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Earth-Science Reviews 8

Revised definition of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs)

Scott E. Bryan a,b,⁎, Richard E. Ernst c,d

a Centre for Earth and Environmental Science Research, Kingston University,Penrhyn Road, Kingston Upon Thames, Surrey KT1 2EE United Kingdom

b Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, PO Box 208109, New Haven CT, 06520-8109, USAc Ernst Geosciences, 43 Margrave Avenue Ottawa, Ontario Canada K1T 3Y2

d Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada K1S 5B6

Received 25 August 2006; accepted 23 August 2007Available online 8 September 2007

Abstract

Much has been learned about Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) and their database greatly expanded since their first formalcategorization in the early 1990s. This progress provides an opportunity to review the key characteristics that distinguish LIPevents from other melting events of the upper mantle, and to reassess and revise how we define LIPs. A precise definition isimportant to correctly recognize those LIP events with regional to global effects, and to aid in refining petrogenetic models of theorigin of LIPs. We revise the definition of LIPs as follows: “Large Igneous Provinces are magmatic provinces with areal extentsN0.1 Mkm2, igneous volumes N0.1 Mkm3 and maximum lifespans of ∼50 Myr that have intraplate tectonic settings orgeochemical affinities, and are characterised by igneous pulse(s) of short duration (∼1–5 Myr), during which a large proportion(N75%) of the total igneous volume has been emplaced.” They are dominantly mafic, but also can have significant ultramafic andsilicic components, and some are dominated by silicic magmatism. In this revision, seamounts, seamount groups, submarine ridgesand anomalous seafloor crust are no longer considered as LIPs. Although many of these are spatially-related features post-dating aLIP event, they are constructed by long-lived melting anomalies in the mantle at lower emplacement rates, and contrast with themore transient, high magma emplacement rate characteristics of the LIP event. Many LIPs emplaced in both continental andoceanic realms, are split and rifted apart by new ridge spreading centres, which reinforce the link with mid-ocean ridges as a post-LIP event. Three new types of igneous provinces are now included in the LIP inventory, to accommodate the recognition of agreater diversity of igneous compositions, and preserved expressions of LIP events since the Archean: 1) giant diabase/doleritecontinental dyke swarm, sill and mafic–ultramafic intrusion-dominated provinces; 2) Silicic LIPs; and 3) tholeiite–komatiiteassociations, which may be Archean examples of LIPs. A revised global distribution of LIPs for the Phanerozoic is presented.Establishing the full extent of LIPs requires well-constrained plate reconstructions, and at present, plate reconstructions for thePrecambrian are poorly known. However, the possibility of reconstructing the LIP record back to and into the Archean and usingthis expanded LIP record to better constrain the origins and effects of LIPs is an exciting frontier, and our revised definition is acontribution to that effort.© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Large Igneous Province (LIP); definition; flood basalt; rhyolite; komatiite; intraplate; dyke swarm; sill; layered intrusion; underplate

⁎ Corresponding author. Centre for Earth and Environmental Science Research, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston Upon Thames,Surrey KT1 2EE United Kingdom.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.E. Bryan), [email protected] (R.E. Ernst).

0012-8252/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.08.008

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176 S.E. Bryan, R.E. Ernst / Earth-Science Reviews 86 (2008) 175–202

1. Introduction

The term “Large Igneous Province” (LIP) was ini-tially proposed by Coffin and Eldholm (1991, 1992,1993a,b, 1994) to represent a variety of mafic igneousprovinces with areal extents N0.1Mkm2 that represented“massive crustal emplacements of predominantly mafic(Mg- and Fe-rich) extrusive and intrusive rock, andoriginated via processes other than ‘normal’ seafloorspreading.” The formative work of Coffin and Eldholm,under the umbrella of the term LIP, has aided in unitingpreviously disparate scientific communities and focusedresearch and attention on this topic over the last 15 years.

The initial database upon which the term LIP wasdefined, relied almost exclusively on the relatively well-preservedMesozoic and Cenozoic record that comprisedcontinental flood basalt provinces, volcanic passivemargins, and almost all of the oceanic volcanic featuressuch as oceanic plateaus, submarine ridges, seamountgroups and ocean basin flood basalts (Coffin andEldholm, 1992, 1994, 2005). These types of provinceswere distinguished into those that represented massivetransient basaltic volcanism occurring over 0.1–1 Myr(e.g., continental flood basalt provinces) and thoserepresenting persistent basaltic volcanism lasting 10 toN100 Myr (e.g., seamount groups; Coffin and Eldholm,1992, 2001). Since this first categorization of LIPs,substantial progress has been made in extending the LIPrecord back to the Paleozoic, Proterozoic and Archean(Ernst and Buchan, 1997, 2001; Tomlinson and Condie,2001; Arndt et al., 2001; Isley and Abbott, 2002; Ernstand Buchan, 2003). For many ancient LIPs, where muchor all of the volcanic components of the LIP have beenlost to erosion, definition has been based on the observedareal extent and inferred volume of intrusive rock (e.g.,giant continental dyke swarms, sills, layered intrusions),which is the exposed plumbing system to the province.In addition, it has also been recognized that LIPs caninclude massive crustal emplacements of predominantlysilicic (N65 wt.% SiO2) extrusive and intrusive rocksthat likewise have ‘originated via processes other thannormal seafloor spreading or subduction’ (Silicic LIPsof Bryan et al., 2002; Bryan, 2007). Consequently,the increasing realization that LIPs are more varied incharacter, age and composition than first defined hasprompted others (e.g., Sheth, 2007) to revise andbroaden the original definition of LIP.

