british muslims’ experiences of interfaith...

BritishMuslims’ExperiencesofInterfaithDialogue

ThomasWalters1439440

Supervisor:DrMansurAli

MAIslaminContemporaryBritain

CentrefortheStudyofIslamintheUK,CardiffUniversity

September2015

1439440 CentrefortheStudyofIslamintheUK 2015

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Iwouldliketothankmysupervisor,DrMansurAli,forhishelpandsupportinwritingthisdissertationandProfessorSophieGilliat-RayandMrJameelforprovidingmewiththeopportunitytostudyattheCentrefortheStudyofIslamintheUK.

Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepestgratitudetotheintervieweeswhosewordsandstoriesformthebasisofthisresearch.


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ContentsChapterOne:Introduction..............................................................................................................1

ChapterTwo:BritishMuslimsandInterfaithDialogueintheLiterature..........................................6

Interfaithdialogueandthesurroundingcontroversies.....................................................................6

Developmentofdialogue,itshistoryintheUKandincreasedgovernmentinterest........................7

Muslimparticipationininterfaithdialogue........................................................................................8

Identityconstructionandinterfaithdialogue....................................................................................8

TheoriesofCommunity/Identity/Otherness....................................................................................10

ChapterThree:Methodology.......................................................................................................14

Thedecisionforaqualitativebasedstudy……………………………………………………………………………………14

Interviewingasanappropriatemethod……………………………………………………………………………………….15

Issuesofreflexivityandethicalconsiderations…………………………………………………………………………….18

Dataanalysis....................................................................................................................................22

ChapterFour:TheImpactofInterfaithDialogueontheIdentityofBritishMuslims......................25

IslamasdistinctandastrengtheningofMuslimidentity................................................................25

Creationofalargerspiritualidentity……………………………………………………………………………………………27

Interfaithdialogueitselfasarole.....................................................................................................28

ChapterFive:TheExperienceofCommunityThroughInterfaithParticipation..............................30

Thecreationofasymboliccommunity............................................................................................30

Interfaithdialogue:anemotionalcommunityandselfhelpormutualaidgroup?.........................32

Increasedgeographicalties..............................................................................................................35

ChapterSix:InterfaithDialogue:aVehiclefortheBetteringofPerceptionsTowardstheOther...38

Theimportanceofanintimateencounter.......................................................................................38

Interfaithdialoguepromotingre-categorisation.............................................................................41

ChapterSeven:Discussion............................................................................................................44

Identity.............................................................................................................................................44

Strengtheningandconfirmationofidentities..............................................................................44

Readyforencounter.....................................................................................................................44

Community.......................................................................................................................................45

Asenseofbelonging....................................................................................................................45

Supportingoneanother...............................................................................................................46


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PerceptionsoftheOtherandprejudicereduction..........................................................................46

Intimatecontact,de-categorisationandre-categorisation.........................................................46

Bridgingthethreeconcepts.............................................................................................................47

ChapterEight:ConcludingThoughts.............................................................................................49

Bibliography.................................................................................................................................54

Appendices..................................................................................................................................63

Appendix1:InformedConsentDocument.......................................................................................63

Appendix2:InterviewGuide............................................................................................................64

Appendix3:Exampleoftranscribedinterview................................................................................65


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Abstract

ForBritishMuslims,participationin interfaithdialoguehasbecomeincreasinglypopular,atrend that has similarly occurred in other ‘Western nations’ whereMuslims constitute aminoritygroup.Thisisduetonumerousfactorsbutonemotivatingdynamicappearstobeinterfaith being seen as a means of countering negative stereotypes currently beingconstructed and reproduced through mass media and political discourses. This researchlooks to shed light on the relatively undocumented experiences of British Muslims whoparticipateininterfaith.Theseexperienceswillbeexploredbyfocusingonthreeimportantconceptssurroundinginterfaithdialogue;itsimpactonidentity,theconstructionofasenseof community and its effects on attitudes that are held with regards to the Other. Through conducting and analysing five semi-structured interviews with BritishMuslimswhohavealargeamountofexperienceinengagingininterfaithdialogueIfindtheexperiencessurroundingthethreeaboveconceptsaregenerallypositiveones. Incontrasttosomearguments,Muslimidentityis,infact,strengthenedwhilstroleidentitiesassociatedwithparticipatingininterfaithandoutreachworkareperpetuatedandconfirmedprovidingthe opportunity to improve self-esteem. At the same time, the creation of symboliccommunities occur based on common religious perceptions, particularly associated withachieving social justice and carrying out work from a faith perspective. Throughparticipation in interfaith dialogue, mutual aid or self help groups also create a form ofcommunity allowing people of faith to support each other, particularly pertinent forMuslimswhofindthemselvesunder intensepublicscrutiny,oftenresulting inexperiencesof Islamophobia. Finally, this researchprovides an insight into theprocess throughwhichtheviewoftheOtherisaltered,findingthatintimatecontactaidsincounteringstereotypessurroundingparticulargroupswhilstthepositionoftheOthercanbere-categorisedthroughsimilarities in beliefs and shared goals being found through interfaith dialogue.

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ChapterOne:IntroductionInterfaithdialoguehasbecomeincreasinglyprominentinBritainwith‘forty-threepercentof

interfaithbodiesintheUnitedKingdomsetupbetween2000and2003’(UKInterfaith

Network2003).However,interfaithdialogueisbynomeansarecenttraditionand‘at

varioustimesinhistory,invariousdiversecontexts,peopleofvariousreligionshave

engagedininterreligiousexchanges’(Ramadan2004,p.200).Interfaithdialoguehasan

importanthistory,providingtheopportunityto‘understandoneanotherbetter’and

encouragingpeopleofdifferentfaiths‘toworktogetheronsharedendeavours’andit

continuestobeatraditionofgreatsignificanceinthe21stcentury.AsPrideaux(2009)has

noted,interfaithdialoguecancomeinvariousformsandhasbeensubjecttochangesand

developmentsbothatalocal,nationalandinternationallevel.Thereishowever,some

debateregardingthemostusefulandappropriateformsofinterfaithdialogue.Thosesuch

asLaing(2012)andCheetham(2010)believetheologicaldialoguecanforgegood

relationshipsbetweenparticipantswhilsthelpingtocreate‘appreciation’forthe‘Other’.

Conversely,somebelievethatthisformofdialogueisproblematic(Prideux2009)and

promotewhathasbeentermedbytheRomanCatholicChurchasDialogueofLifeor

DialogueofAction(Balmer2005,p.9)

MuslimparticipationininterfaithdialogueinBritain,atamoreofficiallevelatleast,

beganin1973whenseveralinstitutions‘joinedhandsandsponsoredatripartitedialogueat

Linton,WetherbyintheNorthofEnglandtitled‘IslamintheParish’(Siddiqi2010,p.239).

ParticipationfromBritishMuslimswasperceivedasrelativelylimited,atleastuntilrecent

years,andithasbeenarguedthattheyhave‘notsufficientlyequippedthemselveswith

exploringthesituationinwhichtheyfindthemselvesin’,amulti-religiousandmulti-cultural

contextwithinadominantsecularenvironment,whilstitdoesnotseem‘thatinterfaith

dialogueisatheologicalpriorityforMuslimsinBritain(Ibid,p.250).BritishMuslim

participationininterfaithdialogueincreasedexponentially,however,inthelastdecadeof

thetwentiethcentury‘asMuslimcommunitieswerefrequentlyatthecentreofcrisisevents

inthelate1980’sandearly1990’s’includingtheSatanicVersescontroversyandthefirst

GulfWar,aswellasariseinIslamophobia‘fermentedbydivisivediscoursesemanatingfrom

stateactorsandthemedia’(Halafoff2011,p.455).Asaresultofthesefactors,‘Muslim


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communitiesbecameproactiveincounteringnegativestereotypes’,oftenthrough‘multi-

faithactivities’and‘newallianceswereformedbetweenChristians,MuslimsandJews’(Ibid,

p.455).

IntermsofassessingtheexperiencesofBritishMuslimswhoparticipateininterfaith

dialogue,Ihavenarrowedthisstudytofocusonthethreeimportantconceptsofidentity,

communityandOtheringorOtherness.Theresearchquestionsarethus:

• WhatimpactdoesparticipationininterfaithdialoguehaveonidentityforBritish

Muslims?

• Inwhatwaysdoesinterfaithdialoguecreateasenseofcommunity?

• HowdoesinterfaithdialogueinfluencethewaysinwhichtheOtherisviewed?

Firstlythereisevidencetosuggestinterfaithdialoguecanhaveanimpactonanindividual’s

identity.RachelReedjik(2010,p.4)concludedthatdespiteconcernsabout‘Jewish-

Christian-Muslimdialogue’,that‘arefedbytheassumptionthatonecannotsimultaneously

standbehindone’sownfaithcommunityandspendone’sprecioustimewithother

religions’or‘cherishone’sidentityandletonebeinspiredbyalienpractices’,continuityand

changecouldinfactoccursimultaneously.Reedjik(2010)foundthatinterfaithdialogue,in

manycases,increasesanindividual’sreligiousidentityandstrengthensthebondthey‘feel

withtheirreligiousroots’(p.316).Certainly,Waardenburg(2000)highlightsthatifthe

‘decisiveshapingofidentitytakesplaceininteractionwithotherpeople’thenthe

‘occurrenceofencounters,co-operationanddialoguebetweenChristiansandMuslims

unavoidablyinvolveschangeanddevelopment’inidentities(p.161).Itcanbestated

therefore,that‘noreligionisimmobileandnoidentityiswithoutchange’(Ibid,p.162).

Associatedwiththeeffectthatinterfaithdialogueislikelytohaveonidentityconstruction,

itmayalsobethatparticipatingindialoguecaninfluenceperceptionsofthe‘Other’.The

importanceof‘discussing’and‘valuing’the‘OthernessoftheOther’(Siddiqi2006)isoften

seenasoneofthemainaimsofinterfaithdialoguethoughtheexperiencesofprejudice

reductionanditsprocesseshaveperhapsgenerallybeenassumed.Communityisanother

importantconceptinwhichtostudyexperiencesofBritishMuslimsandparticipationin

interfaithdialogueandwork.Thisislargelyduetoideasofinterest,attachmentandlocality

–allimportantnotionsrelatedtoconceptsofcommunity,andsimilarlyassociatedwith


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interfaithdialogue.LikewisetoidentityandperceptionsoftheOther,theimportanceof

‘similarityanddifference’andthe‘relationalidea’associatedwithcommunity,islikelytobe

ofrelevancewhenstudyingexperiencesofinterfaithdialogue(Cohen1985,p.12).

Itshouldbemadeclearhowever,thattheseconceptsareunlikelytobecontinuously

distinctfromeachotherandthereisexpectedtobeoverlapasshownbytheVenndiagram

below:

ThisoverlapislikelytooccurlargelyduetoimportanceoftheOtheroranout-groupwithin

thesethreeconcepts(Allport1954;Tajfel1978;Cohen1985).Eachconceptmayalsohave

somedegreeofinfluenceuponeachother.Achangeinidentityorcreationofcommunity

mayalterhowtheOtherisperceived,forinstanceifonebeginstorelatetoalargerreligious

identity,thiswouldlikelyimprovetheviewoftheOther.Anotherexampleofthisdynamic

influenceistheclaimthatindividualsmakecommunityareferentoftheiridentity(Cohen

1985,p.118).Iwilllaterreturntothispointregardingconnectionsbetweentheconcepts,

butitisimportanttohighlightthatthisideaisfrequentlyreferredbacktothroughoutthis

research.

ThroughdatagatheredfrominterviewswithBritishMuslimswhohaveconsiderable

experienceengagingininterfaithdialogue,andanexplorationandassessmentofthe

Identity

PerceptionsoftheOther

Community


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relevanttheoreticalliterature,theeffectthatdialoguecanhaveonthesethreeconceptsis

tobeconsidered.Thereisarationaleandrelevanceforthisresearchasparticipationin

interfaithdialogueisamorerecent,butrapidlyincreasingandrelevantphenomenonfor

BritishMuslims,butalsobecauselittlequalitativeresearchhasbeencarriedoutonthe

subject.Thefindingsfromthisresearchhavethepotentialtoholdsignificantvaluefora

numberofreasons.Firstly,astudyofMuslimexperiencesmaynegateclaimsmadeby

groupssuchastheMuslimParliamentofGreatBritainthatinterfaithdialogue‘becomesa

toolthroughwhichthereligiousrightsofonegroup,Muslims,areslowlyerodedaway’

whilst‘underminingMuslims’muchneededsenseofcollectiveidentity’(Hopkinsand

Hopkins2006,p.258).ItmayalsochallengecertainworriesheldbysomeBritishMuslims

thatinterfaithdialoguesmayhavemissionarytendencies,particularlyfromChristiangroups

(Prideaux2009).Similarly,thisresearchmayalsouncoverimportantinformationwith

regardstothepositiveimpactsparticipationininterfaithdialogueandworkcanhaveupon

identityandtheformationofasenseofcommunity.Finally,thisresearchmayprovidean

insightintotheprocessesimprovingtheperceptionoftheOther,havingestablishedthat

contact,inthiscasethroughinterfaithdialogueandwork,ingeneral,improvesthewayin

whichtheOtherisviewed.

Intermsofthestructureofthisdissertation,areviewoftherelevantliterature

associatedwiththisprojectwillfollowtheintroduction.Itwillexaminetheliterature

regardinginterfaithdialogueingeneral,itsvariationsanditshistoryintheUK,before

discussingthescholarlyworkconductedonBritishMuslimsandinterfaithdialogue.

Literatureconcerningidentityconstructionandinterfaithdialoguewillbehighlighted,aswill

awiderreviewoftheoriesofidentity,Othernessandcommunity.Thislastsectionofthe

literaturereviewwillthereforeshowtherelationandimportanceoftheseconceptsto

interfaithdialogue.Followingthis,themethodologyofthestudywillbehighlightedand

discussed.Thiswillfirstlyconsiderthedecisionforaqualitativebasedstudy,andthenmove

toassesstherelevanceofusinginterviewingasamethodfordatacollectionaswellasthe

potentialassociatedshortcomings.Adiscussionofethicsassociatedwiththisresearchwill

thenfollowandtheimportanceofreflexivitythroughouttheresearch.Theanalytical

methodswillfinallybepresented,whichfocuslargelyontheconstructionistgrounded

theoryapproach(Charmaz2008).Thethreechaptersfollowingthisaredirectlydevotedto


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theresearchandconstitutethefindingsfromtheinterviewsconducted.Chapterfour

discussestheimpactthatinterfaithdialogueandworkcanhaveontheidentityofBritish

Muslims.Thefifthchapterfocusesonthecreationofcommunitythroughparticipationin

interfaithwhilsthighlightingthepracticalbenefitsparticipationcanhaveforBritish

Muslims.ThefinalfindingschapterwillfocusonhowperceptionsoftheOthershiftand

developthroughinterfaithdialogue.Thesefindingswillbebroughttogethermore

thoroughlyandtheirimplicationsassessedinthediscussionssection.


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ChapterTwo:BritishMuslimsandInterfaithDialogueintheLiteratureThischapterwillprovideanoverviewoftherelevantliteraturerelatedtoBritishMuslims

andinterfaithdialogue.Asmentionedabove,littleresearchhasbeenconductedonthe

statusofMuslimsandinterfaithdialogueintheUKwhilsttheexperiencesofBritishMuslims

takingpartininterfaithdialogueatanylevelalsohashadlittlefocus.Notwithstanding,

literatureregardingthepracticeofinterfaithdialogueisavailableandsomequalitative

researchhasbeencarriedoutontheexperiencesofpartakingindialogue,muchofwhichis

relatedtoidentityconstruction.Thissectionwillalsoassesstheliteraturerelatedto

conceptsofidentity,communityandthe‘Other’.

Interfaithdialogueandthesurroundingcontroversies Firstly,itisimportanttohighlighttheliteratureproducedregardinginterfaithin

general,itsimportance,andthevariousformsofdialogueavailable.AsPrideaux(2009,p.

460)notes,the‘enterpriseofinterfaithdialoguehasneverbeenaneasytoidentify

unchangingactivity’andthereforetheliteratureregardingthephenomenonvariesquite

considerably.Duetoitsdiversenature,differentformsofinterfaithdialoguehavebeen

assessedbyscholarsandtherearedifferingopinionsregardingtherelevanceand

effectivenessoftheavailableapproaches.AsBalmer(2005,p.9)hasnoted,therearefour

umbrellatermsfordifferenttypesofdialogueasfirstlaidoutbytheCatholicChurch.These

include:DialogueofLife,describedaslivingtogetherforfriendship,DialogueofSocial

Action,involvingworkingtogetherforpeaceandjustice,DialogueofIntellect,theprocessof

seekingdeeperunderstandingsandtruththroughdiscussionanddebate,andfinally,

DialogueofReligiousExperiencewhereindividualsshareinsightsfromprayerormeditation.

