH.Perkins,GeopoliticsandtheGreenRevolution:Wheat,Genes,andtheColdWar(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997);Cullather,TheHungryWorld.52ThetwootherinstitutesweretheInternationalInstituteofTropicalAgriculture(IITA,Nigeria)andtheCentroInternacionaldeAgriculturaTropical(CIAT,Colombia).AbriefhistoryofCGIARcanbefoundinPistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,55–56;aninstitutionalhistoryofthefoundingandearlyyearsofCGIARisWarrenC.Baum,PartnersAgainstHunger:TheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(Washington,DC:TheWorldBankfortheCGIAR,1986).
26
thecreationofeleven'geneticresourcescentres',eachofwhichwouldhavefacilitiesfor
seedstorageandregeneration.53
NotallmembersofCGIARwereenthusedbytheplan,whichprecipitatedfurther
proposalsfromvariousdifferentworkinggroupsandsub-committeesoverthesubsequent
twoyears.Amajorpointofcontentionwasthedegreeofcontrolthatwouldbegrantedto
FAO.OfficersoftheRockefellerFoundation,fearingalossofinfluence,wereparticularly
exercisedaboutthisissue.Theirinterestinthequestionofhowgeneticresourcesoughtto
bemanaged(andfeelingofownershipoverit)resultedfromthefoundation'sprior
investmentinseedcollectionandconservation:notonlyhaditbeeninstrumentalin
amassingglobaldiversityinmaizeduringthegrowthandexpansionofitsLatinAmerican
agriculturalprograms,ithadalsosponsoredcollectingmissionsandlong-termstorageof
wheat,rice,sorghumandthemilletsthroughtheseandotherinternationalagricultural
programssincethe1950s.Foundationofficialsclearlywantedtoretainsignificantcontrol
overtheseactivities,thoughthereisfurtherevidencethattheydoubtedthecapabilitiesof
theFAOtocarryouttheworkeffectively.54Othersignificantitemsofcontentionthatarose
amidstthesuccessionofproposalsincludedthedesiredscopeofthecollections(thatis,
whethertheyshouldfocusontheprincipalglobaleconomiccropsorinsteadaimtogathera
53FAO,'ProposaltoEstablishaNetworkofGeneticResourcesCentres',presentedatCGIARTAC,SecondMeeting,Rome,19–22Oct.1971,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/973.Therehadbeencompetingproposalspriortothispointaswell.SeeBaumPartnersAgainstHunger,pp.79–82andPistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,ch.4.54See,e.g.,Pino,memo,15Dec.1972,RAC,RF,RG1.3,Subseries103D,Box16,Folder101.ForfurtherbackgroundontheactivitiesassociatedwiththeWorldGermplasmProject,seeWortman,'WorldGermplasmProject'andMinutesoftheMeetingontheStatusofGermPlasmCollection,Preservation,EvaluationandUtilization,NewYork,27–28Sep.1971;bothinRAC,RF,RG1.3,Series103D,Box16,Folder101.SeealsoRussellT.Johnson,'CollectionandPreservationofFoodCropGermPlasmwithWideGeneticDiversity',ReportpreparedforCGIARTAC,SecondMeeting,Rome,19–22Oct.1971,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/396.
27
widerrangeofcropdiversity)andwhattypeofinstitutionstheseoughttobelocatedwithin
in(nationalorinternational,crop-specificcentersorregionalcenters,andsoon).55
Whatremainedcommontoalloftheproposalsandcounter-proposalsthatcame
beforeCGIARwastheassumptionthatcollectingandmaintainingcropvarietiesasseedin
securestoragefacilitieswouldbetheprimarymeansofpreventingthelossofplantgenetic
resources.Theseedbankhadachievedascendancy,andwasagreeduponasatechnology
essentialtothecontinuedsuccessofworldagriculture.Seedbankswouldsubsequentlybe
grantedacentralroleintheinternationalconservationeffortsundertakenbyanew
InternationalBoardforPlantGeneticResources,whichwascreatedundertheauspicesof
CGIARin1973andcontinuestoday(throughasuccessororganization,Bioversity
International)tobealeadingorganizationinthemanagementofglobalagricultural
biodiversity.56
Subsequentdecadeshaveseenmanyincisivecritiquesofnationalandinternational
seedbankingactivities,especiallyaftertheassertionofintellectualpropertyrightsin
geneticresources(includingcropvarieties)andconcernsabouttheglobalinequitiesarising
fromthetransferandownershipofsuchresourcesbecameinternationalissuesinthe
1980s.57Inpartbecauseofsuchcritiques,thesedecadeshavealsowitnessedsurging
interestinalternativestothemodelofacentralizedseed-storagefacilityunderthecontrol
ofbreeder-scientists.Suchalternativesrangefrominsituconservationprogramsthat
55SeveraloftheproposalsareavailableonlinethroughtheCGIARhistoricalarchive.See,e.g.,FAO,'ProposaltoEstablishaNetworkofGeneticResourcesCentres'(fn.53);TACAdHocWorkingGroupontheConservationofPlantGeneticResources,'TheCollection,EvaluationandConservationofPlantGeneticResources',presentedatCGIARTACThirdMeeting,Rome,10–13Apr.1972,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/1523;CGIARSubcommitteeonGeneticResources,DraftReport,Rome,1–2Oct.1973,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/482.56OnthecreationofIBPGR,seePistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,ch.4.57Foradetailedoverviewoftheseissuesandinternationaldebates,seeKeithAoki,SeedWars:ControversiesandCasesonPlantGeneticResourcesandIntellectualProperty(Durham,NC:CarolinaAcademicPress,2008).