2. Necessity for a revised definition

Correct identification of LIP events is critical forrecognizing, among other aspects: 1) major or cata-

strophic mantle events through Earth history (e.g., ar-rival of a core–mantle boundary-derived plume, mantleoverturn or delamination), 2) major episodes of newcrustal addition from the upper mantle, 3) episodes ofcontinental breakup and supercontinent cycles, 4) thoseevents that will have significantly impacted on the bio-sphere and atmosphere leading to climate shifts andmass extinctions, and 5) the formation of major mineralprovinces (e.g., Ni–Cu–PGE deposits, and in the SilicicLIPs, epithermal Au–Ag bonanza deposits). It is there-fore important to develop a definition and classificationfor LIPs that will direct us toward their origin andrecognize those with regional to global effects. Avarietyof models have been proposed to explain the origin ofLIPs (see summaries in Saunders, 2005; Ernst et al.,2005), including mantle plumes emanating from thecore–mantle boundary (e.g., Richards et al., 1989;Campbell and Griffiths, 1990; Campbell, 2005; Dobret-sov, 2005; Campbell, 2007), impact-induced decom-pression melting (e.g., Jones et al., 2002; Ingle andCoffin, 2004); lithospheric delamination (Elkins-Tantonand Hager, 2000; Elkins-Tanton, 2005; Hales et al.,2005); decompression melting during rifting (White andMcKenzie, 1989) or following internal mantle heatingbeneath supercontinents (Coltice et al., 2007); edge-driven convection (King and Anderson, 1998); meltingof fertile mantle without excess heat (Anderson, 2005,2007) or shallow melting anomalies generated by plate-tectonic-related processes (“Plate” model of Foulger,2007); stress-induced lithospheric fracturing and drain-age of a relatively slowly accumulated sublithosphericbasaltic magma reservoir (Silver et al., 2006); back-arcrifting (e.g., Smith, 1992; Rivers and Corrigan, 2000);or overriding of a spreading ridge by a continent (Gowerand Krogh, 2002). Because the initial LIP definition hasincluded such a wide variety of mafic igneous provincesformed from both transient (high-rate) and persistent(low-rate) melting anomalies in the upper mantle, someof which may be spatially and temporally related, thetraditional plume model to explain the origin of LIPs hasbeen increasingly challenged (see contrasting collectionsof papers on the origins of LIPs in Foulger et al., 2005;Campbell and Kerr, 2007; Foulger and Jurdy, 2007).

In the definition of Coffin and Eldholm (1994), arealextent (of predominantly mafic igneous rocks) wasstressed as the important criteria in defining a LIP. As aconsequence, this has meant that any mafic-dominantigneous terrane of either continuous exposure or an areadefined by discontinuous exposure or occurrence (e.g.,seamount groups) can potentially be defined as a LIP (seealso Sheth, 2007). There are many volcanic provinces thatmeet this simple area criterion, but should not be defined



177S.E. Bryan, R.E. Ernst / Earth-Science Reviews 86 (2008) 175–202

as a LIP. One example that demonstrates this point is theTertiary intraplate basalt volcanic province of easternAustralia, which forms a broken belt N4400 km along theeastern highlands adjacent to the rifted margin (Johnson,1989). Although the province has an areal extentN0.1 Mkm2, it is dominantly basaltic with intraplatecompositions, and characterised by long lava flowstypical of those in continental flood basalt provinces(Stephenson et al., 1998), the extrusive volume is only∼20,000 km3 that has been emplaced over the last80 Myr. In this example, the eruptive volume, meltproduction rates and duration contrast markedly with LIPevents.

Sheth (2007) makes a substantial departure fromprevious and current (e.g., Neuendorf et al., 2005) usageof the term LIP by including within the definition, igneousprovinces formed in all tectonic settings, such that LIPs canalso be related to subduction zone and seafloor-spreadingprocesses. This has been achieved essentially by consid-ering only the areal extent of an igneous province, andreducing theminimum cut-off value of the outcrop area fora LIP to 50,000 km2 (Sheth, 2007). As an illustration of theproblems with this reduced minimum areal extent, weconsider one of the cited examples of Sheth (2007). TheMexican Volcanic Belt is an extending subduction-relatedvolcanic arc with an areal extent N50,000 km2 (andb100,000 km2), but which contains only 3200 to6800 km3 of Late Miocene mafic lavas (Ferrari et al.,2000). Although considered as a LIP by Sheth (2007), theMexicanVolcanicBelt has amafic volcanic volume at leastthree orders of magnitude smaller than the Columbia RiverBasalt Group, the smallest of the traditionally recognizedcontinental flood basalt provinces. This example of theMexican Volcanic Belt illustrates the point that whereasthere may not be any natural size break in terms of arealextent between LIPs and other types of igneous provinces,yet, like the 80–0 Ma intraplate volcanism of easternAustralia, these other types of igneous provinces arefundamentally different to LIPs at least in terms of havingmuch smaller eruptive volume and/or melt productionrates. We therefore emphasize that interpreting an igneousprovince as a LIP based on areal extent alone (as done bySheth, 2007), will incorrectly group igneous provinces ofwidely different origins, tectonic settings, and key char-acteristics (e.g., magma emplacement rates, durations,chemical associations) such that any genetic significancecan no longer be applied to the term LIP, and the signifi-cance of the term will be greatly devalued. Volume,duration and emplacement rates are equally importantcharacteristics that need to be assigned to a reviseddefinition of LIP, and collectively, discriminate LIP eventsfrom other types of igneous events in Earth history.

3. Revised LIP definition

Our understanding of LIPs has progressed signifi-cantly over the last two decades that further criteria canbe added in order to improve the definition of LIP. Ourcontribution to a revised LIP definition (Fig. 1) has beenstimulated by the new proposed classification scheme ofSheth (2007), but builds on the wealth of work carried outover the last 20 years. Like Sheth (2007), we alsoconsider LIP to be a broad category that must encompassa number of igneous provinces not previously consideredby Coffin and Eldholm (1991, 1992, 1993a,b, 1994,2001, 2005).

LIPs can be defined or characterised by several otherattributes, in addition to area: 1) age (e.g., Archean,Proterozoic, Phanerozoic), 2) volumetric size (e.g.,Bleeker and Ernst, 2006), 3) crustal setting (continentalversus oceanic); 4) tectonic setting; 5) duration orrapidity of magma emplacement; 6) if primarily intru-sive or extrusive (Sheth, 2007); and 7) composition(e.g., Mafic and Silicic LIPs of Bryan and Ernst, 2006).Our revised definition emphasizes four attributes inaddition to those of the Coffin and Eldholm (1994)definition: large volume, short duration or pulsed char-acter of the igneous events, and an intraplate setting orgeochemistry:

“Large Igneous Provinces are magmatic provinceswith areal extents N0.1 Mkm2, igneous volumesN0.1 Mkm3 and maximum lifespans of ∼50 Myrsthat have intraplate tectonic settings or geochemicalaffinities, and are characterised by igneous pulse(s)of short duration (∼1–5 Myrs), during which a largeproportion (N75%) of the total igneous volume hasbeen emplaced.”