Therehasbeenmuchwrittenabouttheologicaldialogue,particularlyinassessingtexts,

oftendescribedas‘scripturalreasoning’.Aprominentviewofanumberofscholarsisthat

thereareanumberofreasons‘whyitmakessenseforinterfaithengagementamongJews,

ChristiansandMuslimstomakescripturesaprimaryfocus'(Ford2006,p.346).Notonlyisit

believedthatfocusonthescripturesthemselvescreateanenvironmentacknowledgingthe

coreoftheAbrahamictraditions’butisalsoabletoforgegoodrelationshipsbetween

participants(Cheetham2010).Scripturalreasoningisbothperceivedasinformativeanda

wayofappreciatingthe‘Other’(Lambkin2010).Conversely,therearethosethatbelievethe

‘needsandexperiencesofpeoplelivinginreligiouslydiversecommunities’withinBritain,


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arenot‘metthroughtheformallevelofdialogue’thatmanytheologiansattempttowork

(Prideaux2009,p.461).Instead,theybelieveitisthe‘informalpracticalrealityofsharing

spaceandactivities’thatisthemostimportantformofdialogue(Ibid,p.461).Others,

(Forward2001;Ramadan2004)promotetheimportanceoftheologicaldialoguebutargue

thephenomenonofteninvolvesspecialists,membersof‘fairlyclosedcircles’whoarenot

‘alwaysincontactwiththeirownreligiousgroups’(Ramadan2004,p.200).

Developmentofdialogue,itshistoryintheUKandincreasedgovernmentinterest ThehistoryoftheinterfaithmovementintheUKhasbeendocumentedbyanumber

ofscholarswhohavedescribeditsbackgroundanddevelopment.JorgenNielson(1991,p.

106),hasstudiedtheriseofinterfaithactivityintheUKfroma‘numberoflocalgroups’

whichoftenfailedto‘establishsomekindofcontinuity’,totheInterfaithNetwork,founded

in1987,awell-representedandactivebodyreceiving‘substantialgrants’.Similarly,

Cracknell(1985,p.452)hasdescribedthedevelopmentoftheinterfaithmovement,which

wasacceleratedbythelarge-scaleemigrationtoBritainduring‘thefiftiesandsixties’which

inturn,drasticallyalteredthereligiousmakeupoftheBritishIsles.Morerecently,literature

onthestateofinterfaithaffairsinBritainandthroughout‘Western’nationsingeneralhave

largelyfocusedonincreasedgovernmentalinvolvement.Smithnotesthat‘inrecentyears,

religionhasmovedupthepoliticalagenda’andan‘officialdiscourseandpolicyinitiative

structuredaroundthenotionoffaithcommunitieshasemerged’(Smith2004,p.185).As

governmentshaverealisedthe‘socialcapital’obtainedfromfaithcommunitiesandthe

beneficialworktheydo,notonlycontributingtosocietybutoccasionallyprovidingservices

thatmayhavepreviouslybeenexpectedfromtheWelfareState,theyhavebecome

increasinglyinterestedininterfaithdialogueandaction(Smith2004;Dinham2012).Finally,

andmorecloselyassociatedwithBritishMuslims,increasedgovernmentinterestanda

developmentinpolicytowardsinterfaithcommunitieshasbeenassociatedwithsecurity.

Halafoff(2011)hasarguedthatsincetheattackson11thSeptember2001,stateactorsinthe

UKandotherWesternnationssuchasAustraliahave‘increasinglyinitiatedandsupported’

whatcanbetermed‘multi-faith’activities‘withafocusonsocialinclusionandcountering

radicalisation’(p.453).Someauthors(Braybrooke2007;Halafoff2011,2012),havenoted

thatengagementsbetweendifferentcommunitiesoffaithhaveshiftedemphasisonto

promotingsocialcohesionandcounteringradicalisation,particularlyofyoungBritish


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Muslims,andthereforethephilosophicalandtheologicalbasisforinterfaithinitiativesand

dialoguehavemorerecentlybeenmarginalised.

Muslimparticipationininterfaithdialogue Ashighlightedabove,therehasbeenlittleacademicliteratureproducedregarding

BritishMuslims’participationininterfaithdialogue.However,despiteacoherentbodyof

literaturemissing,somestudieshavebeenundertaken.Siddiqi(2006;2010)has

documentedthedevelopmentintheparticipationofBritishMuslimsandinterfaithdialogue

inBritainfromthe1960’s.InitiallyMuslimcommunitiesfailed‘toseize’onthe‘valuable

examples’ofinterfaithdialoguepromoted‘bytheChurches’andtherefore‘verylittleorany

progressinearlyinter-faithencounters’wasmade(Siddiqi2010,p.238).Despiteincreased

participationininterfaithdialoguefromthe1970’sonwards,Siddiqihasarguedthat

‘Muslimshavenotsufficientlyequippedthemselveswithexploring’themulti-religiousand

multi-culturalcontext’inwhichtheyfindthemselvesin,whichhasconstrainedtheirability

topartakeininterfaithdialogue,perhapscompoundedbyinterfaithdialogueseemingly‘not

beingatheologicalpriorityforMuslimsinBritain(Ibid,p.250).Halafoff(2011)has

highlightedthat‘whereasprior’to9/11,Christiancommunitiesreporteddifficultyin

engagingMuslimcommunities,‘aftertheattacks,Muslimcommunitiesbecamemore

proactiveininitiatingdialogueandeducationalactivities’(p.460).Thisinterestintensified

aftertheJuly2005bombings,leadingto‘MuslimcommunitiesandImamsbecomingfar

moreproactiveandopen’todialogueandinterfaithactivities(Halafoff2011,p.461).Other

literatureonMuslimsandinterfaithdialoguehasfocusedonthecontemporarypracticein

theUnitedStates(Smith2004;Takim2004)where‘increaseddialogueandinteraction’

representsasignificantparadigmshiftand‘formostmembersoftheMuslimcommunity

dialoguebetweenpeopleofdifferentfaithsinanenvironmentofmutualrespectand

acceptanceisarelativelynewphenomenon’(Takim2004,p.345).

Identityconstructionandinterfaithdialogue ThereisalimitedamountofresearchonMuslimexperiencesofinterfaithdialogue,

thoughthishasmostlybeenrestrictedtotheEuropeancontinentandtheUnitedStates.

Whatresearchthathasbeenproduced,foralargepart,focusesonidentityconstruction.

CharaniyaandWalsh(2001)studiedChristian,JewishandMuslimresponsestoparticipating

indialogue.InAdultLearningintheContextofInterreligiousDialogue(2001),itwasfound


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thattakingpartininterfaithdialoguenotonlyaffectedthewayindividualssaw‘theOther’,

butitalsohadaconsiderableimpactonone’sownidentity.‘Participantsdescribed’a

transitionfrom‘amonolithictoamultidimensionalunderstandingoftheOthermanifested

throughanintimate,personalandinterpersonalengagementofSelfandOther’(Ibid,p.

201).Identitywasoftenaffectedandstrengthenedthroughrepresentingtheirreligion

whilstadditionallybeingforcedtostudytheirownreligioustraditioninadifferentway.Crist

(2014)hasconcludedinMaintainingReligiousIdentityintheWakeofInterfaithDialogue

practicesofinteractionswithpeopleofotherfaithscanleadtohigheridentitycomplexity

andthereforeareducedmotivation‘forin-groupbias’and‘out-group’intolerance.Despite

‘oneoftheendgoalsofinterfaithdialogue’beingto‘reducetheintoleranceandprejudice’

inpeople’sreligions,Cristbelievescertainformsofdialoguecanhaveanegativeimpacton

individuals’personalandcollectiveidentity(p.17).

Ontheotherhand,therearethosearguingthatinterfaithdialoguehastheabilityto

haveapositiveimpactonidentityconstruction(Waardenburg2000;Reedijik2010;Hedges

2014).RachelReedijk,inherwork,RootsandRoutes:IdentityConstructionandChristian-

Jewish-MuslimDialogue,studieshowidentitiesaredevelopedandconstructedthrough

dialogue,particularlyasmanyarguethat‘onecannotstandbehindone’sownfaith

community’andspendtimewithpeopleofotherreligions–inotherwords,theycannot

‘cherishone’sownidentityandletonebeinspiredbyalienpractices’(Ibid,p.4).Reedjik

believesparticipationininterfaithdialoguenotonlycontributesto‘thecontinuityand

reinforcement’ofcollectiveidentitiesbutisalsoimportantinhelpingtoreduceprejudice

(Ibid,p.316).Throughcontact,Reedjikarguesthatviewsofthe‘Other’aredevelopedand

oftenbecomemorepositive.DespitethisworkincludingJewishandChristianinterview

participantsfromBritain,allofthethirteenMuslimparticipantswerefromeitherHollandor

France,meaningaBritishvoicewasabsentinthisresearch.HopkinsandHopkins(2006;

2007),fromasocialpsychologyperspectivehavefocusedonBritishMuslimsandtheir

experiencesofintergroupcontact,someofwhichhasinvolvedstudyingparticipationin

interfaithdialogue.Conclusionsdrawnfromqualitativeinterviewingsuggestintergroup

contactandthefriendshipsmade‘allowedtherealisationofone’sIslamicidentification’

whilstactingasarepresentativeof‘theirgroupbothinnarrowandbroadsense’

contributedtoIslamicidentity(Hopkins2007,p.690).


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TheoriesofCommunity/Identity/OthernessThereisanabundanceofliteraturerelatingtotheoriesofidentity,theconceptof

communityandtheimportanceoftheOther.Althoughtheseconceptsarelikelytoinfluence

eachotherintheirformation,itisimportanttohighlighttheindividualbodiesofliterature

availableregardingeachtheory.Theoriesregardingidentityhavebeenlargelydeveloped

fromtheSymbolicInteractionist(Mead1934;Blumer1962)andSocialConstructionist

(BergerandLuckmann1966)perspectives.ContinuingonfromMead’sideasthatindividuals

adjusttheirbehaviourandself-imagebaseduponinteractionsandself-reflectionregarding

theseinteractions,IrvingGoffmanconcludedinThePresentationofSelfinEverydayLife

(1959)thatidentityislargelya‘performance’.InStigma(1963),Goffmanclaimedthatthere

werethreetypesofidentity–socialidentity,personalidentityandegoidentity.Ithasbeen

arguedbysome(Burns1992;Clarke2008)thatFoucaultwasinfluencedbytheworkof

Goffmanregardingtheconstructionofidentity.InMadnessandCivilisation(1964),Foucault

noteshowtheselfisconstructedinrelationtoexternaldiscoursesdefining‘normal’

FoucaultconcludedinaHistoryofSexuality,Volumes1-3(1976–1984),thatthescientific

ideaofsexualityhadbeenconstructed,and,throughtechnologiesoftheself,believe

expertscanhelpconstitutethetruthaboutoursenseofbeing,ofself,andofidentity.

Inthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury,morespecifictheoriesofidentitywere

produced.Stryker(2000,p.284)notesthatthe‘languageofidentityisubiquitousin

contemporarysocialscience’andthereis‘considerablevariabilityinbothitsconceptual

meaningsanditstheoreticalrole’-evenwhen‘considerationisrestrictedtosociologyand

socialpsychology,variationisstillconsiderable’.SocialIdentityTheory(TajfelandTurner

1986)isoneimportantconceptofidentityandisoftenassociatedwithsocialpsychology.

Withtheintentionofbeingatheoryofintergrouprelations,groupprocessesandthesocial

self,thegeneralideaisthatindividualsseethemselvesasbelongingtoaparticularsocial

categoryandthatthesemembershipsarerepresentedasasocialidentitythatinfluences

howonebelievesoneshouldthink,feelandbehave.Self-CategorisationTheory(Turner

1985)isafurtherdevelopmentofSocialIdentityTheorywhichemphasisestheprocessesof

categorisation,concludingthattheselfandOthersarecategorisedintoin-groupandout-

groupswhichdefinespeople’ssocialidentityandinfluencestheirperceivedsimilaritytothe

definingfeaturesofthegroups.DespiteSocialIdentityTheorycomingfromthefieldof


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socialpsychology,somehavenoted(Hoggetal1995)howitisrelativelydistinctinways,

makingitcomparabletosociologicaltheoriesasitattemptstoexplaingroupbehaviourin

termsofconceptsthatarticulatesocietalandpsychologicalprocesses,recognisingthe

primacyofsocietyovertheindividual.Secondly,IdentityTheory(Stryker1968,1986;

McCallandSimmons1978)insociology,explainssocialbehaviourintermsofreciprocal

relationsbetweentheselfandsociety.Itviewstheselfnotasanautonomouspsychological

entitybutasamulti-facetedsocialconstructthatemergesfrompeople’srolesinsociety.

Thetheorymaintainsthatindividualsacquireroleidentitieswhichtheydistinguishfrom

counterroles,andultimatelyitisthroughsocialinteractionthatidentitiesacquireself-

meaning(BurkeandReitzes1981).Finally,CollectiveIdentities(Melucci1989;2003)

developedasamethodofunderstandinghowsocialmovementsform.Collectiveidentityin

shortisaprocessbywhichasetofindividualsorgroups‘interacttocreateasharedsenseof

identityorgroupconsciousness’(AndriotandOwens2012)andthereforehasexplicit

connectionswithideassurroundingcommunity.

‘Community’isatermwidelyusedbythoseinthesocialsciencesandhumanities

andasCrowandAllannote,itsusedoes‘nothaveonesinglemeaningbutmany’(1994,p.

3).AccordingtoCrowandAllan,communityresearch‘hashadachequeredhistoryover

recentdecades,withthreebroadphasesbeingidentifiableintheperiodsincetheSecond

WorldWar’(Ibid,p.13).Duringthe1950’sand1960’scommunitystudiesfocusedonlocal

sociallifewithaspecificinterestinfamilyandkinshipnetworks,politicalandreligious

attachmentsandworkpatternsatalocallevel.Thisdescriptivestylewascritiquedinthe

1970’sbythosebelievingthatthesepreviousstudiesneglectedexplicitdiscussionof

methodologicalandtheoreticalimplicationsoftheresearch(Elias1974).Littleempirical

researchwascarriedoutandtheconceptofcommunitywas‘slowlybeingevictedfrom

Britishsociety’(Abrams1978,p.13).Gusfield(1975),duringthisperiodofincreased

theoreticalresearchintotheconceptofcommunity,arguedthattherewasarelational

theoryofcommunity,differenttoanobjectivelygivenentityinwhichonebelongs(p.7).

Thisuseoftheconceptofcommunityexpressestheimportance‘tothequalityofcharacter

ofhumanrelationshipwithoutreferencetolocation’andthroughthisusage,community‘is

acharacteristicofsomehumanrelationshipsratherthanaboundedanddefinedgroup’

(Ibid,p.xvi).However,aninterestincommunitystudiesre-emergedinthe1980’sand


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1990’sasCrowandAllanhighlight(1994,p.17),bothexplicitlybythosesuchasBulmer

(1985)andWilmott(1985),andbythosewhowantedtodistancethemselvesfromthe

term,suchasCooke(1989),whodevelopedhisargumentthattheterm‘locality’shouldbe

usedforthisfieldofresearch,ratherthan‘community’.

Anthropologistsalsocontributedgreatlytothestudyofcommunityinthelatterhalf

ofthetwentiethcentury,directingattention‘tothesymbolicboundariesaround

communities’(CrowandAlan1994,p.xv).Cohen’sASymbolicConstructionofCommunity

(1985)wasanimportantcontributiontothefieldwhicharguedthatcommunitiescouldbe

understoodas‘communitiesofmeaning’whichplayasymbolicroleincreatingand

sustainingpeople’ssenseofbelonging.ImportantinCohen’sworkistheideaofthe

symbolicconstructionofboundaries,meaningthatcommunitieshavean‘oppositional

character’andare‘relational’;they‘markthecommunityinrelationtoothercommunities’

(Ibid,p.62).ItisalsoimportanttonoteMcMillanandChavis’ASenseofCommunity:A

DefinitionandTheory(1986)whichprovidesanumberofwaysinwhichasenseofbelonging

andcommunitycanbeconstructed,andlookstoprovidea‘theoreticalunderstandingof

whatsenseofcommunityisandhowitworks’(Ibid,p.8).Finally,buildingonDurkheim’s

ideas,theideaofemotionalcommunitywasputforwardbyMaffesoli(1996)inTheTimeof

theTribes:TheDeclineofIndividualisminMassSociety.Theseareformedwhenindividuals

display‘empathywithlikemindedpeople’andthroughadesireto‘formsolidaritybasedon

sharedethicalandaestheticvalues’(Hetherington1998,p.64).

Lastly,andlargelyconnectedtotheconceptsofidentityandcommunity,istheidea

of‘Otherness’.GeorgeHerbertMead’sworkMind,SelfandSociety(1934),oneofthe

foundationaltextsregardingSymbolicInteractionistTheories,highlightstheimportanceof

Othersintheformationofidentity,throughagreement,disagreement,andnegotiationwith

otherpeople.SimonedeBeauvoir(1949)laterarguedthatOthernessisafundamental

categoryofhumanthoughtandthatnogroupeversetsitselfupwithoutsimultaneously

establishinganOther,forexample,indeBeauvoir’swork,womenwerealwaysdefinedand

differentiatedwithreferencetomen.Similarly,MichelFoucault(1964;1978)arguedthat

theprocessofOtheringislinkedtopower,ofteninfluencingbehaviourandinteraction

whilsthighlightingthatthenegotiationofidentityalsoofteninvolvestheOther.Edward

Said’sOrientalism(1978)alsodiscussestheprocessofOtheringwherehearguesthatideas


13

andpracticesfromthe‘West’orthe‘Occident’havealwaysbeenprivilegedover,and

comparedandcontrastedwith,thosefromtheEastorArabcountries-thoseoftheOrient.