28
maintaindiversitythroughcontinuedcultivationoflandraces,tonaturereservesintended
toharborthewildrelativesofeconomiccrops,tocommunity-operatedexsituseedbanks
thataremaintainedandusedbylocalcultivators.58Yetthevisionofaseedbankasthe
ultimatetechnologicalsolutionforthespecteroflosinggeneticdiversityhashardly
diminished.Tograspthis,oneneedonlyconsiderrecentlarge-scale,high-profile
internationalendeavorssuchastheSvalbardGlobalSeedVault,theso-calledDoomsday
SeedVaultdugintoArctictundraontheNorwegianislandofSpitsbergen,ortheMillennium
GlobalSeedBankinWakehurst,England,whichaimstohave25percentoftheworld's
bankableseedby2020.59Seedbanksareindeedthriving.
Conclusions
Itisnoteasytosituatethehistoryofeffortstoconservethegeneticdiversityofagricultural
cropswithinestablishednarrativesoftheconservationofbiologicaldiversityintheUnited
States.Cropplantconservatorsweremoreakintoearlierresourceconservationistswho
championedwaterorsoilconservation,inthattheydesiredpreservationforuseabove
otherconcernssuchastheintrinsic,non-instrumentalvalueofplantandanimaldiversityor
interestinthepreservationofwildness.Andyetthechallengetheyfacedinsuccessful
conservationwasbetteralignedwiththoseprotectingendangeredspecies,forthethreatto
cropdiversityresultedfromsameforcesofindustrializationandglobalization,andfromlack
58AnintroductiontoinsituconservationofplantgeneticresourcesisN.Maxted,B.V.Ford-LloydandJ.G.Hawkes,eds.,PlantGeneticConservation:TheInSituApproach(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1997);examplesofsuchactivitiesinvariouscountriescanbefoundinStephenB.Brush,ed.,GenesintheField:On-FarmConservationofCropDiversity(BocaRaton,FL:LewisPublishers,2000).59https://www.croptrust.org/what-we-do/svalbard-global-seed-vault;http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/collections/millennium-seed-bank.
29
ofimmediateeconomicvalueratherthanoveruse.60TheMaizeCommitteeandthosewho
shareditsconcernsworriedaboutthepotentialhazardstohumansocietiesposedbythe
lossofbiologicaldiversityacoupledecadesbeforethe'endangermentsensibility'madethis
acommonglobalsentiment.61Individualsandorganizationsconcernedaboutthelossof
cropdiversitysuccessfullyadvocatedfortheintegrationofacomplexandexpensive
conservationtechnology,theseedbank,intotheverycoreofglobalindustrialagricultural
production.Theseandotherunexpectedelementsofthehistoryofseedbankingsuggest
thatitmighthelptoframenew—andmorediverse—narrativesaboutthehistoryofefforts
toconservebiologicaldiversity.
Forexample,thisbriefglanceatthehistoryofseedbankingcallsattentiontothe
entanglementofindustrialagricultureandglobaleffortstoconservebiologicaldiversity.The
formeristypicallycharacterizedbyitsdependenceongeneticallyuniformcropsandits
ecologicallydestructivemethods,andthelatterasastruggletomitigatetheill
consequencesoftheseandotherindustrialactivitiesthatdestroydiversity—astruggle
againsttheveryforcesthatsetglobalindustrializedagricultureinmotion.Butindustrial
agriculturenotonlygeneratedcertainconservationconcerns,itwasalsodependent(orits
advocatescametoseeitasdependent)onconservationactivitiesandtools.TheAmerican
scientistswhoseresearchservedasthefoundationforvastmono-croppedfieldsofcorn
werealsosomeofthefirstindividualstocallfortheglobalpreservationofgeneticdiversity.