In addition, we emphasize that LIPs are mainly maficmagmatic provinces having generally subordinate ultra-mafic components; that substantial volumes of silicicmagmatism are often an integral part of continental LIPs;and that a few continental LIPs are mainly silicic.

The above definition provides some specific mini-mum cut-off values for key attributes. Some of theseattributes (e.g., volume), however, may currently bedifficult to constrain for many LIPs due to lack ofinvestigation and available data, and with increasingage, greater uncertainties that result from erosion, burial,tectonic fragmentation or deformation. The attributevalues are given here to both guide future LIP studiesand to provide testable criteria as to what defines anddistinguishes a LIP event. A number of studies havealready attempted to quantify LIPs in terms of type,









Fig. 1. Revised classification of Large Igneous Provinces, based on the initial work of Coffin and Eldholm (1994), but incorporating recent advancesin the recognition of ancient LIPs and Silicic LIPs. Representative examples of the various types of LIPs are also given.


age, areal extent and volume (e.g., Coffin and Eldholm,1994; Ernst and Buchan, 2001; Courtillot and Renne,2003) and our review extends these studies. Constrain-ing the volume, duration or pulsed character of mag-matism is critical in determining magma emplacementrates and the thermal and material budgets of LIPevents, from which models for the origin of LIPs can bebetter evaluated. Below, we discuss the significance ofeach of these attributes to the definition of a LIP.

3.1. Area

LIPs occupy large areas of the Earth's surface. As anextreme case, the Ontong Java Plateau encompasses∼2 Mkm2, which is approximately one-third of thecoterminous United States (Coffin and Eldholm, 1994)or equivalent to the area of western Europe (Fitton et al.,2004). LIPs were initially defined as having arealextents N0.1 Mkm2, which at the time was the minimumareal extent for the smallest LIP, the Columbia Riverflood basalt province that forms a plateau of∼0.164 Mkm2 (Coffin and Eldholm, 1994; Hooper,1997); this has recently been revised upward toN0.2 Mkm2 (Camp et al., 2003). Studies on the arealextents of the exposed plumbing systems and intrusiveprovinces to LIPs are also consistent with this (e.g., Yaleand Carpenter, 1998; Marzoli et al., 1999; Ernst et al.,2005). Major regional continental dyke swarms forexample, are N300 km in length (Ernst and Buchan,1997) and typically have areal extents of N90,000 km2;this approaches the minimum areal extent considered for

the continental flood basalt provinces by Coffin andEldholm (1994). A review of several classic Mesozoic–Cenozoic LIPs concluded that the areal dimension ofLIPs was ∼1 Mkm2 (see summary in Courtillot andRenne, 2003). Similarly, many oceanic plateaus coverareas N1 Mkm2 (Kerr, 2003, 2005). The Silicic LIPshave dimensions well in excess of 0.1 Mkm2 (all knownexamples are N0.5 Mkm2; Bryan et al., 2002; Bryan,2007). We therefore conclude that in contrast to Sheth(2007), who revised downwards the minimum arealextent of LIPs to 0.05 Mkm2, the original size definitionbe retained such that LIPs must have areal extents ofN0.1 Mkm2.

3.2. Volume

Igneous volume is a critical attribute of LIPs as theyare anomalous events emplacing tremendous volumes ofmagma throughout the crustal profile and at the Earth'ssurface. However, volume can be difficult to constrainwhere erosion has been substantial, the true thicknessof the province is unconstrained or is highly variableacross its areal extent, or where the province is definedmainly on intrusive rocks (e.g., giant continental dykeswarm or related mafic–ultramafic intrusive dominatedprovinces such as the Late Mesoproterozoic Mackenzieor Warakurna LIPs, respectively; Baragar et al., 1996;Wingate et al., 2004).

LIPs vary in terms of the proportional volumes ofvolcanic and intrusive rock preserved, which reflects thedegree of exhumation and age of the LIP, and




potentially, lithospheric conditions at the time of LIPemplacement that may have promoted eruption ormagma underplating/intrusion. The extrusive and intru-sive components of a LIP are fundamentally related; forexample, giant continental dyke swarms are part of theintrusive architecture of a continental flood basaltprovince. For these reasons, we have not followed theapproach of Sheth (2007) in subdividing LIPs intoprimarily volcanic or plutonic types.

It must be emphasized that published extrusive vol-ume estimates for LIPs often include a subvolcanicintrusive component because dykes, sills and othersubvolcanic intrusions are an integral part of, and canoccur at shallow stratigraphic levels in the province(e.g., Huab sills of the Paraná–Etendeka LIP, Duncanet al., 1989; sills of the Karoo LIP, Marsh et al., 1997;Ferrar dolerite of the Ferrar LIP, White et al., 2008).Distinguishing extrusive versus (subvolcanic) intrusivevolumes can therefore be very difficult. Volume esti-mation is most problematic for the oldest (Precambrian)and often more deeply eroded LIPs. For the youngestprovinces where erosion has been limited, the eruptedvolume can relatively easily be constrained, but theintrusive component is difficult to assess.

A further complication in volume estimations of LIPsis that in addition to the volumes of extrusive rocks andexposed subvolcanic intrusions, LIPs have a largerunderplated magma volume emplaced at mid to lowercrustal depths (e.g., White et al., 1987; Mohr, 1992).This underplated magma is commonly detected throughgeophysical studies as:

1) a high velocity lower crust (HVLC) often occurringalong volcanic rifted margins in a zone of stretchedcontinental crust between the unextended craton andnormal oceanic crust (e.g., Eldholm and Grue, 1994;Kelemen and Holbrook, 1995; Menzies et al., 2002;Trumbull et al., 2002); and

2) abundant and extensive horizontal seismic reflectorsthat are interpreted asmantle-derived basaltic sills (e.g.,Klemperer, 1989; Ross and Eaton, 1997; Mandler andClowes, 1998; Planke et al., 1999).