IntermsofreducingprejudicetowardstheconstructedOther,research

predominantlyinsocialpsychologyhasbeencarriedout,basedonGordonAllport’s(1954)

‘contact’thesisinTheNatureofPrejudice.Allport(1954,p.281)hypothesisedthat

‘prejudicemaybereducedbyequalstatuscontactbetweenmajorityandminoritygroupsin

thepursuitofcommongoals’.Pettigrew(1998)hasarguedthattherearefourprocessesof

changewhichhelptoreduceprejudice–learningabouttheout-group,changingbehaviour,

generatingaffectivetiesandin-groupreappraisal.Morerecently,anumberofapproaches

havebeendevelopedtoassesshowpositiveexperiencesofcontactcanbeextendedand

generalisedtotheout-group.Thesehaveincludedmakinggroupsaliencylowsopeople

focusonindividualcharacteristicsandnotgrouplevelattributes(BrewerandMiller,1984),

emphasisingtheimportanceofgroupsaliencysotheeffectisgeneralisedtoothers

(JohnstonandHewstone1984),andmakinganoverarchingcommonin-groupidentity

salient(Gartneretal1993).

Thesetheoriesofidentity,communityandprejudicereductionoftheOtherwillbe

revisitedinthefindingssectionandappliedwhenappropriatetoexplaintheexperiencesof

BritishMuslims’participationininterfaithdialogueandwork.Areviewoftheliterature

showsthatingeneral,littleattentionhasbeengiventoBritishMuslimsexperiencesof

dialogue.Identityisanimportantconcepttostudyduetosomedebatesurroundingthe

effectsofinterfaith.Similarly,contactintermsofinterfaithdialogueingeneralisoften

assumedtoimprovetheviewsoftheOther.Howeveritisimportanttodetailtheprocesses

ofhowitoccurs.Thesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheconceptswillalsobe

highlightedbutitiscrucialatthispointtoreiteratethattheseconceptsoverlap,as

previouslymentioned.Thisislargelyduetotheimportanceofout-groupsintheformation

ofidentityandcommunity,andinthewayinwhichtheOtherisviewed.


14

ChapterThree:MethodologyA‘researcher’smethodologicalapproach’is‘underpinnedby’and‘reflectsspecific

ontologicalandepistemologicalassumptions’;itisthereforeimportanttohighlightthe

‘researchmethodsadopted’(Grix2002,p.179).Withregardstotheontologicalapproach,

thestudyofthingsthatexistandthestudyofbeingandthestudyofwhatexists,this

researchisbasedupontheConstructivistorInterpretivistapproach.Thisposition,often

describedasrelativist,positsthattheworldis‘interpretedthroughthemind’and‘although

theworldisnotconsideredasunreal’,realityasweknowitisconstructedintersubjectively

(WilliamsandMay1996,p.59).Intermsofepistemology,the‘relationshipbetweenwhat

weknowandwhatwesee’,Irelyontheseontologicalassumptionsandthereforetakea

‘transactionalorsubjectiviststandpoint’whichhighlightstheimportanceof‘co-created

findings’(GubaandLincoln2005,p.195).Thisperspectivesupposesthatoverarching,

inseparableideasformwhatweknowandhowwethink.Asnotedabove,itiscrucialthat

theseontologicalandepistemologicalassumptionsarerealisedasnotonlydotheyimpact

thechoiceofmethodsusedtoconductresearch,buttheyfurtherinfluenceideasrelatedto

researchvalues,ethicalissues,‘inquirerposture’andissuesofreflexivity(Denzinand

Lincoln2013,p.226).

Thedecisionforaqualitativebasedstudy

Havingaddressedtherelevantliteratureandoutlinedtheresearchquestionsand

objectives,itisimportanttoexplainthereasonsbehindtheselectionofqualitativemethods

forthisproject.Thetwooverarchingmethodsusedinthesocialsciences,quantitativeand

qualitativeresearch,areoftendescribedinoppositiontooneanother,although‘qualitative

andquantitativemethodscanlinkinthedesignofastudy,andtheuseof‘mixedmethods’

isbecomingincreasinglypopular’(Flick2009,p.25).Quantitativeresearchreliesonthe

collectionofquantitativedatainnumericalformandfocusesonhypothesisortheory

testing.Althoughaquantitativestudywouldhaveofferedawidersample-forinstancea

surveyontheinfluenceofinterfaithdialoguesurroundingidentity,communityandattitudes

towardstheOther,theemphasisofthisresearchattemptedtounderstandtheexperiences

ofpartakingininterfaithdialogueandassessingitsimpactontheaboveconcepts.In

addition,asliteratureoninterfaithdialoguenotes,itisdifficulttodefineandtherearea

varietyofwaysinwhichdialogueisconducted.Duetothesubjectivityofthepracticeand


15

thepotentialforawidediversityofexperiences,‘astandardisedframework’,implemented

‘inordertolimitdatacollectiontoacertainpredeterminedresponseofanalysing

categories’,appearsproblematic(Patton1980,p.22)

Qualitativemethodsontheotherhand,canget‘undertheskinofaphenomenon’

(BalnavesandCaputi2001,p.8).Researchbaseduponqualitativemethodsismoresuitable

whentheaimisto‘findoutwhatpeople’slives,experiences,andinteractionmeantothem

intheirownterms’whilstdescribing‘theirexperiencesindepth’(Patton1980,p.22).

Althoughquantitativemethodsaremoreappropriatewhenlookingat‘causality’,qualitative

methodsare‘moresuitedtolookingatthemeaningofparticularevents’(Balnavesand

Caputi2001,p.8).Thereforeaqualitativeapproachcertainlylendsbettertodiscovering

thediversityofBritishMuslimexperiencesthroughinterfaithdialogueparticipation,whilst

obtainingadatasetof‘thickdescription’(Geertz1973),promotingagreaterdepthof

analysis.Finally,‘exploratoryqualitativeresearch’ismorelikelyto‘develop’theorieswhich

remainsanimportantpartofthisstudy.(BalnavesandCaputi2001,p.8).

Interviewingasanappropriatemethod

AstheresearchaimedtogaininformationregardingBritishMuslims’experiencesof

partakingininterfaithdialogue,themostsuitablemethodtoobtainthisdatawasthrough

theuseofinterviews.Asemi-structuredlifeworldinterviewformatwaschosen,amethod

whichaimstounderstand‘socialphenomenafromtheactor’sownperspectives…withthe

assumptionthattheimportantrealityiswhatpeopleperceiveittobe’(Kvaleand

Brinkmann2015,p.30).AsCookandFarmer(2011,p.2)explain,thepurposeofthis

interviewis‘toobtaindescriptionsofthelifeworldofindividualswhohaveexperienceda

particularphenomenon’-inthiscasepartakingininterfaithdialogue-inorderto‘interpret

themeaningofthatphenomenon’andis‘closelyalignedtothegoalofthe

phenomenologist’:to‘describetheessenceofanindividual’slivedexperienceofaparticular

phenomenon’.

Whendesigningtheproject,arangeofqualitativemethodswereconsideredasa

wayofresearchingtheexperiencesofBritishMuslims.Observationmethods,particularlyin

theformofobserver-as-participantwasonealternativemethodthatcouldhavepotentially

beenused.Gold(1958)describestheobserver-as-participantmethodasaresearcherwho


16

participatesingroupactivitywiththemainfocusofcollectingdata.Thegroupbeingstudied

isawareoftheresearcherasanoutsider,someonewhoisinterestedinparticipatingasa

meansofgeneratingmorecompleteunderstandingofthegroup’sactivities.Itmayfor

instance,havebeenpossibletoviewthedevelopingofbetterrelationswiththoseofother

religionsthroughchangingbodylanguageandtalkin‘settingsthatarethenaturallociof

thoseactivities’–interfaithdialoguemeetings,discussionsandactivities(Agrosinoand

MaysdePerez2000,p.673).Certainly,observationcanbebeneficialandan‘appropriate

methodofdatacollection…whenyouwanttolearnabouttheinteractioninagroup’(Kumar

2014,p.172).

Notwithstanding,Iforesawanumberofissuesassociatedwithadoptingobservation

asamethodforobtainingdata.Firstly,ithasbeennotedthat‘whenindividualsorgroups

becomeawarethattheyarebeingobserved,theymaychangetheirbehaviour’(Kumar

2014,p.174).Thiscouldhavepotentiallyoccurredwhilstobservingdialoguegroupswhere

individualstriedtostressthepositiveeffectsofdialogue,andoverlyarticulatedamore

positivesenseofcommunity.Secondly,itisunusualforinterfaithdialogueoractivityto

occuronregularoccasionsandobservationappearstobeamoreappropriatemethod

wheretheresearcherisabletoviewinteractionsonmultipleoccasions.Finally,andperhaps

mostimportantly,theaimofthisresearchistoassesstheexperiencesofBritishMuslims

whopartakeininterfaithdialogueandwhetherconceptssuchasidentityandcommunity

wereaffectedbyinteractionwithotherfaiths.Axiomatically,‘wecannotobservefeelings,

thoughtsandintentions’,nor‘situationsthattookplaceatsomepreviouspointintime’or

‘howpeoplehaveorganisedtheworldandthemeaningtheyattachtowhatgoeson’

(Patton1980,p.196),whichlimitstheuseofmethodsbasedonobservationinthis

research.

Oneothermethodconsideredasanalternativetointerviewingwasconductinga

focusgroup.Atypicalfocusgroupsessionconsistsofadiscussionamongasmallnumberof

participantsundertheguidanceofa‘moderator’whoifsuitablyskilled,can‘effectively

drawoutthefeelingsandideasofthemembersofthegroupinvolvedinfocusgroup

interviewing’(BergandLune2013,p.167).Therewerepotentialadvantagestoconducting

focusgroupresearch,notleastbecauseitmayhaveallowedforanincreasednumberof

participantsinthestudy,particularlyifIhadbeenableto‘traveltoaplace’wherethe


17

‘targetpopulation’had‘alreadycongregated’,forexamplefollowinganinterfaithmeeting

orevent(Ibid,p.168).Inaddition,thefocusgrouphasoftenbeencommendedforbeing

‘morenaturalistic’(Wilkinson2004,p.180),thanone-to-oneinterviews,meaningthey

includearangeofcommunicativeprocesses,allowingfortheproductionofamorediverse

dataset.Reducedresearchercontrolisafurthercommoncharacteristicoffocusgroups,

whichcanprovideamoreethicalinterviewprocedure‘enablingparticipantstodevelop

themesimportanttothem’whilstalsodrawingtheresearcher’sattention‘topreviously

neglectedorunnoticedphenomena’(Ibid,p.181).

Despitethevarietyofbenefitsassociatedwiththefocusgroupmethod,‘ifthe

purposeoftheresearch’istostudyindividualsthroughcategorisationandcomparingthe

‘livesthattheyleadortheviewsthattheyhold,thenfocusgroupsarelessappropriate’

(Wilkinson2004,p.194).Inaddition,definitionsofinterfaithdialogueandtheconceptsof

identity,communityandOthernessarelikelydiverseandpersonaltoindividualstherefore

makingone-to-oneinterviewingmoreappropriate.Furthermore,asBergandLunenote

(2013,p175),‘traditionalinterviewingstylespermitamoredetailedpursuitofcontent

informationthanispossibleinfocusgroupdiscussion’.Inotherwords,importantconcepts

associatedwiththisresearchsuchasidentitymaynotbeadequatelycoveredinthefocus

group.Lastly,ithasbeennotedthatthemoderatormustbethoroughlyexperiencedinthe

process,aqualitythatIdidnotconfidentlypossess,andwouldthereforehavetospend

time‘practicingthepacingoftopicsandquestions,handlingresistantoverzealous

participantsanddrawingoutinformationfromparticipants’,whichwasnotfeasibleforthe

timescaleorsizeofthisresearch(Ibid,p.172).

Althoughcomingtothedecisiontoadoptinterviewingastheappropriateformof

datacollection,Iwasawareofthepotentialdisadvantagesofthismethodandwasreflexive

andcriticalinbothinterviewdesignandconduct.Similarly,asKatherineRoulston(2010,p.

224)hashighlighted,‘researcher’stheoreticalassumptionsaboutqualitativeinterviews

haveimplicationsforhowresearchinterviewsarestructured,thekindsofresearch

questionsmadepossible’andthequestionsposed’.Ithereforetookintoaccounttheideas

ofthosewhoadvocateaconstructionistapproachtointerviewing(GubriumandHolstein

1997;Roulston2010),whichfocuslargelyon‘theprocessesthroughwhichsocialrealities

areconstructedandsustained’(Silverman2015,p.24-5).Despitetakingtheseviewsinto


18

account,Ihaveassumedthat,throughcriticalreflectionofmyownpositionand

preconceptions,Ihavesuccessfullygeneratedusefuldata.AsCharmazandBryant(2011,p.

299)note,‘interviewsmaybespecialsocialspacesinwhichresearchparticipantscanreflect

onthepastandlinkittothepresentandfutureinnewways’,andweshould‘notdisqualify

interviewsfromprovidingrichdataandsparkinganalyticinsights’.

Therearenumerousbenefitstousinginterviewsasthebasisofaproject,and‘the

majority’ofthecontemporary‘qualitativeresearcharticlesuseinterviews’(Silverman2015,

p.168).Interviewscanbeusedto‘findoutfromthemthosethingswecannotdirectly

observe’,including‘feelings,thoughtsandperceptions’,allofwhichwereimportantfocuses

ofthisdissertation(Patton1980,p.196)andthereforeperhapsmakeinterviewingmore

appropriatethanotherqualitativemethodssuchasparticipantobservation.Openended

andflexiblequestionsarelikelytoobtainaconsideredresponseandprovide‘accessto

interviewee’sviews,interpretationsofevents,understanding,experiencesandopinions’

(Silverman2015,p.171).Thesemi-structuredapproachtointerviewingfitsbetweenthe

structuredandunstructuredmethodsofinterviewing.Astructuredinterviewconsistsofa

fixedsetofclosedquestions,withlittlescopetomovebeyondtheparticulartopicandis

oftenassociatedwithquantitativeresearch.Theunstructuredinterviewinvolvespresenting

openquestionsandtheresearcherlookstominimisetheirimpactduringtheirencounter.

Thismethodisoftenbeendescribedasbeingclosetoaneverydayconversation.Thesemi-

structuredinterviewtoalargedegree,combinesthebenefitsofthetwoabovemethodsof

interviewing,providinganinterviewguidewithspecificquestionstofocusonimportant

themeswhilstallowingtheparticipanttoraiseandexpanduponalternatepointsofinterest.

Issuesofreflexivityandethicalconsiderations

Asmyresearchinvolvedgainingaccesstointerviewparticipantsandsubsequently

acquiringinformationregardingtheirexperiences,thoughtsandopinions,itwasnecessary

togainapprovalfromtheResearchEthicsCommitteeatCardiffUniversity.Centraltomost

ethicalguidelinesistheideaofinformedconsent(Silverman2015,p.149).Thismeansthat

theresearchsubjectshavethe‘righttoknowthattheyarebeingresearched,therighttobe

informedaboutthenatureoftheresearchandtherighttowithdrawatanytime’(Ryen

2004,p.231).Itwasimportantthatthisinformationwaspresentedpriortoconductingany


19

research.Inaddition,thisrightto‘tobeinformed’meansthat‘potentialresearchsubjects’

shouldbegivena‘detailed’but‘non-technicalaccountofthenatureandaims’ofthe

proposedstudy(Silverman2015,p.149).Althoughitwasproposedthattherewasnotany

realisticriskoftheparticipantsexperiencingpsychologicaldistressordiscomfort,ora

detrimenttotheirinterestsasaresultofparticipation,itwasimportanttotakeintoaccount

thatintervieweesweremembersofaminoritycommunityoftensubjectedtoprejudiceand

discrimination(Allen2010;PetleyandRichardson2011).Theopportunitytowithdrawfrom

theinterviewatanytimewasthereforestressedtoalloftheresearchparticipants.

AsSilverman(2015,p.153)notes,‘Semi-structuredinterviewsallowindividualsto

disclosethoughtsandfeelingswhichareclearlyprivate’andthismethodofdatacollection

inparticularreliesontheinterpersonalskillsoftheinterviewer,theabilitytoestablisha

relationshipandobtainrapport-qualitiesthatare‘valuablebutethicallyverysensitive’.Itis

crucialtherefore,that‘thetypesofquestionstobeasked,issuesofconfidentialityandat

timesanonymityhavetobethoroughlyassessed’(Ibid,p.153).Initially,Iconsidered

providingtheoptionforparticipantstobeidentifiedinthedissertationas‘certainpeoplein

certaincontextsmayactuallywanttobeidentified’inreportsproducedonresearchand

may‘feelletdowniftheiridentityisconcealed’(Silverman2015,p.146).Certainly,asClark

(2006,p.9-10)notes,itis‘worthconsideringwhetherresearchparticipantswanttoremain

anonymous’as‘ifanindividualchoosesnottobeanonymisedinresearchoutputs’

preferringto‘tellhis/herstoryupfront,thisraisesimportantquestionsaboutwhohas

ultimatecontrolovertheresearchdata’.Despitetheseconcerns,afterdiscussionwithmy

supervisor,Iconcludedthatitwouldbebesttoattempttoanonymisethedataasfaras

possible.