InthecaseoftheRockefellerFoundation'sagriculturalassistanceprograms,itisclearthat
effortstypicallyimplicatedinadramatichomogenizationofthegeneticconstitutionofcrop
60AusefulcharacterizationofrecentconservationprioritiesandvaluesisFernandoVidalandNéliaDias,'Introduction:TheEndangermentSensibility',inFernandoVidalandNéliaDias(eds.),RoutledgeEnvironmentalHumanities:Endangerment,Biodiversity,andCulture,pp.1–38(Florence,KY:TaylorandFrancis,2015),viaProQuestebrary.61Ibid.;seealsoDavidSepkoski,'Extinction,Diversity,andEndangerment',inthesamevolume.
30
plantsaroundtheworldcanalsofairlybecreditedwithorganizingearlyeffortstocollect
andpreservetheextraordinarygeneticdiversityofafewglobalcropspecies(regardlessof
howcontroversialthoseactivitieshavesincebecome).
Thishistoryalsohighlightstheparticularlyparadoxicalpositionofplantbreeders
whochampionedtheconservationofgeneticdiversityandwhocelebratedtheir
achievementsinthisarenaashavingsavedendangeredplantsfromextinction.Historiansof
scienceandenvironmenthaveshownbiologiststobenotalwaysstraightforwardheroesof
biodiversityconservation:somebecameagitatedaboutwildlifeprotectionlawsthat
interferedwiththeirresearchpractices,whileothersimposedidesaboutpristineandwild
natureonplacesandespeciallypeoplesininsensitive,destructiveways.62Butinthecaseof
preservingcropplantdiversity,conservationandtheartifactsitproducedinfact
underwrotethefurtherdestructionoftheveryobjectofconservation.Sustainedeffortsto
collectandconservecropvarietiesasendangeredgeneticresourcesemergedalongside—
and,insomecases,aspartof—theextensionofmoregeneticallyuniformtypesoverever-
greaterportionsoftheglobe.Harboringthegeneticdiversityofplantsbecameessentialina
worldwheremanypeoplewantedcropsplantstobeasuniformandun-diverseaspossible,
whethertoincreaseyield,enabletheuseofherbicidesorpesticides,orfacilitatemechanical
harvestingandglobalshipping.Themaintenanceofgeneticdiversity,asapotentialresource
62Onscientists'irritationwithenvironmentalregulationsthatinterferedwiththeirresearch,see,e.g.,EtienneBenson,'ADifficultTimewiththePermitProcess',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology44,no.1(Feb.2011):103–23;EtienneBenson,'EndangeredScience:TheRegulationofResearchbytheU.S.MarineMammalProtectionandEndangeredSpeciesActs',HistoricalStudiesintheNaturalSciences42,no.1(Feb.2012):30–61.Onconservationandaccompanyingharmtohumanculturesandcommunities,see,e.g.,MarkDavidSpence,DispossessingtheWilderness:IndianRemovalandtheMakingoftheNationalParks(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1999);KarlJacoby,CrimesAgainstNature:Squatters,Poachers,Thieves,andtheHiddenHistoryofAmericanConservation(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001);andDanBrockington,FortressConservation:ThePreservationoftheMkomaziGameReserve,Tanzania(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2002).AusefulsummaryoftheliteratureexposingthedarkersideofconservationisDanBrockington,RosaleenDuffyandJimIgoe,NatureUnbound:Conservation,Capitalism,andtheFutureofProtectedAreas(London:Earthscan,2008),preface.
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inabank,wasseenastheonlywaytocontinueresponsiblyincreatingtheseevermore
uniform,evermorevulnerable,andevermoreecologicallydisruptivecrops.Andso,as
geneticdiversitydiminishedamongcropsincultivation,itaccumulatedincontainersand
canisters,stowedawayasseedinincreasinglyspecializedfacilities.Theseseedbankshave
becomeessentialtechnologicalfeaturesofthelandscapeofindustrialagricultural
production:strangemodernfortressesbuilttodefendindustrialcropvarietiesfromthe
hazardsgeneratedbytheirownsuccesses.
AcknowledgmentsSomeoftheresearchforthisprojectwasmadepossiblebyagrant-in-aidfromtheRockefellerArchiveCenter;IamindebtedtotheRACforthissupportandfurthergratefultoitsever-helpfulstafffortheirinvaluableassistance.Fortheirmanyhelpfulcommentsandconstructivefeedback,IthankJonathanHarwood,theeditorsofthisspecialissueDonaldWorsterandHelmuthTrischler,BrendaBlack,twoanonymousreviewers,alloftheparticipantsintheMay2015'ManufacturingLandscapes'conferenceinBeijing,andthoseindividualswhoattendedseminarpresentationsofthisresearchattheMaxPlanckInstitutefortheHistoryofScience,Berlin,andLMU,MunichinOctober2015.