The intrusive and underplated igneous volume can beup to ten times larger than the associated extrusivevolume. For example, the volume of the extrusivecomponents of the Ontong Java oceanic plateau is esti-mated at 6 Mkm3, whereas the volume of the combinedextrusive and intrusive components is 44.4 Mkm3

(Courtillot and Renne, 2003); most recently, Kerr andMahoney (2007) estimated the combined intrusive–ex-trusive volume of the combined Ontong Java, Manihiki

andHikurangi plateaus (Taylor, 2006) to be 59–77Mkm3.For the North Atlantic Igneous Province, Roberts et al.(1984) estimated the volume of Palaeocene to earlyEocene basalt to be 2 Mkm3, whereas White et al. (1987)andWhite andMcKenzie (1989) suggested a total volume,including extrusive and intrusive components, of up to10 Mkm3, while Eldholm and Grue (1994) estimated alesser total crustal volume of 6.6 Mkm3.

Despite the complementary and larger volume ofintrusive and underplated basaltic magma, most volumeestimates for LIPs are for the extrusive component. Pre-served thicknesses of extrusive rocks for many Meso-zoic–Cenozoic LIPs range from∼500 m to N3 km (e.g.,Baker et al., 1996; Marsh et al., 1997; Bryan et al., 2002;Jerram and Widdowson, 2005; Bryan, 2007), and thethickness of any individual section is typically ≥1 km.Many LIPs thus have areal extents and eruptive and/orsubvolcanic intrusive volumes well in excess of 1 Mkm2

and 1 Mkm3, respectively (Courtillot and Renne, 2003).We therefore conclude that LIPs should have a mini-

mum extrusive/subvolcanic intrusive volume exceeding0.1 Mkm3, and that detailed thickness and volumeestimates should be given in addition to areal extents ofprovinces. Care is required in estimating and comparingvolumes for LIPs, and clarification should be given ifan estimate includes extrusive and subvolcanic (uppercrustal) intrusive volumes and/or middle and lowercrustal components revealed by geophysical methods(see also Courtillot and Renne, 2003; Bleeker and Ernst2006).

3.3. Duration of magmatism

Although LIPs represent massive volumes of igneousrock emplaced over huge areas, given sufficient time andspace, all plate boundary processes generating magma(i.e. mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones, continentalrifts) will also produce igneous rock of LIP-scale dimen-sions. As pointed out by Sheth (2007), the ∼50,000-km-long worldwide network of mid-ocean ridges, with anaverage half-spreading rate of 5 cm/yr, creates 5 Mkm2 ofoceanic lithosphere of∼7 km thickness in just one millionyears. However, magma emplacement rates for LIPs havebeen estimated at ∼10 to N100% greater than mid-oceanridge emplacement rates (Coffin and Eldholm, 1993a,1994). A defining characteristic of LIPs therefore, is thatlarge volumes of magma are emplaced over a geologicallyshort and finite period and in a focused area. The durationof LIP magmatism is key in determining eruption rates andhence melt production rates, which can in turn helpconstrain models for the origin of these provinces (Camp-bell and Kerr, 2007).




Age resolution of LIPs is strongly dependent onthe quality of the age data, sample quality and degreeof weathering/alteration, the resolution of the datingtechniques, and data availability (e.g., Heaman andLeCheminant 1993; Hofmann et al., 2000; Courtillotand Renne, 2003). Not all LIPs have been studied to thesame level of detail, and age data in terms of reliability,technique and quantity are extremely variable. At most,LIPs appear to have an overall age duration of up to∼50 Myr (Ernst and Buchan, 2001; Fig. 2). TheMesozoic–Cenozoic continental flood basalt provincesappear to have some of the shortest durations withvolcanic activity continuing for 10–15 Myr (CourtillotandRenne, 2003; Jerram andWiddowson, 2005; Table 1).In many cases, thick sections of the flood basalt volcanicpile may have been emplaced in periods ≤1 Myr (e.g.,Hofmann et al., 2000; Larsen and Tegner, 2006). Layered

Fig. 2. A) Histogram showing the duration of LIP (both continentaland oceanic) events. Many LIP events have an overall time span of upto 15 Myr during which is a shorter period or pulse of high-intensitymagmatism (see text). B) Plot illustrating three key variables of LIPevents: event age, LIP event time span, and number of pulses. Single-pulsed LIP events have overall durations of no more than 10–15 Myr,whereas LIP events with durations N15 Myr comprise multiple pulses.Single- and multiple-pulsed LIP events have occurred throughoutEarth history. Data sources for LIP events: Ernst and Buchan (2001);see also Table 1. Only those LIP events which have sufficient andprecise (e.g., U–Pb age dates for the Palaeozoic and Precambrian LIPexamples) age data to characterise the LIP event have been plotted.

intrusions such as the 9-km thick PaleoproterozoicBushveld complex may also have been emplaced rapidly(∼75 Kyr, Cawthorn and Walraven, 1998). The oceanicplateaus have been argued to have a rapid emplacement(e.g., 2–3 Myr, Kerr, 2005; Kerr and Mahoney, 2007) butsuch short durations are really only applicable to theformation of the top few hundred metres of these plateaussampled at ODP drill sites. Importantly, the most recentODP results for the Kerguelen and Ontong Java plateausindicate a minimum 25Myr span of volcanic activity, butwhich is likely to be pulsatory (Tejada et al., 1996, 2002;Frey et al., 2003). Consequently, those LIP events withlifespans N15 Myr have been multiple-pulsed events(Fig. 2B).

3.4. Pulsed nature of magmatism

In addition to constraining the duration of LIP mag-matism, a telling feature of the variety of radiometricand paleomagnetic studies over the last 20 years, par-ticularly of the Mesozoic–Cenozoic continental floodbasalt provinces, is evidence for a transient or pulsednature to magmatism lasting as little as ∼0.5–1 Myrwhere there was repeated eruption and rapid emplace-ment of large-volume magma batches (e.g., Marzoliet al., 1999; Courtillot and Renne, 2003). Both thevolume of magma erupted during individual eruptionsand the total volume of magma emplaced during themain eruptive pulse(s) of LIPs (N1 Mkm3) are excep-tional in Earth history (Self et al., 2005). These featureshave focused many studies on: 1) the environmentalimpact of LIP events on climatic deterioration, and ascatalysts for faunal and floral collapse and extinction(e.g., Wignall, 2001; Courtillot and Renne, 2003; Erbaet al., 2004; Wignall, 2005); and 2) mechanisms of largevolume and rapid melt generation in, and extractionfrom, the upper mantle (e.g., White and McKenzie,1989; Richards et al., 1989; Campbell and Griffiths,1990).