Anonymisingidentifyinginformationwasimportant,particularlybecauseinterfaith

dialoguehasbeenseenbysomeindividualsandgroupsintheBritishMuslimcommunityas

anegativepracticeandadetrimenttogroupinterests(HopkinsandHopkins2006).There

were,however,practical,ethical,andepistemologicalconsiderationsassociatedwith

anonymisingthedatacollectedthatneededtobeconsidered.Iattemptedtoensurethe

privacyoftheresearchparticipantsthroughensuringthattheinterviewtranscriptsdidnot

include‘concreteinformationaboutrealpersonsandsites’(Flick2007,p.75).Thishowever

wasnotalwayspossibleasbackgroundinformationand‘contextwerecrucialin


20

understandingreallife’(Clark2006,p.12).Theimportanceofcontextandtheissuesof

anonymisingdatasetshasbeenhighlightedbyClark(2006,p.12),particularlyhowcontext

shouldnotbeviewedasasinglelayerofbackgrounddataasit‘iscrucialtounderstandhow

thiscontextcontributestotheconstructionsofthesocialworld’andthereforecanhave

ethicalimplicationsassociatedwiththevalidityandreliabilityoftheresearch.The

importanceofcontextinanalysisoftheinterviewsconducted,therefore,meantthatsome

ofthedatacollectedwasnotanonymisedimmediately.Consequently,Iensuredthatonce

theinterviewshadbeentranscribed,theywerekeptsecurelyonapasswordprotected

computerandbackeduponapasswordprotectedUSBflashdrive.Completeanonymityin

mostsocialresearchmaybeimpossibletoachieve(SingletonandStrait1999;Clark2006)

and‘ifthepotentialforidentificationexists,thenbeingopenandhonestwithparticipantsis

ofcoursethemostethicalofallanonymisationstrategies’(Clarke2006,p,14).Thus,

despiteattemptingtoanonymiseidentifyingfeaturesofthedata,Iinformedthe

participantsofthepotentialissuesofidentification.

Theissueofreflexivitywasalsoimportant,as‘unlikequantitativeresearch,

qualitativemethodstaketheresearcher’scommunicationwiththefieldasanexplicitpartof

knowledgeinsteadofdeemingitaninterveningvariable’(Flick2009,p.16).Theimportance

ofthepracticeofreflexivityhasbeengroundedinpost-structuralistandconstructionist

studieswhichrenouncetheideaofresearcherobjectivityandespousetheideathat

multipletruthsandinterpretationscomefromtheinterplaybetweenindividuals(Steedman

1961,pp.57-8).Becauseitis‘indispensableforthesubjectasselftoparticipatewith

anothersubjectasOther’,itwascrucialthatIactivelyengagedwithmyinterview

participants(Maranhão,1991p.226).Thiscanbedonethroughacknowledgingand

scrutinising‘actionsandobservationsinthefield’alongwith‘impressions,irritations,

feelings’andthisbecomesdatainits‘ownright’(Flick2009,p.16).Toensurethatthiswas

thoroughlypracticed,IkeptaresearchdiarywhereIcouldreflectonfeelingsandbiasesat

differentstagesoftheresearchprocessandanalysehowtheseviewsandperceptionsmay

haveimpacteduponmyresearch.OneotherwaythatIattemptedtopracticereflexivitywas

duringthetimeofinterviewwhereIattemptedtocreateadialoguewiththeparticipantsto

ensurebetterinteractionandunderstanding.Thiswascarriedoutinattemptingto‘de-


21

privilegetheresearchclass’andthusdeconstructpreconceivedideastocreatearealitythat

isdependentontheparticipants(Steier1991,pp.7-8).

Ialsonotedthatmyidentityandbackground,whetherperceivedorrealmayaffect

thewaymyparticipantsinteractedwithmeduringtheinterviewstagesofresearch.Not

onlywasIlikelyseenasan‘outsider’or‘Other’asIdidnotcomefromwithintheMuslim

community,butIalsodonotcomefromareligiousbackground,whichmayhavereduced

theamountthatmyparticipantseitherwantedtotellmeorbelievedthatIwouldbeableto

understandaboutinterfaithdialogue.BothBolognani(2007)andMcLoughlin(2000)

describetheirreligiousbackgroundofCatholicismashavinganimpactontheirparticipants,

withBolognani(2007,p.286)describingitasencouragingtheMuslimcommunityinher

studytoviewherassomeonewhohad‘goodmorals’and‘followedareligiouscode’,and

thereforeassomeonewho‘couldbetrusted’.Ontheotherhand,itmayhavebeenthatmy

positionassomeonewhoisnotamemberofthe‘Muslimcommunity’,atalocalornational

level,allowedmyparticipantstoopenuptoalargerdegree.Thisisduetothefactthat

therehavebeenthoseintheMuslimcommunitywhohaveseeninterfaithdialogueasa

problem,perceivingitasamethodusedtodiluteMuslimidentity,amethodusedby

governmentstomonitorBritishMuslims,orsimplythatitrisksconversiontootherreligions.

Similarly,asIdonotcomefromareligiousbackground,myinterviewparticipantsmayhave

hadtheopportunitytomoreopenlyexpresstheirviewsregardingtheimpactthatithadon

theirattitudetowardotherreligionsorthesenseofcommunityitcreated.Finally,becauseI

hadnottakenpartininterfaithdialogue–apartfromattendingtwoeventspriorto

conductingtheinterviews,Ihadlittlepersonalexperienceoftheconcept.Although

experienceorthestatusasan‘insider’canenabletheresearchertogainrapportwith

researchparticipantsandunderstandcertainissuesorevenstatementsmorethoroughly

duetosharedexperiencesandlanguage,Imay,insomecases,havebeenadvantagedas

personalexperienceorattachmentcanpotentially‘cloudtheresearcher’sperceptions’or

meanthattheyhavedifficultyseparating‘theseexperiencesfromthoseoftheparticipants’

(DwyerandBuckle2009,p.58).IthereforeensuredthatIstudiedhowsubjectiverealities

caninfluencethecreationaswellastheinterpretationofdata.


22

DataanalysisIadoptedsomeofthekeytenetsofGroundedTheory(GlaserandStraus1967)in

theanalysisofthedata.Iattemptedtostudytheinterviewsastheywereongoing,allowing

forearlydataanalysistooccurandprovidetheopportunitytodiscussinterestingand

unforeseentopicswithfutureinterviewees.Aswellasencouragingtheintegrationof

analysisanddatacollection,thepracticeofGroundedTheorymeantadoptingthetechnique

ofopencodingwhereallofthedatacollectedwasinitiallycoded,leadingtocorecategories

eventuallybecomingapparent.Thepracticeofcodingsimplymeantprovidinga‘wordor

shortphrase’asasymbolforaportionofdatathatis‘summative,salient,essence-capturing

orevocative’(Saldaña2009,p.3).Theoreticalmemoswereproducedregardingthe

potentialrelationshipsofvariouscodesbeforemoreselectivecodingwasimplemented.

Thisprocesswasimplementedtoensurecoherentandwell-groundedtheoriesregarding

interfaithanditsimpactontheaboveconceptswereprecluded.

AlthoughtakingintoaccountthemethodsandinstructionsoftheclassicalGrounded

Theoryapproach,IbasedmydataanalysislargelyupontheConstructionistGrounded

Theorymethodwhichmeantbeingawareofthe‘researchpractices’asasocialconstruction

inadditionto‘researchworlds’(Charmaz2008,p.396).Morespecifically,adoptingthis

positionrequiredtheassumptionthat‘realityismultiple,processualandconstructedbut

underparticularconditions’whilstalsoacknowledgingthe‘researcher’spositionalityaswell

asthatoftheresearchparticipants’(Ibid,p.403).Notonlydidthishighlighttheimportance

ofgeneralreflexivityatallstagesofresearch,italso‘disavowedtheidea’thatasa

researcher,Iwouldbeabletobegintheresearchwithout‘priorknowledgeandtheories’

aboutthetopic.(Ibidp.403).Thismethodthereforeensuredreflectiononthepriortheories

relatingtoidentity,communityandOtheringandalthough‘recognisingthemasprior

knowledge’,subjectedthem‘torigorousscrutiny’(Ibid,p.403).AsCharmaznotes(2008,p.

43),ConstructionistGroundedTheoryaccountsfor‘aninterpretiveunderstandingofthe

studiesphenomenathataccountsforcontext’andopposesgiving‘prioritytothe

researcher’sviews’,insteadseeingtheresearchparticipants’‘viewsandvoicesasintegralto

theanalysisanditspresentation’andextractsofthisdataareevidentinthefollowing

chapters.


23

Thefollowingthreechapterswillfocusonthedataproducedthroughtheinterviewprocess

andthroughanalysisandevaluationwillprovideinformationregardingexperiencesthat

BritishMuslimshaveofparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork.Duetolimitationson

space,thefindingschapterswillberestrictedtoanalysingtheimpactthatinterfaith

dialoguecanhaveonidentity,communityandperceptionsoftheOther.Despiteinteresting

themesemergingfromthedataregardingtheimportanceofseeingincreasedBritish

Muslimparticipationininterfaithdialogueandwork,andbeliefssurroundingincreased

governmentinterest,bothatalocalandnationallevel,unfortunately,spacedoesnot

permitadiscussionoftheseimportantsubjects.

Priortodisseminatinginformationconcerningthefindingsitisimportanttoprovide

somelimitedbackgroundinformationregardingtheinterviewparticipants.Although,as

notedinthesectiononmethodology,alloftheinterviewees’nameshavebeenchangedand

allidentifyinginformationanonymised,itisimportanttoprovidesomedegreeofcontext

andbackgroundtotheparticipantswhohavecontributedtothisresearchforthereader’s

benefitandunderstanding.Thisisadifficultprocess‘forqualitativeresearchers,maintaining

respondentconfidentialitywhilepresentingrich,detailedaccountsofsociallifepresents

uniquechallenges’(Kaiser2009,p.1632).Notwithstanding,somelimitedbackground

informationtotheparticipantswillaidinthepresentationofinformationherewithout

jeopardisingtheintervieweesidentities.

Michael(Interview09/07/15),ayoungBritishMuslimmale,holdsanoutreach

positioninamosqueinhiscity.Hehasbeeninvolvedininterfaithworkforfiveyearsinthe

citythathewasbornandbroughtupin.Liam(Interview11/07/15),anotheryoungBritish

Muslimmaleholdsaprominentleadershiproleathistown’sinterfaithgroupandhasbeen

involvedininterfaithdialogueandworkfornearlyfiveyears.Lydia(Interview14/07/15),a

youngBritishMuslimconvert,hasbeenpartofaninterfaithgroupforthreeyearsandhas

recentlytakenupanorganisationalrole.Herpositionasaconvertmaybeanimportant

pointtonote,asBritishMuslimconvertsmaybemoreinclinedtoparticipateininterfaith

dialogueandthepracticemayimpactthemdifferentlyandtheirexperiencescould

potentiallyvaryfromthosewhohavegrownupinMuslimhouseholds.Sarah(Interview

21/07/15),isaSouthEastAsianMuslimwhohasbeenlivingintheUnitedKingdomforten

yearsandholdsBritishNationality.Shehasbeeninvolvedininterfaithworkfortenyears,


24

hasbuiltrelationshipsthroughthispractice,andisamemberofinterfaithgroupsinthree

cities.Sarahhasheldleadershipandorganisationalrolesbutinitiallystartedthe‘dayafter’

shearriveddueinparttoperceivingimmediatedifferencesinthewaypeopleofdifferent

faithsactinBritainincontrasttocountriesinSouthEastAsia(Interview21/07/15).Sadia

(Interview290/07/15),afemaleBritishMuslim,hasbeeninvolvedininterfaithworkfor

overthreeyearsinhercityandhastakenonanumberofleadershiproles.


25

ChapterFour:TheImpactofInterfaithDialogueontheIdentityofBritishMuslimsTheresponsesfromtheinterviewparticipantsappearedtosuggestthatinterfaithdialogue

hadavariedimpactontheiridentity,anditshouldbenotedthatthisisperhapstobe

expectedasitisoftenunderstoodthatwehaveasmany‘identitiesasdistinctnetworksof

relationshipsinwhichtheyoccupypositionsandplayroles’(James1890inStrykerand

Burke2000,p.286)andtherearedifferenttheoriesandtypesofidentity.SocialIdentity

Theory(Tajfel1979;Hoggetal1995),asocial-psychologicaltheorywhichproposesthata

‘socialcategoryintowhichonefalls,andtowhichonefeelsonebelongs,providesa

definitionofwhooneisintermsofthedefiningcharacteristicsofacategory’(Hoggetal

1999,p.259).IdentityTheory(Stryker1966;StrykerandBurke2000)ontheotherhand,

referstoidentityasbeingthe‘partsofaself,composedofthemeaningsthatpersonsattach

tothemultiplerolestheytypicallyplayinhighlydifferentiatedcontemporarysocieties’

(StrykerandBurke2000).IdentityTheoryistherefore‘principallyamicro-sociological

theory’,andperhapsprovidesmoreemphasistotheindividual(Hoggetal1995,p.255).

Theabovetheories,whilstprovidinganappropriateintroductiontothischapter,alsoposit

multipleexplanationsforhowparticipationininterfaithdialoguecanimpactidentity.These

theorieswillthereforeberevisitedinthischapterasappropriate.

IslamasdistinctandastrengtheningofMuslimidentity Responsesfromtheinterviewparticipantsappeartosuggestthatthroughtaking

partininterfaithdialogueandwork,IslamasareligiousidentityandtheirpositionasBritish

Muslimsbecamemoredistinct.Lydia,forexample,notedthatparticipationencouragedher

to‘recognisethethingsthatMuslimsasacommunityarequitegoodat’whilstshelater

suggestedthatinterfaithworkmakesher‘gratefulforthethings’thather‘faithbrings’

(Interview14/07/2015).MorespecificallyLydiadescribed‘thefivedailyprayers’asbeing

something‘uniquetoIslam’thatwasareminderthroughoutthedayofherreligious

identity,andbylookingto‘otherfaithsthatdonothavethat’shenotedthatitencouraged

hertofeelgratefulandis‘somethingthatemphasises’herfaith(Interview14/07/15).This

wouldsuggestthatparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandworkcaninfactstrengthenone’s

socialidentity,asopposedtowhathasbeenarguedbysomethatinterfaithdialoguemay

diluteorweakenreligiousidentity(Crist2014).AsHedgesnotesinhisworkonInterreligious

EngagementandIdentityTheory(Hedges2014,p.209),SocialIdentityTheoryhighlightsa


26

‘veryimportantpointwhichisthatidentityisnotjustindividual’and‘indeedwherean

individualidentityisclaimeditisalwaysanidentityclaimedinrelationshipto,with,or

againstothers’.Throughtakingpartininterfaiththerefore,asLydiasuggests,British

MuslimsmaycompareIslamandtheirpositionasMuslimstothoseofotherfaiths,which

mayoccurdueto‘twounderlyingsociocognitiveprocesses’that‘SocialIdentityTheory

invokes’(Hogg1995,p.260).Thisincludes‘categorisationthatsharpensintergroup

boundaries’andassignspeople,includingtheselftoarelevantcategory(Ibid,p.260).

Secondly,‘self-enhancement’meansthatcomparisonsbetweenthein-groupandthe

relevantout-groupoccurinwaysthatfavourthein-group(Ibidp.260).Thissharpeningof

intergroupboundariescanbeseenintheinterviewwithLydiawhereshedescribes

interfaithdialogueasaprocesshighlightingelementsofIslamasdistinctand‘unique’from

otherreligions,andthereforereinforcesheridentityasaMuslim.

Self-enhancementalsoappearstobeprevalentinresponsesfromtheinterviewees.

Michaelstatedthat‘byhavingthisdialogueitmakesmefeel,againmoreconfident,more

proudthatIfeelthatIamontherightpath’(Interview09/07/2015).Thissuggeststhat

takingpartininterfaithdialogueandworkwithpeopleofotherreligions,notonlyconfirms

identitythroughcomparisonswithanout-group,inthiscasenon-Muslims,butitmayalso

strengthenidentityasBritishMuslimswhoparticipateininterfaith‘seethemselvesina

positivelightinrelationtorelevantOthers’(Hoggetal1995,p.260).Itshouldbenoted

therefore,thatinoppositiontothebeliefsoftheMuslimParliamentofBritain(Hopkinsand

Hopkins2006),BritishMuslimidentitycanbestrengthenedthroughinterfaithdialogue,

whilstanalysisoftheinterviewsappeartoshowthatthroughparticipation,individualssaw

theirIslamicidentitymoreclearly.Certainly,RachelReedjik(2010,p.91),notessimilar

findingsinherresearchonthosewhotakepartininterfaithdialogue,statingthat‘alarge

minority’ofherparticipantsreportedthat‘dialoguereinforcedtheconnectionwiththeir

roots’.Thisisbecause‘individualandcollectiveidentitiesarebeingshapedinthe

relationshipwithsignificantothers(theouterlandscape)andbymeansofintrospection(the

innerlandscape)’(Ibid,p.97).

Muslimidentityalsoappearstobeconfirmedandevenstrengthenedwithresponses

fromtheintervieweessuggestingthattakingpartininterfaithworkanddialoguewaspart

ofbeingaMuslim,andthereforesolidifiedtheirIslamicidentity.Sarahreportedthat


27

‘spendingtimewithotherpeopleoffaith’madehera‘betterMuslimandastronger

Muslim’(Interview21/07/15).Similarly,Liamstatedhethoughtthathis‘experienceswithin

theinterfaithenvironment’madehim‘abetterMuslim’andthatincomparisontoaperiod

inwhichhedidnottakepartininterfaithdialogueorwork,his‘Islamhadbecomericher’

(Interview11/07/15).Theperspectivethatthroughtakingpartininterfaithdialogueand

worktheywereclosertomeetingatrueIslamicidentityisgroundedinthebeliefthatthe

practiceofinterfaithiscentraltotheteachingsoftheQu’ranandisemulatingtheProphet

Muhammad.Liamnotedthat‘theexperiencesoftheProphetMuhammad,PeacebeUpon

Him,waswithinterfaith,openexperiencesandopencharitableworkwiththeChristiansof

Medina,withtheJewsofMedina,andwiththePagans’(Interview11/07/15).Lydia

emphasisedthatmuchofhermotivationbehindparticipatingininterfaithdialogueand

workwastheteachingsoftheQu’ran,sharingaversethatinspiredher:‘OHumanKind!We

havecreatedyoufrommaleandfemaleandhavemadeyouintopeoplesandtribesthat

youmayknowoneanother’(Interview14/07/15;Quran49:13).ForLydia,theverse

‘emphasises’theimportanceof‘gettingtoknoweachother’andtherefore‘encouragesher

totakepartininterfaith’(Ibid).TheseresponsesaresimilartothefindingsofHopkins(2007,

p.690)inastudyofBritishMuslimsrepresentingtheir‘grouptoothers’throughintergroup

contact,whichhighlightedthatseveraloftheparticipantsdiscussed‘howactingasa

representativeoftheirgroup’had‘contributedtotheirIslamicidentity’.