Systematic dating combined with detailed strati-graphic and volcanological studies have revealed a farmore complex igneous history for LIPs than previouslyconsidered. Eruption rates are extremely variable overthe whole duration of a LIP, even for those continentalflood basalt provinces of very short duration. Severalgeochronologic studies have identified a pulse(s) or apeak(s) in magmatic output where the bulk of theextruded magma volume was emplaced over a period(s)of ∼1–5 Myr (e.g., Tolan et al., 1989; Saunders et al.,1997; Courtillot and Renne, 2003; Frey et al., 2003;Jerram and Widdowson, 2005; Storey et al., 2007).Evidence for a single short pulse and rapid emplacement

Table 1Summary of characteristics of the Latest Paleozoic to Cenozoic LIPs. Some oceanic LIPs are not listed due to lack of detailed geological constraints, but are shown in Fig. 4A. Almost all the continentalLIPs have been emplaced into regions with pre-existing cratonic sedimentary basins. For the oceanic LIPs, the age of the previous magmatic event is the age of the underlying oceanic crustal basement.Additional data sources are given in the electronic data repository. Abbreviations: CFB, continental flood basalt; VRM, volcanic rifted margin; OP, oceanic plateau; OBFB, ocean basin flood basalt;GDS, giant dyke swarm

LIP LIP type Age ofLIP(Ma)

Age of magmaticpulses(Ma)

Age of previous magmatic(M) or tectonic (T) event(Ma)

Emplacement of LIP into or across a pre-existing sedimentary and rift basin?

Columbia River CFB 17–6 16.6–15.3 32–20 (M); 74–50 (T) Partly into continental sedimentary basins (Pasco, John Day)Afro-Arabia CFB/VRM 31–14 31–29, 22 630–545 (M); N540 (T) Yes, into fluvio-shallow marine intracontinental sag basin (Marib–Shabwa)Sierra Madre Occidental Silicic 38–20 32–28, 24–20 ∼120–38 (M); ∼90–60(T) No; rift basins/grabens are syn to-post-volcanicNorth Atlantic CFB/VRM 62–53 62–58, 56–53 300–280 (M), 365–305 (T) Partly into relatively localised continental and lacustrine environments and

shallow marine basins with incipient rift-related grabens (Nuussuaq,Jamesonland, Kangerlussuaq)

Deccan CFB/VRM 67–60 66–65 760–730 (M); 550–500 (T) Partly into continental fluvio-lacustrine basins (Kutch, Cambay,Narmada, Tapi, Saurashtra)

Madagascar CFB/VRM 90–84 87–86 630–530 (M); N550 (T) Yes, into continental sedimentary basins (Majunga, Morondava)Caribbean–Colombian OP 95–69 92–88, 76–72 ∼160–180 (M) No, emplaced on to oceanic crustHess Rise OP ∼111–88 ? ∼125–115 (M) No, emplaced on to oceanic crust and probably near a triple junctionOntong Java OP 25–119, ∼90 ∼122, 90 ∼165–145 (M) No, emplaced on to oceanic crustNauru Basin OBFB ∼130–110 ? ∼157–135 (M) No, emplaced on to oceanic crustSouthwestern Australia–India–(Kerguelen)

VRM/OP 130–100 ∼120–110 535 (M), 615 (T) Partly into continental sedimentary basins (Perth, Bengal)

High Arctic CFB/GDS 130–80 ∼130, ∼90 370–333 (M), ∼370–345 (T) Partly into Sverdrup and Barents Basins and coeval sedimentarysequences in Svalbard and Franz Josef Land

Whitsunday Silicic/VRM ∼132–95 ∼118–113; 110–105 229–350 (M), 230 (T) Partly, resedimented volcaniclastics deposited into adjacent intracontinentalsag and rift basins (Great Artesian, Otway–Gippsland–Bass basin systems);volcanics within Maryborough Basin; syn-volcanic rift basins on Lord HoweRise (Central and western Rift provinces)

Magellan Rise OP 135–100 ? ∼150–133 (M) No, emplaced on to oceanic crustParaná–Etendeka CFB/VRM 138–125 134–129, ∼125 550–490 (M), 550–510 (T) Yes, on to aeolian sand field of Paraná–Huab–Karoo continental basinsShatsky Rise OP ≤147–124 146–144 ∼150–122 (M) No, emplaced onto oceanic crust affected by jumps of spreading ridge and

triple junctionNorthwestern Australia VRM/OP ∼165–155 ?160 ∼310–295 (T) 755 (M) Partly in Mesozoic rift-related basins of the Westralian SuperbasinFerrar CFB/VRM 185–175 183–180 530–484 (M), 515–505 (T) Yes, deposition in a volcano-tectonic rift basin system (Transantarctic)Karoo CFB 190–178 183–182 530–510 (M), 560–515 (T) Yes, in a continental sedimentary basin (Karoo)Chon Aike Silicic 188–153 188–178, 172–162,

157–153275–220 (M); ∼300–270 (T) Partly, into continental sedimentary basins and grabens (San Jorge,

Magallanes, Malvinas)CAMP CFB/VRM 205–191 202–200 330–260 (M); 327–270 (T) Partly, into continental sedimentary rift basins (Newark, Argana, Hartford,

Culpeper, Deep River, Danville/Dan River, South Georgia, Carson,Essaouria, Fundy, Farmville, Gettysburg, Georges Bank, Jeanne d'Arc,Mohican, Nantucket, Norfolk, Orpheus, Pomperaug, Taylorsville)

Siberian Traps CFB 254–248 251–249 640–600 (M), 370–340 (T) Yes, into continental sedimentary basins (West Siberian, Tunguska, Kuznetsk)Emeishan CFB 261–251 259–257 825–820 (M); 1300–1000 (T) Yes, onto active shallow marine carbonate reef platform

181S.E

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of a large volume of magma is well-expressed in theColumbia River Flood Basalt Province, the youngestand smallest LIP. Although basaltic eruptions occurredbetween 17 and 6 Ma, N90% of the total volume(∼0.234 Mkm3) was erupted between 16.6 and 15.3 Ma(Tolan et al., 1989; Camp et al., 2003; Hooper et al.,2007). Two distinct pulses are observable in somecontinental LIPs (Fig. 2B) that can correspond to pre-riftand syn-rift magmatic events. In the North AtlanticIgneous Province, the first pulse from 62 to 58 Macorresponded to the emplacement of the terrestrial con-tinental flood basalt sequences, whereas the bulk of thevolcanic sequences along the continental shelvesforming the ‘seaward-dipping reflector series’ were em-placed during a second syn-rift pulse at 56–52 Ma(Saunders et al., 1997; Jerram and Widdowson, 2005;Storey et al., 2007). Zones of high-velocity lower crustare also thought to be produced during rifting associatedwith continental breakup (Menzies et al., 2002). Thehiatus between pulses is variable, but can be a few totens of million of years. The relative extrusive volumesof pulses can be varied, and the volume of the secondpulse may exceed that of the first (Campbell, 1998;Courtillot et al., 1999; Storey et al., 2007). Nevertheless,the igneous volumes emplaced during these pulsesrepresent a substantial proportion (N75%) of the totalLIP igneous volume.

In detail, comparative studies have indicated thatseveral single-pulsed continental flood basalt provinceswere characterised by at least three eruptive phases thatvary from 0.1 to N5 Myr: 1) an initial phase of relativelylow-volume transitional-alkaline basaltic eruptions; 2) themain phase of flood volcanism where the bulk of thevolcanic stratigraphy is emplaced rapidly by repeatedlarge-volume eruptions of tholeiitic basalt magma and insome cases, silicic magma; and 3) a waning and moreprotracted phase of volcanism where the volume of erup-tions rapidly decreases and may become more widelydistributed, or focused when rifting is occurring (Bryanet al., 2002; Jerram and Widdowson, 2005). Discretepeaks in magmatic output are also being recognized forthe Kerguelen andOntong Java plateaus from recent ODPresults (e.g., Frey et al., 2003). For the Silicic LIPs,systematic dating combined with stratigraphic studies hasas yet not been carried out in sufficient detail in all cases toestablish a well-defined, pulsed character to magmatism.However, from the available data, a pulsed character to themagmatic activity in the following provinces is indicated.In the 188–153 Ma Chon Aike province of SouthAmerica–Antarctica, U/Pb zircon and 40Ar/39Ar datinghas identified three main pulses of silicic volcanic activityeach of 5–10Myr duration when∼0.05 to N0.1Mkm3 of

rhyolite magma was emplaced (Pankhurst et al., 1998,2000). For the Whitsunday Silicic LIP, although age dataindicate a main period of activity from ∼120–105 Ma,pulses in volcanism occurred at ∼118–113 Ma and∼110–105 Ma (Ewart et al., 1992; Fig. 3 of Bryan et al.,1997). In the mid-Tertiary Sierra Madre Occidentalprovince of Mexico, recent work has shown the bulk ofthe rhyolite ignimbrites was emplaced in two pulses eachof ∼4 Myr duration and the ∼1–3 Myr age ranges formany exposed ignimbrite sections N1 km thick alsoemphasize a rapid emplacement (Ferrari et al., 2002;Swanson et al., 2006; Ferrari et al., 2007).

In summary, LIPs should be finite igneous events ofno longer than ∼50 Myr duration (Fig. 2A), and char-acterised by a magmatic pulse or pulses of ≤5 Myrduration in which a large proportion (N75%) of the totaligneous volume has been emplaced. The consequentmagmatic fluxes during these pulses thus far exceedthose of steady-state plate boundary volcanism (Storeyet al., 2007).

3.5. Intraplate setting and characteristics

An integral part of the original definition of Coffinand Eldholm (1992, 1993a, 1994) was that LIPs wereformed by processes not observable at modern plateboundaries (i.e.mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones).The current global distribution of LIPs and through time,occurring on both continental and oceanic crust as wellas occurring both remote and proximal to present andformer plate boundaries, reinforces their independencefrom magma generating processes at subduction zonesand mid-ocean ridges. This independence has also beenemphasized by Halls et al. (in press) who consideredLIPs as “the products of large-scale transient magmaticprocesses rooted in the Earth's mantle that are notpredicted by plate tectonic theory.” LIP events therefore,show the hallmarks of intraplate magmatism albeit beingextremely voluminous (and areally extensive) examples.

The term ‘intraplate’ has been widely used in both atectonic and petrological or geochemical sense. Intra-plate settings, synonymous with plate interiors, arecharacterised by tectonic stability, however, significantdeformation (both contractional and extensional) andmagmatism can occur in these settings (e.g., Briden andGass, 1974; Pysklywec and Beaumont, 2004). In termsof magmatism, intraplate generally implies that magmageneration is so remote from plate boundaries that itcannot be related to energy releases and tectonic pro-cesses at mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones and lesscommonly ‘leaky’ transform boundaries (Johnson andTaylor, 1989; Neuendorf et al., 2005).


Most LIP events have an intraplate tectonic setting.Mesozoic–Cenozoic plate reconstructions demonstratethat many continental LIPs were emplaced initially intothe interiors of tectonic plates and on or along the edgesof Archean cratons (Anderson, 1999). These LIPs imme-diately preceded continental breakup, or were emplacedinto areas undergoing extension, and are now sited alongrifted continental margins. In some cases, completerifting to form a new ocean basin did not follow acontinental LIP event, with the Emeishan, Siberian Trapsand Columbia River flood basalt provinces being themost prominent and recent examples. In addition tobeing emplaced remotely from then-active plate bound-aries, most continental LIPs have been emplaced intostable continental regions with a long history (often100's Myr) of no prior magmatism or contractionaldeformation (Table 1; Fig. 3). Consequently, it is theabruptness and voluminous eruption in stable continen-tal regions that make LIP events so distinctive andanomalous, and underpin the intraplate character of theseevents.