Creationofalargerspiritualidentity

TheBritishMuslimsinterviewedalsosuggestthatparticipatingininterfaithworkledtothe

creationofalargerspiritualidentity.Thisislikelyduetothefactthatthoseparticipatingin

interfaithdialoguerealisethesimilaritieswiththoseofotherreligions.Thismaybe

particularlyimportantwhenlivinginanon-MuslimsocietysuchasBritainwhichemphasises

secularism.Liambelievedthat‘learningaboutSikhismorHinduism’orotherreligions,‘gives

astrongerspiritualidentity’duetorealisingsimilaritiesandacommitmenttoGod

(Interview11/07/15).Similarly,Lydiastatedthat:

‘Ithinkhearingfrompeopleofotherfaithsandrecognisingsimilarities,andthatwe areallkindofworkingtowardsworshippingGodandknowingwhoGodis,loving God…andwearealltryingtodoit,andwearetalkingherefromafaithperspective, tryingtodoitforGod’ssake,doesstrengthenyouinsomesense,becauseyou


28

recognise…thatGodisacommonthingforlotsofpeoplesoIguessinthatsenseit strengthensyouandyourfaith’(Interview14/07/15).

Thesestatementssuggest,asnoted,thatastrengtheningofafaithidentityiscreated

throughparticipatingininterfaithdialogue.SocialIdentityTheorystatesthat‘group

prototypesdefinegroupsasdistinctentities’andtheyareconstructedinawaythat

minimisesintra-categorydifferenceswhilstattemptingtomaximiseinter-category

differences(Hoggetal1995,p.261).However,‘relativelyenduringchanges’canoccurin

prototypesandthusin‘self-conception’,if‘comparisontotheout-groupchangesovertime’

(Ibid,p,261).Theresponsesfromintervieweessuggestthatthroughparticipatingin

interfaithdialogue,thereisacreationandstrengtheningofafaithbasedidentity.Thisisdue

toawideningofthein-groupwithregardstoSocialIdentityTheory,inoppositiontoanout-

group.Thecreationofafaithidentityislikelytobemoreprofoundincountrieswhichhave

moresecularnotionssuchasBritainandwheretheout-groupcreatedissecularsociety.

Interfaithdialogueitselfasarole

Althoughtherearelinksbetweenthetwotheoriesofidentity(seeStetsandBurke

2000;Hedges2014),SocialIdentityTheoryhasfocusedoncategorybasedidentities

whereasIdentityTheoryhasprimarilystudiedrolebasedidentities(StrykerandBurke2000,

p.293).Participationininterfaithdialogueandworkappearstoconfirmanoutreachroleor

whatcouldbetermedasaninterfaithroleinthelocalMuslimcommunityorforindividual

Mosques.Michaelclaimedthat‘weallhaveapassionandmypassionisinterfaith,

interactionwithexternalcommunities,othershaveapassionforraisingtheyouthyou

know…oneofmycolleaguesrunsagirlsscoutsgroup’(Interview09/07/15).Michaelnoted

thatbeingontheoutreachcommitteeathismosquemeantthathetookpartinandhelp

organisedanumberofinterfaithactivities,fromhavingdiscussionsaroundbeliefsatthe

localMosquetomealswithmembersofchurchgroups.Identitytheorypositsthat‘thecore

ofanidentityisthecategorisationoftheselfasanoccupantofarole,andtheincorporation

intotheselfofthemeaningandexpectationsassociatedwiththeroleanditsperformance’

(StetsandBurke2000,p.225).Throughparticipationininterfaithdialogueandwork

therefore,MichaelcouldperformhisroleasamemberoftheMuslimcommunitywhotook

partinandorganisedoutreachandinterfaithwork.SimilarlyLiamstatedthathe‘personally


29

representedtheMuslimfaith,thetown’sMusliminterfaithcommunity’(Interview

11/09/15).Liamnotedthat:

‘IwouldidentifymyselfasfirstandforemostaBritishMuslim,ofPakistaniorigin,I amafamilypersonandIamanactivememberoftheMuslimcommunitybut certainlyIseethataspectofmylifeasarole…Ithinkitisaveryimportantrole’ (Interview11/07/15)

Liamthereforesuggeststhatparticipationininterfaithisnotonlyanimportantrole,butone

whichcontributestohisidentity.Beingpartofinterfaithgroupsandparticipatinginevents

appears,perhaps,toprovideanavenueforthesemeaningsandexpectationsoftheroleof

representingIslamtobeexpressedwhilesimultaneouslyprovidinganenvironmenttolearn

aboutandcreatebetterrelationswithmembersofotherfaiths.Certainly,asMichaelnoted,

throughhisinterfaithworkandparticipation,hefeltthathewas‘doingajobforIslam’

(Interview09/07/15).ThiswaslikewisereflectedinastatementmadebyLydiathatitisnot

‘somethingthatyoudo,notnecessarilylikeaneverydaything,likebeingaChaplainor

somethingbutsomethingthatisstillpartofyou,somethingthatyoupartakeinanddo’

(Interview14/07/15).


30

ChapterFive:TheExperienceofCommunityThroughInterfaithParticipation CrowandAllan(1994,p.xv)notethattheconceptofcommunity‘entersintothe

wayinwhichweexpressideasofsolidarity,interestandidentity’.However,although

communityisinmanywayslinkedtoidentity,forinstancetheaboveparagraphsrelatedto

identityshowtheimportanceofgroupmembershipinSocialIdentityTheoryandthe

importanceofcommunalactionandsolidarityincollectiveidentity,communityisaconcept

withdifferentconnotationstoidentityandisaseparatesubjectofstudy.Similartoidentity,

thereareanumberofdifferenttheoriesassociatedwiththeideaofcommunity,and

responsesfromtheinterviewparticipantsappeartohighlighthowindividualsgainan

understandingofinterfaithdialogueinrelationtoexperiencesrelatedtocommunity.The

conceptofsymboliccommunity,where‘community’isa‘boundaryexpressingsymbol…held

incommonbyitsmembers’(1985,p.15)andisoneformofcommunityBritishMuslims

participatingininterfaithdialoguemayexperience.Cohen(1985,p.57),hasarguedthat

‘themoststrikingfeatureofthesymbolicconstructionofcommunityanditsboundariesis

itsoppositionalcharacter...[boundaries]markthecommunityinrelationtoother

communities’,whicharecreatedthroughsymbolsofcommonality.Anotherformof

communitythatmaybecreatedthroughparticipationininterfaithdialogueisanemotional

community,developedinlargepartbyMichelMaffesoli(1996,p.52),inwhichcommunities

canbebuilton‘affectualformsofsociation’.Tiedintothisconceptofemotionalcommunity

maybe‘anewkindofinterestcommunity…theself-helpormutualaidgroup’whichhas

emergedinrecentyears(AlanandCrow1996,p.22).Finally,participationininterfaithwork

andmembershipofinterfaithdialogueandcommunitygroupsmayemphasiseandconfirm

asenseof‘territorialcommunityorplacecommunity(AlanandCrow1994,p,3).

Thecreationofasymboliccommunity Experiencesofinterfaithdialogueandworkdescribedbytheintervieweessuggest

thatasymboliccommunitycanbeformedthroughparticipation.Thiskindofcommunityis

notrelatedtogeographyorterritorybutcanbeinsteaddescribedasa‘relational

community’andasGusfieldnotes,‘pointstothecharacterofhumanrelationships’,and

thereforeisa‘characteristicofsomehumanrelationshipsratherthanaboundedand

definedgroup’(1975,p,xvi).Lydiastatedthatwithinherlocalinterfaithnetwork,‘you


31

realisethesimilaritiespartlybetweenthefaiths,butalso…everyoneisworkingtowards,

fromafaithperspective,worshippingGod,andwehavealotofsharedthingsthatwe

understandaboutGodandwecantalkaboutGod,andwecanworktogether…onmoraland

ethicalissues’(Interview14/07/15).ThisstatementbyLydiaperhapssuggeststhe

constructionofasymboliccommunitythroughparticipationininterfaithdialogueandwork,

withcommonsymbolsconsistingof‘sharedthingsthatweunderstandaboutGod’aswellas

‘moralandethicalissues’whichwerementionedbyallparticipantsintermsofworking

towardsachievingsocialjustice,tacklingenvironmentalproblemsandtakingastanceon

humanrights(Interview14/07/15).

Cohen(1985,p.16)notesthat‘thequintessentialreferentofcommunityisthatits

membersmakeorbelievetheymakeasimilarsenseofthings,eithergenerallyorwith

respecttospecificandsignificantinterests’andthatthissensemay‘differfromonemade

elsewhere’.ItthereforeappearsfromtheresponsesoftheBritishMuslimsinterviewedthat

importantsymbolssuchashavingfaithandworshippingGod,leadstothecreationofa

communitywhichattemptstotackleethicalissuesinBritaintogether.Thisisnottosaythat

thisisinoppositiontowhatcommunitiesinsecularsocietybelieveintermsoftacklingthese

issues,butperhapsmoreinthesesymbolicallyconstructedcommunities,motivationsare

largelycollectivelyattributedtocarryingoutsocialandenvironmentalworkasawayof

worshippingGod.Liam,forexample,notedthat:

‘Andnotjusttalkingaboutitfromapurelykindofecologicalperspectivelikemaybe FriendsoftheEarthorGreenpeaceorwhatever,talkingaboutwithapersonofthe interfaithcommunity,theyareapproachingthatsubjectfromafaithperspective, fromaspiritualperspectiveandfromtheirroleasreligiouscustodiansoftheearth andtheyviewthataspartof,andtheyviewtheearthasthecreationofGod,so somethingtobelookedafter,tobeyouknow,cherished,sothatkindofsubtle difference’(Interview11/07/15)

ThisstatementsuggeststhatLiambelievedhemadeasimilarsenseofthings,inthiscase

relatedtospecificinterestsregardingtheenvironmentwhichlikelycontributestothe

creationofasymboliccommunity.Italsosuggeststhatthesesimilarunderstandingsand

interestsmaydifferfromthoseelsewhere,inthiscasenon-religiousorganisationssuchas

Greenpeace.SimilarlySadiaclaimedthat‘forme,beingfaithfulmeansthatyouareethical,


32

youhavemorals,youaremoral’thoughshereiteratedthatthisdidnot‘meanthatatheists

areimmoralorunethical’(Interview29/07/15).Sadiadidhowever,believethatthereare

‘familyvaluesforexample,manifestedanddeeplyrootedinIslamandJudaismand

Christianity’and‘charity,ifyoulookatcharity,theydonatemorethantheAtheist

communityandatanationallevel,youcanseethecontributionoffaithcommunities,you

knowforcharitableworktheyaremoremotivatedbecausetheybelieveinGod’(Interview

29/07/15).SimilarlytoLiam,thisshowsthatcommonsymbolssuchasfamilyvalues,

charitablegivingandbeliefinGodmeantthatpeoplewhotookpartininterfaithdialogue

madesimilarsenseofissuesandhadsharedinterestswhichcreatedafeelingofcommunity.

AswithLiam,Sadiadidnotimplythatpeopleoffaithweremoremoralorethicalthan

others,butimpliedthatreligiosityencouragedasharedandmutualunderstandingon

issues,creatingaconnection.Itshouldbehighlightedherethatitcertainlyappearspossible

formembersofdifferentreligionstoformcommunitiesinsymbolictermsand‘their

disagreementisnotnecessarily’an‘impedimenttotheirsuccessfulinteraction’,implying

thatmoreintricate,particularities,ofbeliefsystemscanbeoverlookedtomeetmore

fundamentalbeliefsofworshippingGod,carryingoutethicalandmorallysoundwork,thus

leadingtothecreationofalargerfaithcommunity(Cohen1985,p.17).

Interfaithdialogue:anemotionalcommunityandselfhelpormutualaidgroup? Responsesfromtheinterviewparticipantsalsosuggestthatinterfaithdialoguecan

alsocreateemotionalcommunities.Liamemphasisedthesharedpassionsthathefound

withmembersofotherfaithsandfoundthat‘withpeopleoffaithitiseasytotalkabout

faithtopics,theyknowwhatyou’retalkingaboutandtheyknowmoreimportantlyabout

thatspiritualconnection’whilsthe‘emphasisedthatitishard,onasecularleveltoexplain

faith’(Interview11/07/15).LiamgavetheexampleofRamadan,statingthat:

‘whenItalkaboutfastingduringRamadan…toaclassofchildrenorteachersand otherpeople,theywillinstantlyfocusinonthedeprivingyourselfoffoodtofeel whatitisliketobehungry,andthatisanaturalwayforpeopletointerpretfasting, butthenifItalkaboutfastingwithpeopleofotherfaithsandtellthemthatitis actuallyawayofelevatingmyspiritualself,thatissomethingthatonlyapersonof faithcanunderstand,orkindofget’(Interview14/07/15).

Maffesoli(1996,p.13)arguesthatthecreationofanemotionalcommunityofteninvolves

‘passion’beingexpressed,whilst‘commonbeliefsaredevelopedandthesearchforthose


33

whofeelandthinkaswedotakesplace’.Thisappearstooccurthroughtheparticipationin

interfaithworkasLiamnotes,‘itiseasytotalkaboutfaithtopicswithpeopleoffaith,they

knowwhatyouaretalkingaboutandtheyknowmoreimportantlyaboutthatspiritual

connection’whilstnotingthatitis‘hardtotalk’on‘asecularlevel…toexplainfaithandthe

componentsoffaith’(Interview11/07/15).Thissearchforthosewhothinkandfeel

(Maffesoli1996)similartothoseBritishMuslimswhoparticipateininterfaith,isperhaps

mostclearlyshownbySarahwhostatesthat‘findingpeoplewhoareappreciativeand

understandtheimportanceofinterfaithdialogueandgetalong,andhavealotmorein

commonthanwhatwebelieve[Religion],thatformeismycommunity…thatisthe

communityinwhichIfeelthatsenseofbelongingto’(Interview21/07/15).Evidentlythen,

interfaithdialogueprovidestheopportunityforBritishMuslimslikeSarahtofindthosewho

arepassionateinworkingwithotherfaiths,whofeelandthinkinsimilarways.

Emotionalcommunitiesarecreatedbecause‘peoplewanttobelong’and‘wantto

havesomewayofshowingtheirempathywithlikemindedpeople’,formingsolidaritybased

onsharedethicalvalues(Hetherington1998,p.64).Similartotheconceptofanemotional

communitybeingformedthroughparticipationininterfaithdialogueandwork,responses

fromintervieweessuggestthatinterfaithgroupsandrelationshipsperhapsforma

communitysimilartowhathasbeendescribedasa‘selfhelpormutualaidgroup’(Alanand

Crow1994,p.22).Lydiagavetheexampleofa‘sharedthing’ofthe‘issuesofburials’which

wassomethingthatalocalMuslimorganisationhadbeen‘workingontogetburialsdone

within24hours’,somethingthatwasalsoaconcernofthelocalJewishcommunityand

thoseinvolvedininterfaithworkrealisedtheimportanceofthisissuetobothreligious

communitiesandworktoensuremoreopportunityforburialstooccurwithintherequired

timeperiod(Interview14/07/15).Toasimilardegree,Michaelimpliedthatinterfaith

participationhadstrengthenedthe‘faithcommunity’inhiscityandbelievedthatifthere

was‘anissue’,insteadofa‘disparateresponse,whatever[thatissue]mightbe,let’sjustsay

thatthegovernmentintroducedsomenewlegislationandyouhadallthreefaiths

[Abrahamicfaiths]disagreeing…it’sastrongermessageasallthreestoodtogether,united’

(Interview09/07/15).Thisstatementagainimpliesthecreationofacommunitythrough

interfaithwherepeopleofdifferentgroupsandreligionsareabletoprovidehelpand

supporttothoseinneedorcollectivelyifablanketissuearises.Likewise,Liamremembered


34

that‘theywantedtoopenathirdlapdancingclub’inhiscityandthatitwasthe‘interfaith

groupthatprompted[anobjection]andsaidweobjecttothisandwewanttocome

togetheraspeopleofallfaiths’inthecityto‘lodgeour[objections]’(Interview11/07/15).

Writingin1994,AlanandCrow(p.22)notethatPeterWilmott,afoundingmemberofthe

InstituteforCommunityStudies,suggestedthat‘recentyearshavewitnessedthe

emergenceofanewkindofinterestcommunity…theselfhelpormutualaidgroupwhose

membersarelinkedbyacommonbondthroughsharedexperiences’.Certainlythen,

interfaithgroupsforBritishMuslims,andlikelysimilarlyforthoseofotherfaithgroups,

createaninterestcommunityofthissort,providingtheopportunitytotackleissues

togetherwiththoseofotherreligions.