Oceanic plateaus and ocean basin flood basalts appearto have been emplaced in intraoceanic settings withmany remaining undeformed except at their edges where

Fig. 3. Time–space plot for Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic continental LIPs illusmagmatic and tectonic events in the LIP basement (see also Table 1). Many Lwhich have the youngest histories of basement deformation and magmatism.oceanic plateaus (e.g., Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi, Kerguelen) werProvince; CRB, Columbia River Basalts; Emei., Emeishan; HALIP, High ArIgneous Province; NW Aust, northwest Australia; P–E, Paraná–EtendekaAustralia; Whit., Whitsunday. Data sources are given in the data repository

they have subsequently entered subduction zones (Mannand Taira, 2004). The Shatsky Rise appears anomalousin that it was sited along an active ridge triple junctionand emplaced onto a region of oceanic crust affected bymultiple spreading ridge jumps (Nakanishi et al., 1999;Sager et al., 1999; Sager, 2005), but importantly, itis now mid-plate following the ridge migrations. Inintraoceanic settings, the main tectonic processes thathave affected the oceanic plateaus are cooling and ther-mal subsidence of the oceanic plateau and surroundingoceanic lithosphere, and possible lithospheric flexuringin response to the load of the plateau on the surroundingthinner crust (Mann and Taira, 2004).

Many Mesozoic–Cenozoic continental LIPs coincid-ed with continental breakup producing volcanic riftedmargins and the development of a new ocean basinand mid-ocean ridge spreading system. Volcanic riftedmargins often form the second stage of a LIP event thatwas initiated prior to ocean formation (e.g., NorthAtlantic Igneous Province) and may indeed be the causeof the subsequent ocean opening. For volcanic riftedmargins, however, younger pulses may temporally over-lap with, and flank new seafloor crust generationalong the nascent spreading ridge system (e.g., NAIP,

trating the age of the LIP event and corresponding ages of the previousIPs were emplaced across Archean cratons and bounding mobile belts,Note the multiple LIP events between 130–100 Ma when a number ofe also emplaced. Abbreviations: CAMP, Central Atlantic Magmaticctic Large Igneous Province; Mad., Madagascar; NAIP, North Atlantic; SMO, Sierra Madre Occidental; ST, Siberian Traps; WA, westernfor Table 1.


Saunders et al., 1997; Storey et al., 2007; Kerguelen–India–Antarctica–southwestern Australia; Coffin et al.,2002). Nevertheless, the initial emplacement of the LIPwas prior to the formation of, and the composition of theflanking LIP magmatism is geochemically distinct frommagma generation at, the new divergent plate boundary.The same timing relationships are also observed in theoceanic realm with many oceanic LIPs subsequentlyrifted apart by new spreading ridges (e.g., the recon-structed Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi oceanicplateaus, Taylor, 2006; Kerguelen–Broken Ridge pla-teaus, Frey et al., 2003; Agulhas–Maud Rise plateaus,Jokat et al., 2004). Where the initiation stage of suchLIPs predates the development of a newmid-ocean ridgesystem, or where it post-dates the cessation of seafloorspreading (e.g., ocean basin flood basalts), these LIPevents can therefore be classed as ‘intraplate’ in a tec-tonic sense.

Intraplate is less applicable in a tectonic sense tocharacterise those LIP events which initiate close toactive plate boundaries; examples are the ColumbiaRiver, Sierra Madre Occidental and Shatsky Rise LIPs.An intraplate setting may also be less evident for LIPevents occurring in tectonically active regions such asmobile belts between cratons or along continental mar-gins experiencing ocean closure shortly prior to terminalcontinent–continent collision (e.g., ∼1880 Ma circum-Superior LIP, Ernst, 2004; Ernst and Buchan 2004;Baragar and Scoates, 1987; Arndt et al., 1987).

An intraplate tectonic setting is particularly prob-lematic for the Cenozoic LIPs of North America thathave been emplaced along a continental margin with ahistory of subduction-related magmatism and deforma-tion including immediately prior to and after the LIPevents (Fig. 3). Specifically, the Columbia River floodbasalt province and Sierra Madre Occidental geograph-ically overlap with prior subduction-related magma-tism. Given this regional setting, it has been argued thatthe Columbia River LIP may result from back-arcspreading (e.g., Carlson and Hart, 1988; Smith, 1992).However, LIP events at plate margin settings aredistinctive from spatially associated and synchronousplate margin-related magmatism in terms of their extent(both in terms of total area and extent in board from theplate margin), volume, rapidity of eruption and meltproduction rates, volcanic architecture, association withextension, and composition. For the Columbia RiverLIP, the largest volume and earliest emplaced floodbasalt formations have geochemical similarities withoceanic island tholeiites and other intraplate magmacompositions and thus, contrast strongly with neigh-bouring subduction-related magmatism (e.g., Hooper,

1997; Hooper et al., 2007). In these cases, the intraplatecharacteristics of the LIP event are based more onpetrological and geochemical grounds (and otherfeatures such as melt production rates if well-con-strained) where the igneous rocks have compositionsdistinctly different from those formed at mid-oceanridges and subduction zones. However, for continentalLIPs, the frequent addition of lithospheric geochemicalsignatures to flood basalts and rhyolites makesrecognition of an intraplate signature difficult. This isparticularly true for Silicic LIPs such as the SierraMadre Occidental, where both the rhyolites and basaltshave geochemical signatures transitional betweenwithin-plate and convergent margin fields on traceelement discrimination diagrams (Bryan, 2007).

An important indication of an intraplate setting then isthe petrological, geochemical and isotopic distinctions ofwithin-plate tholeiites of LIPs from plate marginmagmatism (MORB and subduction-related basalts).The volume and rate of magma generation in LIP eventsare also distinctive, and combined with the geochemicalcharacteristics of LIPs, many workers have related thesefeatures to hot mantle upwellings with magma sourcecomponents from the asthenospheric mantle or plume,subcontinental lithospheric mantle and the depletedasthenospheric mantle (Carlson, 1991; Turner andHawkesworth, 1995; Hofmann, 1997; Condie, 2003;Ewart et al., 2004a). Crustal contamination and sourceheterogeneity are major causes of intra- and inter-LIPvariation, however, which in some cases can lead toapparent subduction-related signatures in flood basaltsand rhyolites (e.g., Carlson, 1991; Hergt et al., 1991;Cox, 1992; Ewart et al., 1998a; Hooper et al., 2007;Bryan, 2007). Nevertheless, the least contaminatedbasalts and picrites in many continental LIPs have iso-tope and geochemical compositions similar to oceanicisland basalts (i.e. the high-Ti basaltic magma suites) thatreinforce the intraplate geochemical characteristics ofLIP magmatism.