ThisstatementbyMichaelperhapssuggeststhatinterfaithdialogueandworkwith

thoseofdifferentfaithscreatesemotionalcommunities,perceivingthemselvesashaving

similarpassionsandethicalvalues,andencouragesthecreationofmutualaidorselfhelp

groupsbasedonsharedexperiences,inoppositiontosecularism.Lydiasharedasimilar

belief,illustratingthat‘youcanworkonsharedthingsbutyoualsogenerallytendto

supporteachotherineachother’ssharedstruggles…becausethereiskindofasecular,

atheistfeelingamongstsome’whoshedescribedasan‘outspokenminority’(Interview

14/07/15).Liamnotedthatnotonlydidmembersofhisinterfaithgroupsharea‘common

viewpoint’butthatanother

‘importantpartofinterfaithworkisthatthereisincreasinglyarisingkindof,andI willbecarefulhowI,Idon’twanttomakeitsoundlikeasinisterthing,of secularism…wherepeopleoffaithinaverysubtlewayarebeingmarginalisedandI thinkitisveryimportantthatpeopleofthefaithcommunitycometogether’ (Interview11/07/15)

AswithMichael’spointregardingfaithgroupsunitingtoopposerestrictivelegislation,

Liam’sstatementaboutthepositiveimpactsofinterfaithoncomingtogetherinopposition

tosecularisttendenciessuggeststhatamutualaidorselfhelpgroupiscreatedtherefore

formingacommunity.Liamconfirmedthisbelief,statingthatBritishMuslimscould‘benefit

greatly’fromparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork,andthatthey‘really,reallysort

offindalliesyouknowamongstpeopleoffaith(Interview11/07/15).


35

Liam’sbeliefthat‘allies’offaithcouldbemadethroughinterfaithparticipation

leadingtothecreationofmutualaidorselfhelpgroupswhichinturncouldprovidebenefit

toBritishMuslimswasalsoconfirmedbysomeoftheotherinterviewees.Michael

rememberedmembersoftheChristianfaithcomingtotheaidoftheMuslimcommunityin

onecity,encouragingthelocalauthoritiestoensuretheprovisionofaHalalrestaurantina

populartouristandleisurearea,statingthat‘wesawhowmuchtheystoodbyusyouknow

andstoodtogetherwithus…andIhopetobeabletorepaythat’(Interview09/07/15).The

supportthatwasprovidedthroughthecreationofaselfhelpormutualaidformof

communitywasalsoacknowledgedagainbyLiam,butalsobySarahwithregardstothe

attacksontheFrenchsatiricalmagazine,CharlieHebdo’sofficesinParisinJanuary2015.

Liamexplainedthat‘duringtherecentCharlieHebdoincidentsandtheCharlieHebdo

shootings’itwas‘nicethattheinterfaithcommunityopenedtheirdoors’totheMuslim

community’(11/07/15).Emotionalcommunitiesandselfhelpormutualaidgroupsare

constructedthroughinterfaithdialogueandthesesharedexperiencesandemotionsare

emphasised,meaningthatmembersofdifferentfaithsarefurthermotivatedtosupport

eachotherinsharedchallengesorgoals,butalsowhenmembersofonefaithareinneed.

BritishMuslimshavecomeunderattackintheBritishpress,bypoliticiansandbothleftand

rightleaningpoliticalgroups.Likewise,assuggestedabove,throughthecreationofthese

communities,BritishMuslimsarelikelytobenefitduetothesecontemporaryissuesthey

face.

Increasedgeographicalties Membershipofalocalinterfaithgroupandthebuildingofinterfaithrelationships

withinthetownsandcitiesthattheBritishMuslimintervieweesresidedinalsoappearsto

havestrengthenedtheirgeographicalsenseofcommunity.Thisformofcommunitycanbe

describedas‘territorial’andthe‘conceptappearsinacontextoflocation’(Gusfield1975,p.

xv).Althoughcommunitystudieshave,sincethelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury

focusedlargelyupontheideaofinterestandattachmentcommunities,thereisstilla

commonagreementthat‘communitytiesmaybestructuredaroundlinksbetweenpeople

withcommonresidence’(AlanandCrow1996,p.1).Liamstatedthat‘itisnicetomeet

peoplefacetoface,seewhatweshareasfellow’membersofthetown,‘youknowsharing

andgettingotherpeople’sperspectivesoncertainsortsoflocalissues’(Interview


36

11/07/15).Liamalsohighlightedthatthroughhisinterfaithgroup,members‘joined

together’andmade‘collectiveeffortstocarryoutcommunityworkandcommunity

activities’(Interview11/07/15).Thesetwostatementssuggesttheimportanceoflocal

interfaithgroups,andmeetingshelpedtocreateasenseofbelongingandattachmentto

thelocalcommunity.Liamnotedtheimportanceofseeingwhathesharedwithother

membersofthetown,whilstalsostressingtheimportanceofcommunitywork,likelyto

createanattachmenttothegeographicallocationthroughthespendingoftimeandeffort,

alongwiththebuildingofrelationshipsthroughthisactivity.

Intervieweesalsoemphasisedthatparticipatingininterfaithdialogueallowedthem

togettoknowotherresidentsofthetownorcitywhichtheylivedorworkedin,whothey

wouldoftenencounterwhilstgoingabouttheirdailyactivitiesanddiscussmattersother

thanfaithorissuesrelatedtotheirinterfaithgroups.Liam,discussinghislocalinterfaith

groupstatedthat‘Ihavemetalotofveryverynicepeopleandwesortofbumpintoeach

otheronthestreetanditisaveryveryniceexperiencetochitchatandtocommunicate’

(Interview21/07/15).Thiswasstrengthenedbytheemphasisoflocalsocialactivitiesinhis

interfaithgroup,aswellasvisitingplacesofworship,invitingreligiousleadersorprominent

figurestospeakandhostingdiscussionsregardingfaith.Hisinterfaithgroupalsoheld‘an

annualcricketmatch’andheld‘filmnights’atdifferentmember’shouses(Interview

11/07/15).Lydiaalsonotedthatrelationshipsbuiltatalocallevel,andtheregularityof

meetingthesamepeoplemeantthatshebecame‘morefamiliar’withotherlocalpeopleof

differentreligions,statingthat‘youcanthentalkabout,youdon’tjusttalkaboutthe

interfaithworkoraboutspecificqueriesyouhave,youtalkaboutanythinglikehow’slife,

howisthefamily–whatever’(Interview14/07/15).ForLydia,intermsofcommunity,this

createdafeelingofattachmenttoageographicallocality,whichshedescribedasoften

lackingincontemporarysociety:‘thisinterfaithworkisimportant…[in]gettingtoknow

people,Ithinkbuildingstrongercommunitiesandjustgenerallybecausethatsenseof

communitysometimesatleastinBritain,theysayitisdiminishedoritislackingoreveryone

usedtoknowtheirneighbours’(Interview14/07/15).Lydiathereforeappearstosee

interfaithdialogueasprovidingherwiththeopportunitytomeetlocalpeopleand‘getto

knowherneighbours’,andthereforecreatingacommunityintermsofgeographical

location.Sarahsimilarlynotedthatyou‘meetpeoplewhenyouareoutonthestreetdoing


37

shoppingand…yousortofseeeachotheranditisthenalocalconnection’(Interview

21/07/15).ForSarahbeingpartofalocalinterfaithgroupandbuildingrelationshipsinher

citymeantalotforher.Sarahis‘amigranttoWales’andparticipationininterfaithcreateda

‘senseofcommunity’whilstshestatedthatit‘strengthened’her‘bondtothiscountry’



38

ChapterSix:InterfaithDialogue:aVehiclefortheBetteringofPerceptionsTowardstheOther Ashintedintheprevioustwochapters,itappearsthatforBritishMuslims,interfaith

dialogueandworkcanhelpimproveviewsoftheOther–thoseofdifferentreligious

backgrounds,particularthoseoftheJewishandChristianfaiths.Theimportanceofcontact

fortheinitiationofthereductionofprejudiceandmorepositiveviewsoftheOther,oran

out-groupiswellestablishedasshownbyPettigrewandTropp’s(2006)meta-analysisof

studiesrelatedtocontact.Howeveritisimportanttoseetheprocessofhowthereduction

innegativeviewsoftheOtheroccur,whichcanbegleanedfrominformationprovidedby

intervieweesontheirexperiencesofdialogueandwork.Aspreviouslynotedwithcreation

ofidentitiesandtheconstructionofcommunities,thereisaneedforanoppositionalentity

–anout-grouporOther,inwhichtodefineoneselforone’scommunity.Thishasbeen

importantlyshownintheworksofsocialscientists(deBeauvoir1949;Foucault1976,1984;

Bauman1991).AccordingtoSimonedeBeauvoir(1949,p.6),the‘categoryoftheOtheris

asprimordialofconsciousnessitself’,notingthat‘inthemostprimitivesocieties,inthe

mostancientmythologies,onefindstheexpressionofduality–thatofselfandtheOther’.

ThechangeinhowtheOther–thoseofadifferentreligion,areviewedduetothepractice

ofinterfaithdialogue,canbelargelyassociatedwiththeIntergroupContactHypotheses,

initiallyproducedbyAmericanSocialPsychologistsRobinWilliams(1947)andGordon

Allport(1954).Interfaithdialoguemeetingsfirstlyappeartoconstitutea‘situation’which

‘fosterspersonalintimateintergroupcontact’forBritishMuslimswhichleadstoanumber

ofpositiveimpactsonthewaypeopleofotherreligionsareviewed(PettigrewandTropp

2005,p.263).Achangingofviewsalsoappearstooccurbecauseinterfaithdialogueand

workofteninvolvesgroupssharingthe‘similarinterests’whilsttheactivitiespromoted

often‘cutacrossgrouplines’(Williams1947).Thisperhapsleadstothecreationofcommon

in-groupidentitybeingcreated,alsoknownasre-categorisation.Finally,workingtowards

‘commongoals’isanimportantcontributingfactortotheimprovementofgrouprelations,

andappearstobeexperiencedbytheintervieweesintheirparticipationininterfaith

(Allport1954,p.281).

Theimportanceofanintimateencounter Acommonassertionmadebytheintervieweeswastheimportanceofmeetingthose

ofotherreligions,havingactualcontactinfacetofacesituations,andtheimpactthatthis


39

hadontheirreductionofprejudice.Liamexpressedthat‘themainreason’thathisviews

regardingthoseofotherreligionswasimpactedonintheprocessofinterfaithdialogue,was

‘becauseyouareabletoputahumanfacetothatreligion’andbyinteraction,‘itprompts

youtothinkandreassessanythingthatyoumayhavefeltpreviously’(Interview11/07/15).

Lydiaalsohighlightedtheimportanceoftalkingtoindividualsofotherfaithsona‘personal

level’anddescribedhowitenabledher,forexample,tograspabetterunderstandingofthe

ChristianbeliefintheTrinity:

‘actuallywhenyoutalktopeopleandaskthemwhatitactuallymeans,youhearthemtalkingaboutityourealise,andforthem,itactuallymakessense,anditisnotnecessarilythattheybelievethattherearethreeseparateGods’(Interview14/07/15).

Thissituationwhichfostersintimatepersonalcontact(Williams1947)isexplicitlyexpressed

byLiamwhoemphasisedthatinterfaithdialoguepromotesgreaterunderstanding,

providingtheopportunityto‘actuallyspeaktosomeone’wherethey‘tellyouaboutwhat

theybelieveandhowvaluabletheirbeliefsare’(Interview11/07/15).Theseresponses

appeartobesimilartothefindingsofCharaniyaandWalsh(2001,p.199)whohighlight

‘howinterreligiousdialoguewasdifferentfromlearningabouttheOtherthroughreading

andformalclasses’,notingthatthosewhoparticipatedindialoguestresseditsimpactwas

dueto‘sittingdownwithpeoplewhohavehadacompletelydifferentupbringingand

viewpointoflifeandtheworld’whichisrealisedinapersonalandintimatesituation.

ReductioninprejudiceandamoreimprovedviewoftheOtherthroughpersonal

contactininterfaithdialogueandworkmaybeduetoaprocessof‘de-categorisation’.This

occurswhere‘groupidentitiesaredeemphasisedsothatgroupmembersconceiveof

themselvesasseparateindividuals’(TauschandHewstone2010,p.548).Althoughthisdoes

nothappenintentionallyduringinterfaithdialogueinthesensethattheOtherisstillseenas

partofalargeout-group,throughmeetingatapersonallevel,itislikelythatindividual

identitiesareaccentuated.Lydiaforexamplestatedthat‘whenyouknowsomeoneata

personallevel’thereisarecognitionthattheotherpeoplewithwhomshecameinto

contactwithare‘humanbeingswithfeelingsandemotions…families…worriesandallthe

samesortsofthingsthatwehaveaswell’(Interview14/07/15).Animportantversionof

thede-categorisationapproachisBrewerandMiller’s(1984)personalisationperspective

which‘suggeststhatcontactshouldpromoteopportunitiestogettoknowtheout-group


40

membersanddisclosepersonalinformation’(TauschandHewstone2010,p.548).The

intervieweesspokeofeventswhichoccurredatalessformallevel,moresocialevents

providingthechancetogettoknowoneanotherandanexampleoftheseopportunitiesto

disclosepersonalinformation.Liamforexample,spokeofan‘annualcricketmatch’

organisedbyhisinterfaithgroup,‘filmnights’andotherinformaleventswhichoccurredin

tangentto‘introducingtheologicalbeliefstooneanother’andcarryingout‘communityand

charitywork’(Interview11/07/15).

Thisopportunitytomeetmembersofdifferentreligionsandbuildrelationshipsis

importantinbreakingdownstereotypes.Sadiaexplicitlystatedthatinterfaithdialoguefor

herwasabout‘breakingstereotypes’inhowBritishMuslimsareseenbythoseofother

religionsandthewiderBritishpublic,butalsointheviewsthatBritishMuslimstaketowards

thoseofotherreligions(Interview29/07/15).TheexampleoftheIsrael-Palestineconflict

washighlightedbyanumberoftheinterviewees,andSadianotedthatbeforeparticipating

ininterfaithdialogueandcarryingoutinterfaithwork,shehad‘nevermetaJew’,simply

becausethere‘aren’tmanyJews’inhercity,anddescribedherexperienceas‘insightful’

(Interview29/07/15).ThroughparticipatingininterfaithdialogueshemetJewswho

campaignedagainst‘discriminationthatMuslimsandArabsface’inIsraelandPalestine,

whichledhertoconcludethat‘therearesomanylikethat,somanyofthem,theyare

againstanydiscriminationagainstanyhumanbeingofwhateverfaithsoitdidbreakalotof

stereotypesthatIhad’admittingthatshehadnotknown‘itallfromthebeginning’andthus

emphasisingtheimportanceofinterfaithworkinprejudicereductionanddeconstructing

stereotypes(Interview29/07/15).

Certainly,itappearsthatforBritishMuslims,contactwiththoseofotherreligions

throughinterfaithdialogue,leadstoareductionofprejudicebydiminishingnegativeeffects

suchasanxietyorthreatwhilstinducingpositiveeffectssuchasempathy(Tauschand

Hewstone2010).AreducedperceptionofthreatwasnotedbySarahwhoemphasisedthat

‘forme,youknow,interfaithdialoguewithgoodpeopleremindsmethatactuallywehave

gotenoughroom’(Interview21/07/15).Asshowninthecreationofasenseofcommunity

intheformofanemotionalcommunity,interfaithdialoguepromotesempathywithother

religiousgroups,muchofwhichisshowntowardstheBritishMuslimcommunityduetothe

currentpoliticalclimate;SarahprovidinganexampleofaJewishRabbiprovidingaidtothe


41

Muslimcommunitywhoattendeda‘BravaneseMosqueinNorthLondonwhichwasburned

down’byamemberofaradicalfarrightgroup(Interview29/07/15).Sarahalsoprovidedan

exampleofempathycreatedanddirectedtowardsthoseoftheChristianfaith,

rememberinghowataninterfaithevent,shehadheardofhow‘Christianshadbeentreated

byIsraeliforcesinJerusalem’,notingthatshe‘sharedthesameconcern’andthat‘they

criedtogether’(Interview29/07/15).Throughsharing‘hopes’,‘fears’and‘concerns’with

thoseofotherfaithsatapersonallevel,therefore,thesepositiveeffectssuchasempathy

canbestrengthened.

Interfaithdialoguepromotingre-categorisation TheintervieweesalsoimpliedthatforBritishMuslims,amoreimprovedviewofthe

Otherwasencouragedthroughinterfaithdialogueandworkbecausetheyoftenfound

similaritiesinbeliefsandvaluesthroughcontactwitheachother.Liamstressedthat,for

him,‘itisreallyinterestingtolearnalotmoreabouteachother’sfaithandsortofseewhat

makespeopletick,seewhatpeoplearedrivenby,andveryoften,youfindthatthereisa

wholelotmorethatbindsustogetherthanpullsusapart’(Interview11/07/15).Sadia

clearlyexpressedthesimilaritiessheexperiencedregardingreligiousteachings,recollecting

thetimewhenshereadtheOldTestamentwhereshe‘criedsometimes’whenshe‘came

acrossverses’that‘areabsolutelytheexactsamewordinginArabicintheQuran’(Interview

29/07/15).Aswellascommonvalues,BritishMuslimswhoparticipateininterfaithalso

appeartosharecommongoalswiththoseofotherfaiths.Sadianotedthatthereare

‘commonvalues…especiallybetweentheAbrahamicfaiths’(Interview29/07/15).These

werehighlightedasbeing‘commongoalsinpromotingcommunitycohesion’,‘eliminating

allsortsofdiscrimination’and‘tofocusonthecommongoodofthecommunityasa

whole…’fromsocialcaretoaffordablehousingtohealthcaretoeducationandemployment’


Theimportanceofsimilaritieshasbeennotedbycontacttheorists.Williams(1947),

believedthatacrucialfactorincontactwasthatthe‘activitiescutacrossgrouplines’.

Allport’s‘positivefactorsapproach’,similarlystressestheimportanceof‘commongoals’

and‘intergroupcooperationbetweengroups’(PettigrewandTrop2006,p.263).ForAllport

(1954,p.276),‘onlythetypeofcontactthatleadspeopletodothingstogetherislikelyto

resultinchangedattitudes’,showingtheimportancenotonlyofcommonvalues,but


42

mutualventures.Lydiaforexamplespokeaboutaninterfaithorganisationwhohad

‘campaigned’forthe‘ideaofalivingwage’(Interview14/07/15).Similarly,Liamadvocated

theimportanceofthejointprojectsbetweenpeopleoffaiththathisinterfaithgrouphad

implemented,includinga‘gardeningproject’andother‘charitableworks’(Interview

11/07/15).Itisthereforeevidentthatinterfaithdialogueandworknotonlyoftenincludes

shareddiscussiononsimilaritiesorjointactivitiesforthesakeofmutualbenefitsforthe

religiouscommunities,butitalsoinvolvesworkingtowardscommongoalsbasedon

collectivevalues,whichisanimportantfactorinimprovingtheviewoftheOther.

Therealisationofsharedbeliefs,interestsandvalues,inadditiontoworkingtowards

commongoals,perhapsleadstoare-categorisationofthoseofotherreligions,frombeing

membersofanout-group,tobeingpartofacommonin-group.Dovidioetal(2009,p.7),

drawing‘onthetheoreticalfoundationsofSocialIdentityTheoryandSelf-Categorisation

Theory’,emphasise‘theprocessofre-categorisationwherebymembersofdifferentgroups

areinducedtoconceiveofthemselvesasasinglemoreinclusivesuperordinategroup’,

ratherthan‘separategroups’.Responsesfromtheintervieweessuggestthatthisoccursto

somedegreeduetotherealisationofcommonvaluesandinterestswhichcreateswhat

couldbeperhapstermedalargerfaithcommunity.Lydia,asnotedabove,highlightedthat,

‘everyoneisworkingtowards,fromafaithperspective,worshippingGodandwehavealot

ofsharedthingsthatweunderstandaboutGodandwecantalkaboutGodandwecanwork

togetherforthosereasonssoitcanbemoralorethicalissues’(Interview14/07/15).By

‘focusingattentionontheoverarchingcategoryofsuperordinategroup’contactintheform

ofinterfaithdialogueandworkcanperhaps‘makesalientsimilaritiesamongmembersof

thesuperordinategroup’meaningthatdifferencesformerlyemphasisedbetweengroups

tendtofadeintothebackground’(KrochikandJost2011,p.159).Thiscanperhapsbeseen

inthestatementsmadebyLiamthatinterfaithdialogueencouragedhimtoseethatthereis

‘awholelotmorethatbindsusthanpullsusapart’(Interview11/07/15).

However,participationininterfaithdialogueappearsnottodiluteindividualor

groupidentityasthe‘subgroupandsuperordinategroupidentity’aremade‘simultaneously

salient’(Hogg2001,p.73).Michaelnotedthattheinterfaithdiscussionsand‘relationships

donotneedtobebuiltoncommonagreement’andthat‘weagreetodisagree’through

‘havinganopenconversation’aboutreligionandthisprovides‘richness’totherelations


43

made(Interview09/07/15).Michaelhighlightedthat‘realmutualrespect’canbebuilt

betweenthoseofdifferentreligions‘bygettingtothatlevel’whereheisabletoputaside

thefactthattheOther’sbeliefsystems‘violates’hisown(Interview09/07/15).Certainly,as

Hopkins(2007,p.682)notes‘whiletherearemanydifferentcommonalitiesbetweenthose

ofdifferentfaiths’thereare‘alsoimportantdifferencesthatreallydomakeallthe

differencetofaithgroupmembersandwhichtheywishtoberecognisedandrespected’.

Thiswasacknowledgedbytheintervieweeswhostatedthatthiswasanunderlyingtenetof

theirinterfaithgroupsandrelationships.

HarmoniousrelationsarethereforelikelytooccurforBritishMuslimsintheir

experienceofinterfaithdialogueandworkastheirreligionremainsdistinctdespiteperhaps

beingreclassifiedunderabanneroffaith,oramemberofalargerin-groupconstituting

peopleoffaith.ThisargumenthasbeenputforwardbyHogg(2001,p.73)whonotesthat

‘inter-subgrouprelationswereconsideredmoreharmoniouswhenthesubgroupswere

salientwithinthecontextofasalientsuperordinategroup’.Thisappearedtobe

acknowledgedbySadiawhostatedthat‘itwillneverbethesamebutyouknowthatisnota

problem…Idonotbelievethatunitymeansuniformity…wecanallbeunitedbutwedonot

havetobethesame’(Interview29/07/15).Responsesfromtheintervieweessuggestthat

underalabelofcommonfaiththeyareableto‘findwaysofrespectinggroupdifference

evenwhenonemaybelievethattheOther’sbeliefsdeviatefromwhatoneconsiders

centraltoone’sownidentity’(Hopkins2007,p.683).


44

ChapterSeven:DiscussionAscanbeseenfromthefindingsabove,participationininterfaithdialogueandwork

appearstohaveanimpactonBritishMuslims’perceptionsofidentity,senseofcommunity

andattitudetowardstheOther–thoseofotherreligions,withthesechangesoccurringin

variousways.Thediscussionbelowwillexpandontheseconclusionsandattemptto

associatetheimportanceofthispracticetoBritishMuslims.

Identity

Strengtheningandconfirmationofidentities Thesefindingsregardingtheeffectsthatparticipationininterfaithdialoguecanhave

onidentityareimportantinrelationtocontemporaryissuessurroundingBritishMuslim

communities.Firstly,thatBritishMuslimsfindthatparticipatingindialogueandworkwith

thoseofotherfaithssolidifiestheirviewofIslamasdistinctwhilstsimilarlycontributing

positivelytotheirroleidentitiesisimportanttonote,astherearemembersandgroupsin

BritishMuslimcommunitieswhobelieveinterfaithhastheabilitytodiluteMuslimidentity

(HopkinsandHopkins2006).ThisissimilartothefindingsofTakim(2004,p.346)who

notesthat‘understandingthefaithofothersshouldstrengthenratherthanweakena

person’scommitmenttohisorhertradition’largelybecausethoseofreligiousgroupsare

‘areabletobetterexpress’whattheybelieveand‘intheprocessunderstandmoredeeply

themeaningofwhatitmeanstobecommittedtoaparticularfaithtradition’.Secondly,

thesefindingssuggestthatparticipationininterfaithmayperhapsprovideanavenuefor

BritishMuslimsstrugglingtogroundthemselvesinanidentitywhichhasbeencitedasa

majorissueinrecentresearchregardingBritishMuslimcommunities(Geaves2005;Kabir

2010;Meer2010).Throughparticipation,itmaybethatBritishMuslims‘seethemselvesina

positivelightinrelationtorelevantothers’(Hoggetal1995,p.260),therefore

strengtheningtheirreligiousidentity,whilsttheirroleidentitymaybeconfirmed,hence

improvingself-esteem(Ibidp.257).

Readyforencounter Notwithstandingthis,itshouldbehighlightedthattheintervieweesappearedfirmly

groundedandcomfortableintheiridentitypriortotakingpartininterfaithdialogue.Sadia

believedthatshehad‘neverfelt’thatheridentitywas‘fragile’andstatedthat‘Iamvery

confidentinmyfaith,Islam,andIamaconfidentMuslim’(Interview29/07/15).Similarly,


45

Lydianotedthatasshebecamemore‘confident’inherfaith,itbecame‘aloteasier’to‘talk

aboutbeingaMuslim’(Interview14/07/15).ThesestatementshighlightthatforBritish

Muslims,beingsecureandcomfortableintermsofyouridentityasaMuslimwilllikely

increasethebenefitsofparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork,andperhapstoalarge

extentisinfact,aprecursortotakingpartinthisactivity.AsCharaniyaandWalsh(2001,p.

189)found,takingnoteofFowler’s(1995)conjunctivefaithstage,thosewhotookpartin

interfaithdialogueandreceivedthebenefitsofparticipation,were‘readyforencounters

withtraditionsotherthantheirown’and‘throughthesesignificantencountersinthe

interreligiousdialogueprocessparticipantswerechallengedtoletgoofold

conceptualisationsofselfandtheirworldandtoembracenewunderstandings’.Certainly,

asshownfromthefindingsofthisproject,participationininterfaithdialogueandworkis

likelytohaveanimpactonidentityinvariousways,whilststrengtheningreligiousidentityas

aMuslim,however,theabilitytobemoreinclusiveisperhapstheresultofbeing‘securein

hisorherownidentity’(Smith2004,p.167).Theresponsesoftheintervieweestherefore

suggestthatadegreeofconfidenceinone’sidentity,particularlyreligiousidentity,islikely

toimprovetheexperienceandbenefitsofparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork.

Community

AsenseofbelongingThefindingsabovesuggestthatparticipationininterfaithdialoguecanactasan

avenuefor‘generatingpeople’ssenseofbelonging’–animportantidearelatedto

community(CrowandAllan1994,p.6).Thismayoccurthroughtheperceptionofbeingpart

ofasymbolicallyconstructedcommunitythatactstoachievesocialjusticeand

environmentalbettermentwithcommonperceptionsregardingreligiousmotivations.

Alternativelycommunityandattachmentoccurfromgeographicalcommunitiesbeing

enhancedandappearingmoreprevalentfrombuiltrelationshipsthroughlocalinterfaith

groups.ThisisapertinenttopicforBritishMuslimsparticularlyastheirplaceinthepublic

sphereandinBritishsocietyhasrecentlybeencalledintoquestionwith‘Muslimidentity

beingseenastheillegitimatechildofBritishMulticulturalism’(Modood2010,p.121),

which,similartoproblemswithidentity,hascertainlyhadnegativeeffectsonsomeBritish

Muslims(Modood2003;Lyon2005).Interfaithdialogueandworkmaybeabletoincrease


46

feelingsofcommunityattachmentasnotedbySarahwhoemphasisedthatitactually

increasedhersenseof‘belongingtothiscountry’(Interview21/07/15).

SupportingoneanotherParticipationmayalsohelpcounternegativeandaccusatorynarrativessuggesting

thatMuslimsdonotfitinwiththesocialfabricofBritishsociety,areself-segregatingand

areabsentfromthewidercommunity(Phillips2006;Modood2006).Inaddition,asLiam

noted,interfaithisanimportantopportunitytomeet‘allies…amongstpeopleoffaith’

(Interview11/07/15),associatedwiththeself-helpformofcommunity.Thisformof

communitywhichbearscertainsimilaritieswithideassurroundingthecreationofemotional

communities,maybecrucialforBritishMuslimsduetothecontemporarysituationinwhich

theyfindthemselvesandtheopennessinwhichtheycanpracticetheirfaithincreasingly

comingunderattack(Birt2006;Modood2006).Thisgroup,perhapsmoretraditionallyfor

minorities,reflectedthefactthattheAnglicanChurchhastakentheroleof‘protectingthe

publicroleofreligioninwhatisseenasasecularsociety’(Birt2006,p.688).Howeverwith

theriseintheMuslimpopulationandincreaseintheamountofIslamicinstitutions,

organisations,andthenumberofinterfaithgroupsinBritain,BritishMuslimsareperhaps

beginningtobelievethattheycanbeofmoreimportanceandinfluentialinthesemutualaid

communitiesandself-helpgroups.Throughinterfaithwork,Michaelnotedthat‘let’sjust

saythatthegovernmentintroducedsomenewlegislation…it’sastrongermessage…stood

togetherunitedandsayingwearenothappywiththislegislation,wearenothappywith

thisapproach’(Interview07/09/15).Itcanthereforebeconcludedfromthedatathat

interfaithdialogueandworkimportantlyprovidesanavenueforthecreationofa

communitywhichcouldbedescribedasamutualaidorselfhelpgroup.ForBritishMuslims

thiscanbebeneficialwhenfocusingoncertainissuesaffectingtheMuslimcommunity,or

peopleoffaithinBritainingeneral.

PerceptionsoftheOtherandprejudicereduction

Intimatecontact,de-categorisationandre-categorisation AsalludedtointhefindingswithregardstoimprovedviewsoftheOther,thedata

gatheredpresentedhowinterfaithdialoguereducedprejudice.Onewaythatthisoccursis

throughaprocessofde-categorisation,allowingparticipantsofinterfaithdialoguetosee

theencounteredOtherasanindividual,tosomeextentdisassociatedfromthegroupin


47

whichtheyhavebeenidentified.However,italsoappearsthatre-categorisationofothers

occursthroughdialogue,withcommonalitiesnaturallyemphasisedintermsofreligious

beliefsandsimilarvaluesandgoals–perhapstobeexpectedasevidencedbytheformation

ofcommunitythroughinterfaithdialogue.Initially,thismaybeseenasanargumentagainst

BritishMuslimsparticipatingininterfaithdialogueinthatithasthepotentialto‘drumdown

somethingaspowerfulasIslamandwishywasheverythingintoonereligion’(Hopkins2007,

p.687).Onthecontrary,oncloserinspection,itappearsthatsubgroupidentitiesremainas

evidencedbyMichael’sstatementthattheOtheris‘accepted’fortheirbeliefsandforwho

theyareasanindividualaswellasamemberofadifferentreligion(Interview09/07/15).

‘SubgroupandSuperordinategroupidentity[are]simultaneouslymadesalient’therefore

allowingthedistinctionofbeingaBritishMuslimtofallintoplacewithbeingapersonof

faith(Hogg2001,p.73).Thisapproachtointerfaithandthecontactitinvolvestherefore

promotesthe‘recognitionoforiginalgroupidentitieswithinanoverridingsuperordinate

identity’andcan‘ameliorateidentitythreatthatcanotherwiseexacerbateintergroupbias’s

(Dovidioetal2009,p.7).

Bridgingthethreeconcepts Thisresearchhasattemptedtoshowtheimportanceofinterfaithdialogue,andthe

influencethisactivityhasonconceptsofidentity,communityandperceptionsoftheOther

forBritishMuslims.Somepreviousresearchoninterfaithdialogue(CharaniyaandWalsh

2001;Reedjik2010;Hedges2014)hasdiscussedtheconceptsofidentityandOtherness

together,thoughideasofcommunityarerarelyincludedintheseconsiderations.The

findingsfromthisresearchshowthatalthoughthesearedistinctindividualconcepts,there

arewaysinwhichtheyoverlapandinfluenceeachother.Firstly,socialidentity–inbriefthe

groupsthatoneidentifieswith,wasshowntobestrengthenedintermsoflinkstoIslamand

Muslimidentitybuttheintervieweesalsosuggestedacreationandstrengtheningofan

overarchingfaithidentity.Socialidentityisalsoimportantintermsofcontactandthe

changingviewoftheOtherasthe‘processofre-categorisation’draws‘onthetheoretical

foundationsofSocialIdentityTheoryandSelfCategorisationtheory’(Dovidioetal2009,p.

5).Thisphenomenonoccursbecausere-categorisationinvolvesalteringthein-groupand

theout-groupandthewaystheyareperceived,bothimportantaspectsinthecreationof


48

socialidentity.ThusinterfaithdialogueandworkislikelytoimpactBritishMuslims’social

identitylinearlytoadevelopmentintheirperceptionoftheOther.

Socialidentityislikelytobetobeassociatedwithcommunityasinfluencesonsocial

identitymaycomefromtheconstructionofaninterfaithcommunityworkingtowards

achievingsocialjusticeforthepurposeofGod.Theconstructionofemotionalcommunities

andselfhelpormutualaidgroupsmayalsoprovideanotherreferenttothesocialidentity

ofBritishMuslims,asapersongainsasenseofwhotheyarebasedonthegroupsinwhich

theybelong.Intermsofinterfaithdialogue,thegroupismoreabstract,withwiderfaith

communitiesmorevisibly,andstructurallyformed(James1890,Tajfel1979).Communityis

alsolikelytooverlapwithidentityforthosetakingpartininterfaithdialogue,inparticular

socialidentity,becausebothconceptsrelyoncomparisonstoanout-group,forexample

secularism.Certainly,adirectlinkbetweencommunityandidentityhasbeenmadeby

Cohen(1985,p.118),suggestingthatpeopleconstructcommunitysymbolically,makingita

resourceandrepositoryofmeaning,andareferentoftheiridentity.


49

ChapterEight:ConcludingThoughtsThisstudyhasattemptedtogiveaninsighttotherelativelyrecent,butincreasinglypopular

andimportantpracticeofBritishMuslimsparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork.

Throughassessingtheimpactthisworkcanhaveuponidentity,theformationofasenseof

communityandperceptionstowardstheOther,Ihaveendeavouredtoportrayandrecord

theexperiencesofBritishMuslimswhopartakeininterfaith.Evidently,thisstudyhasbeen

restrictedtotheinsightsofonlyasmallsampleofBritishMuslimswhoparticipatein

interfaithdialogue,andthe‘issueofgeneralisation’intermsoftheextenttowhichthe

‘findingsfromastudybasedonasamplecanbesaidtobeofrelevancebeyondthesample

andcontextofresearchitself’isimportant(LewisandRichie2003,p.264).Issuesof

reliabilityandvalidityaresignificantwhenattemptingtogeneraliseanyresearchandthe

abilitytoreplicatestudieshasbeenquestionedextensively:becausethereisnoonereality

tocapture,usuallyproposedbyconstructivists(HughesandSharrock1997),phenomena

understudyareoftentoocomplexortiedupincontexttoreplicate(LincolnandGuba

1985);andbecausequalitativeresearchisdynamicitshouldnotberepeated(Holsteinand

Gubrium1997).Iwouldarguehowever,thatrepresentationalgeneralisationscanoccur–in

otherwordsBritishMuslimspartakingininterfaithdialogue,toanextent,havesimilar

experiencestotheoneshighlightedhere.TakingnoteofLewisandRichie’swork(2003),

however,Iunderstandthatthiscanonlyoccurwithinaparticularframeworktakinginto

accountfactorssuchasresearchdesignandconduct,anddisplayofresearchmethods.

TheresponsesfromtheintervieweessuggestthatBritishMuslimidentitywas

affectedinanumberofwaysthroughparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandwork.Thisis

likelyduetotheideaofidentity‘havingconsiderablevariabilityinbothitsconceptual

meaninganditstheoreticalrole’(StrykerandBurke2000,p.284).Intermsoftheinfluence

thatinterfaithdialogueandworkhadonthesocialidentityofthoseinterviewed,itappears

thatinterfaithstrengthenedtheiraffiliationwithIslamwhilstsimultaneouslycontributingto

thecreationofalargerspiritualidentity.IdentityTheorycanbeusedtoshowtheimpact

thatparticipationininterfaithhasinrelationtotherolesoftheindividualasparticipationis

seenasaroleinitself.


50

Participationininterfaithdialogueandworkalsolargelyimpacteduponthecreation

ofcommunityforBritishMuslims.Asymboliccommunitywasconstructedthroughthe

intensificationofcommonsymbols,includingtheworshipingofGodandcarryingout

voluntaryworkthroughprojectsofsharedinterest.Similarly,emotionalcommunitiesmay

becreatedthroughinterfaithdialogueandworkwherememberssharesimilarpassions

whilstoverlappingwiththeideaofself-helpormutualaidgroups;theinterviewees

emphasisedtheimportanceofsupportgainedforcollectiveinterests,particularlywithina

secularatmosphere.Communityintermsof‘geographicalexpressionorlocality’(Greene

2014,p.127)appearsalsotobeenhancedthroughparticipationininterfaithdialogueand

work.A‘senseofcommunity’thereforeappearedtobecreatedatbotharelationaland

geographiclevel(McMillanandChavis1986).Thesedifferentformsofcommunitythatare

createdthroughparticipatingininterfaithdialogueandtheactivitiesthatitoftenentails

appeartocollectivelyformasenseofcommunity(Ibid,1986).Anumberofelements

composethesenseofcommunity:membership,includingtheexistenceofboundaries,a

commonsymbolsystemandasenseofbelongingoridentification,influence,inotherwords

theabilitytoinfluenceandbeinfluencedbythegroup,integrationandfulfilmentofneeds,

consistingofcompetencewithinthegroupandsharedvalues,andasharedemotional

connection,includingpositiveinteraction,sharedexperiencesandspiritualbonds(Ibid

1986).Participationininterfaithdialogueformscommunitiesindifferentwaysandthey

appeartobebothrelationalandgeographical.Thediverseanddifferentways,however,in

whichcommunityisformedcontributestoasenseofcommunityasshownbytheresponses

oftheinterviewees.

HavingestablishedthattheideaofOthernessisevidentinallsocietiesthroughout

history(DeBeauvoir1949,Foucault1978),andthatOtheringisimportantintermsofits

effectonsocialidentity(Tajfel1978),andthesymbolicconstructionofcommunity(Cohen

1985),thefindingshaveshownhowthepracticeofinterfaithdialoguealters,andgenerally

improvestheperceptionoftheOther.Interfaithdialogueandworkcanbeseenasan

exampleofintergroupcontactandcomparabletoAllport’scontactthesis(Allport1954).

RachelReedjik(2010,p.2)highlightsthisinherworkoninterfaithdialoguebetween

membersoftheAbrahamicfaiths,notingthat‘asaconcept[Allport’scontactthesis]itis

closelyrelatedtotheviewsofprejudicereductionandinterreligioushermeneuticswith


51

whichJews,ChristiansandMuslimsenterintodialogue’.Certainly,BergerandLuckmann

(1967,p.44-45)intheirseminalworkregardingSocialConstructionism,statethat‘the

Othermayconfrontmewithattitudesandactsthatcontradict’apatternofunfriendly

relationsin‘facetofacesituations’andtherefore‘bothmisinterpretationandhypocrisyare

moredifficulttosustaininfacetofaceinteraction’.TheresponsesofBritishMuslims’

interviewedregardingtheirexperiencesofinterfaithdialogueandwork,appeartoaffirm

thatingeneral,directandmoreintimatecontactwiththosewhoareconsideredasOther,

aidsinthereductionofprejudice.Re-categorisationalsoappearstooccurleadingtothe

creationofalargerout-group,includingtheOther.ThisdoesnothoweverdiminishMuslim

identityorIslamasbeingadistinctreligion.

Participationininterfaithdialogueislikelytohaveamorepositiveimpactonthe

developmentoftheviewingoftheOtherthan,forexample,contactoccurringinawork

place.Thisisnotonlyduetotheopportunityforpeopleofdifferentfaithstodiscuss

theologicaldifferencesandsimilarities,thusfosteringagreaterunderstandingoftheOther,

butasWilliams(1947)andAllport(1954)note,prejudicereductionthroughcontactislikely

tooccurwhenmembersofdifferentgroupsworktogetheronsharedprojectsorgoals.This

unificationmorelikelyoccurswithininterfaithgroupsandrelationships,asitofteninvolves

workingtogetheronissuesthatconcurrentlyeffectmembersofdifferentfaiths;asLydia

noted,forexample,diverseindividualsunitedtodiscusstheissueofburialsintheJewish

andMuslimfaiths(Interview14/07/15).Similarlythroughinterfaith,thoseofdifferent

religionsarealsoabletoworkonsharedconcernsandvaluessuchasachievingsocial

justice.Furthermore,directparticipationininterfaithdialogueandworkismorelikelyto

bringaboutbothde-categorisationofmembersofotherreligionswhilstalsore-categorising

membersofotherreligionsintoalargerout-group.Participationininterfaithdialogueand

workisalsolikelytoimproveviewsoftheotherincomparisontoafaithbaseddebate

wheremembersofdifferentgroupsattempttonegatetheOther’stheoreticalbasesfor

theirbeliefs.Thisislargelybecausethedebatewillleadtothesocialidentityofmembersof

differentfaithscomingunderthreat,potentiallyleadingtoareductioninself-esteem

(BranscombeandWann2006).

Clearlythen,forBritishMuslims,participationininterfaithdialogueandworkcan

haveapositiveimpactonidentity,communityandperceptionsoftheOther.Takinginto


52

accountthatIhaveinterviewedthoseinvolvedininterfaithforanumberofyears,

suggestingtheyholdpositiveviewsoftheirdialoguegroupsandthepracticeitself,whilst

alsohavingleadershipororganisationalrolesininterfaithgroupsorattheirmosques,

realitiesperhapsencouragingthemtopromoteinterfaithdialogueandwork,theresponses,

neverthelesshighlighttheimportanceinterfaithcanhaveforBritishMuslims.Thepositive

impactsthatinterfaithdialogueandworkcanhaveonideassurroundingidentityand

communityispertinentduetocontemporaryissuesfacingMuslimcommunitiesinBritain

(Geaves2005,Lyon2005;Modood2006).Interfaithdialoguethroughideasofemotional

communityandthecreationofmutualaidorselfhelpgroups,mayalsoprovideanavenue

ofsupportwhentacklingissuesthataffectBritishMuslimsorreligiousgroupsgenerally.

Finally,asthisstudyhasshown,interfaithdialogueandworkforBritishMuslimscan

improvetheviewingoftheOtherwithout,assomeworry,diminishingMuslimidentity,

dilutingIslamasareligionorcreatingconfusionoveridentity.

Thereare,however,questionsthathavearisenbothfromtherelevantliteratureon

thesubjectfromtheresearchprocessitself.Thusitappearsthatthereisscopeforfurther

studyregardingthetypesofinterfaithdialogueandworkthataremostbeneficialtoBritish

Muslims.Ashighlightedintheintroduction,thereissomedebateoverwhichformof

interfaithdialogueismoreuseful.Thiscertainlyisnotaneasyquestion,particularlyas

differentvariationsofinterfaithdialogueandworkhavealternativeaimsandobjectives

whilsttheyoftenoverlap.However,thereappearstobesomeclearcontentionbetween

thosewhopromotetheologicaldialogue(Cheetham2012;Laing2012),thoughthereis

perhapsfurtherdisputeoverwhoshouldparticipateinthisformofinterfaith,andthose

whobelieveinterfaithshouldfocuslargelyuponsharedaimsandobjectivesforcommunity

benefit.Asnoted,inreality,interfaithrarelytakesoneformandmayencompassdifferent

aspectsofthesevariations.Despitethis,furtherresearchcouldperhapscomparethe

experiencesthatBritishMuslimshavethroughparticipatinginthedifferentformsof

interfaithdialogue,studyingitsbenefits,andpotentiallyusingconceptsofidentityand

communityandtheirinfluenceonperceptionsoftheOthertogaugetheimpactofthese

methodsofdialogue.

Conductingthisresearchhasconfirmedandgroundedmyinitialthoughtsthat

interfaithdialogueandworkcanbenefitBritishMuslimsinavarietyofways.Ihopethatthis


53

researchservestopromotethisreality,andIamoptimisticthatfurtherresearchwillhelpto

detailtheimportanceofthisactivityforBritishMuslims,whilstprovidingamoredetailed

approachinhowtobringaboutthesepositiveexperiences.Certainly,withincreased

participation,BritishMuslimshavetheopportunitytoimprovethisbeneficialpracticeand

seethebroadanddiversebenefitsextensivelyreproduced.


54

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Interviews

• Michael(09/07/15)• Liam(11/07/15)• Lydia(14/07/15)• Sarah(21/07/15)• Sadia(29/07/15)


63

Appendices

Appendix1:InformedConsentDocumentInformationontheProject:ThisinterviewisbeingcarriedoutforadissertationstudyingBritish

Muslimsexperiencesofinterfaithdialogue,associatedwiththeCentrefortheStudyofIslaminthe

UKatCardiffUniversity.ThepurposeisthereforetounderstandhowBritishMuslimsunderstand

andevaluatetheirexperiencesofpartakingininterfaithdialogueandtheaffectthatithashadupon

them.

Yourparticipation:Yourparticipationinthisstudywillinvolveaninterviewlastingaround30-45

minuteswithasingleinterviewer.Youwillbeaskedquestionsregardingyourexperiencesof

partakingininterfaithdialogue.Youarenotrequiredtoansweranyquestionandmayasktostop

theinterviewatanytime.

Confidentiality:Theinterviewisplannedtoberecorded.Atanypoint,youcanasktheinterviewer

tostoptherecording.Yournameandanyidentifyinginformationwillnotbeincludedinanypartof

thereportonthisresearchandallinformationwillremainconfidential.

BenefitsandRisks:Yourparticipationinthisprojectisgreatlyappreciatedanditishopedthatitwill

helptoenhancetheunderstandingofBritishMuslimexperiencesofpartakingininterfaithdialogue.

Thereislittleriskinvolvedwiththisstudy,howeverifyouaretofeelemotionallydistressedor

uncomfortableatanytimeyoucanstoptheinterview,andyourparticipationinthisstudyifyoufeel

itnecessary.

Bysigningthisconsentform,IcertifythatI_______________________________________

agreetothetermsofthisstudy.


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Appendix2:InterviewGuide1) General

- Couldyoupleasejustconfirmthatyouhavereadtheinformedconsentdocument

2) InterfaithDialogueParticipation- Whatwouldyoudefineinterfaithdialogue/workasbeingorconsistingoff- Iwouldfirstliketobeginbyaskingyougenerallyaboutyourparticipationininterfaith

dialogue.- Howlonghaveyoubeeninvolvedwithinterfaithwork?- Whathas/doesyourparticipationconsistof?- Howoftendoyouparticipateininterfaith?- Doyoutakeanorganisationalorleadershiproleininterfaithwork?

3) Identity/Community/Other- Doyoufindthatparticipatingininterfaithworkstrengthensyouridentificationwith

IslamasreligionandBritishMuslims?(Identity/Community)- Doyouseeyourparticipationininterfaithworkasoneofyourroles?(Identity)

-Similartorolessuchasyourjoboramemberofthelocalmuslimcommunity- Wouldyousaythenthatinterfaithispartofyouridentity?- Howimportantareyourinterfaithrelationships?(Identity)- Doyoufeelthatyouridentityisimpactedonintheshorttermordoesitaffectother

partsofyourlife?(Identity/Community/Other)-Forexampleinthewaythatyouinteractwithothers?-Canyougivemeanexampleofthis?

- DoestakingpartininterfaithworkimpactonthewayinwhichyoucompareIslamtootherreligionsorgroupsinsociety.i.e.doyoucompareIslamlesswithChristianity/Judaismandmorewithsecularsociety?(Identity/Community)-Forexampledoestheviewofthosewhoyouperceivetobedifferenttoyouchange?

- Doyoufeelpartofalargercommunitythroughtakingpartininterfaithwork?(Community/Other)-Canyouexplainhowyoufeelthatthiscomesabout?

- Doesyourlocalinterfaithgrouportherelationshipsthatyouhavebuiltthroughinterfaithworkcreateafeelingofcommunityatalocallevel?(Community)

- BytakingpartininterfaithinDialoguedoyoufeelemotionallyconnectedwiththoseofotherreligions?(Community/Other)-Canyougivemesomeexamplesofthis?

- Doyoufeelthatyouhavecommongoalsduringinterfaithwork?(Community/Other)-Doyoubelievethishelpfulfilspersonalneedsorwants?


65

- Doyoufeelmorepositivelyaboutthoseofotherreligions?-Canyouexplaintomeparticularexperiencesthathaveencouragedthischangetooccur?-Doyouthinkthisoccursforpeopleofallreligions?

- Doesthistakeplacejustatalocallevelordoyouseeallmembersoftheseotherreligiousgroupsinabetterlight?(Other)-Howdoesthishappen?-Canyouexplaintomeparticularexperiencesthathaveencouragedthischangetooccur?

Appendix3:ExampleoftranscribedinterviewIP:Butmepersonally,mypersonalinputwouldbereligiouslytorepresentIslamandMuslimsand

theMuslimpointofview,andbeliefs,Iguesswithregardstowhateverparticularissueswemightbe

discussingandtorepresentmycommunityonageneralsocialandcommunitylevelerrmholdinga

dooropenreallytoothercommunitieswhetheritsifyouwanthelp,ifthereisanywaywecanhelp,

withassistwith,wemightneedhelp,recentlywiththeCharlieHebdoincidentsandtheCharlie

HebdoshootingswhateverinParis,itwasquitenicethattheinterfaithcommunitythroughopen

theirdoorsandcametomereallyandsaidtomeifthereisanythingthatwecando,ifthereis

anythingthatwecanhelpwithpublicityworkorpressreleases,thatkindofthingthatwasvery

muchappreciatedbecauseatthattime,thecommunitydidstarttofeelyouknow,therewasa

dangerofbecomingquiteinsular-

IE:TheMuslimcommunity?

IP:Yeahyeahabsolutely,feelingthatwehavebeenkindoffocusedon,youknowtherewasa

magnifyingglassbeingpointedsquarelyattheBritishMuslimcommunityinyouknow,ithas

happenedinFranceisanythinggoingtohappeninͦTownͦorintheUK,Sothingslikethathavebeen

veryveryappreciative,ofandlikewiseifthereisanythingthatwecandotohelpothercommunities

[then

IE:[Yeah

IP:Anyassistancethenthatisalwaysthereandthatisalwayspartoftheworkwedofroman

interfaithlevel.

IE:AndImeanperhapstwoquestions,howlonghaveyoubeeninvolvedandhowoftennowdoyou

participate?

IP:Withtheinterfaith,Istartedgoingalongwitherrrmaybeaboutfourorfiveyearsago,therewas

someotherpeoplewhowererunningtherewasoneMuslimBrotherwhowaschairof

theͦTowns ͦinterfaithgroup,hesubsequentlymovedawayandhewaskindofencouragingme

alongtocomealongtothemeetingsandeventsbecauseIhavebeeninvolvedwithotherlocal


66

projectsandhavebeenenthusiasticwithothercommunityworksoIdecidedtogoalong,metafew

peopleandfounditreallyreallyinteresting.Errmitwasnicetospeaktopeopleofotherfaithandit

notbeinginakindofdebateorconfrontation,notaconfrontationbutinakindof,inadebating

kindofwayorjustthroughthemediaorthatkindofthing,itwasnicetomeetpeoplefacetoface,

seewhatwesharedasfellowͦmembersofthetownͦyouknowsharingandgettingotherpeoples

perspectivesoncertainsortoflocalissuesandthingslikethat,gettingawiderunderstandingof

otherfaithswhetherthatisChristianity,Sikhism,HinduismerrrmBahai,unificationchurch,

Buddhismitwasreallyinterestingtolearnalotmoreaboutfaithandsortofseewhatmakespeople

tick,seewhatpeoplearedrivenby,andveryoften,youfindthatthereisawholelotmorethatbinds

usandbindsusetogetherthanpullsusapartthereisalotmorethatwehaveincommonthannot

okandthatisalwayssurprising.

british muslims’ experiences of interfaith...

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