To summarise, we therefore define the intraplatecriterion in our LIP definition (“intraplate setting andcharacteristics”) to include any of the following:

1) igneous activity being remote from any concurrentlyactive plate boundaries;

2) igneous activity occurring in stable crustal regionswith long histories of no prior magmatism or con-tractional deformation;

3) igneous activity occurring in plate interiors under-going extension;

4) igneous activity being initiated in an intraplate setting(as defined in points 1 and 2), but where subsequent


pulses of the LIP may occur in close proximity tonewly formed ocean ridge spreading systems; and/or

5) compositional characteristics (“intraplate” or “with-in-plate”) and interpreted mantle source regions thatare distinct from those of plate boundary magmatism.

3.6. Composition

Almost all LIPs are compositionally and volumetri-cally mafic-dominant (b56 wt.% SiO2), and usuallyviewed as comprising relatively homogenous succes-sions where large-volume (up to ∼5000 km3), pheno-cryst-poor tholeiitic basalt lavas are the main rock type.At the scale of individual eruptive units, flood basaltlavas generally show remarkable chemical and miner-alogical homogeneity, even across many hundreds ofkilometres (Hooper, 1997). However, at the provincialscale, significant compositional variations exist withinLIPs, and this compositional variation occurs bothspatially and temporally during a LIP event. Much ofthe broader compositional variation is due to thepresence of silicic and ultramafic igneous rocks,which represent important components to most LIPs,and the ultramafic rocks have particular economicsignificance for Ni–Cu–PGE mineralization (e.g.,Naldrett, 1997; Pirajno, 2000). Small-volume under-saturated magmatism (e.g., lamprophyres, carbonatites,kimberlites) may also occur during the earliest stages ofa LIP event, a stage which is otherwise dominated bytransitional-alkaline and olivine-rich to picritic lavas(Riley et al. 2003; Agashev et al., 2004; Jerram andWiddowson, 2005).

Most, if not all LIPs emplaced into continental regionsare compositionally bimodal with chemical groupings at45–56 wt.% and 65–75 wt.% SiO2 (e.g., the 31–22 MaAfro-Arabian, 62–53 Ma NAIP; 138–127 Ma Paraná–Etendeka; 190–178 Ma Karoo; 825 Ma Gubei of SouthChina; 2055Ma Bushveld; 2500–2450MaMatachewan).Large-volume tholeiitic eruptions characterise the mainpulse(s) of a LIP event, whereas silicic, often explosivevolcanism may precede, occur throughout, or during thelatter stages of themain pulse (Bryan et al., 2002; Vervoortet al., 2007). As demonstrated by the recent ODP resultsfrom the Kerguelen oceanic plateau (Frey et al., 2003), itshould also not be assumed that silicic igneous rocks areabsent from LIPs in oceanic settings. An important point isthat the eruptive stratigraphies of LIPs are incompletelypreserved yet many continental flood basalt provincesshow an increasing proportion of silicic volcanism up-section (e.g., Ukstins Peate et al., 2005). Determining thetrue proportion of silicic to mafic igneous rock (and totalvolume) must also include the eroded portion and hidden

intrusive component that in general, remain largelyunknown.

The detailed geochemical studies undertaken overthe last 40 years have recognized many (in some casesN10) different magma types in individual LIPs (e.g.,Saunders et al., 1997; Marsh et al., 2001). These studieshave established: 1) the occurrence of low- and high-Timagma types, for both the mafic and associated silicicigneous rocks, distinguished on the basis of elevated Tiand other incompatible elements relative to other ele-ments (e.g., Cox et al., 1967; Marsh et al., 2001); and2) the generally marked provinciality in the distributionof the low- and high-Ti suites (e.g., Paraná–Etendeka,Karoo, and Emeishan), but which can also be inter-bedded. The low-Ti character to the tholeiitic basalticmagma types has commonly been interpreted to reflectcrustal contamination, either with the subcontinentallithospheric mantle and/or with the continental crust(e.g., Carlson, 1991; Peate, 1997; Ewart et al., 1998a,2004a), or mantle melting conditions such as potentiallyhigher degrees of partial melting of the upper mantle ormelting at shallower depths (Arndt et al., 1993; Xu et al.2001, 2004).

In contrast, the high-Ti mafic suites often showgreater geochemical and isotopic similarity to oceanicisland basalts (i.e. intraplate geochemistry) and are inter-preted to comprise a significant and relatively uncon-taminated asthenospheric mantle or plume component(e.g., Arndt et al., 1993; Zhao et al., 1994; Ewart et al.,1998a, 2004a). The presence of relatively low-volume,high-Mg picritic igneous rocks is also significant inLIPs. The refractory character of the picritic rocks indi-cates not only a high potential temperature and degree ofmelting in the underlying mantle, but also likely parentalcompositions to the large-volume tholeiitic flood basaltlavas that have not undergone significant crystallisationor crustal interaction (Holm et al., 1993).

Although high-Mg rocks (N12% MgO picrites,komatiites and meimechites; Le Bas, 2000) are volumet-rically less significant than basalts, they are important ininterpreting the LIP record because their high degree ofpartial melting better preserves the mantle ratios of lessincompatible elements such as Pr, Nd and Sm (e.g.,Campbell, 2002). They are also important as the hostsfor Ni–Cu–PGE ore deposits (e.g., Naldrett, 1997;Pirajno, 2000; Borisenko et al., 2006). High-Mg rocktypes that are present in Phanerozoic LIPs includepicrites, ferropicrites, and rarely komatiites (Kerr et al.,1996; Gibson et al., 2000; Herzberg and O'Hara, 2002;Zhang et al., 2005). High-Mg rock types distinguishedin the Archean are Al-depleted and Al-undepletedkomatiites, which reflect different depths of origin


(e.g., Fan and Kerrich, 1997). Debate exists, however,over whether the presence of the olivine-rich magmasand high-Mg olivine compositions in komatiites doesindicate higher mantle melting temperatures and signifi-cant temperature differences between upwelling (plume)and ambient mantle (e.g., de Wit and Ashwal, 1995;Thompson and Gibson, 2000; Green et al., 2001).

In contrast to most LIPs, the Silicic LIPs are com-positionally and volumetrically dominated by silicic(N65 wt.% SiO2) igneous compositions, but often have aspectrum of extrusive and intrusive compositions frombasalt to high-silica rhyolite (e.g., Ewart et al., 1992;Bryan et al., 2000; Riley et al., 2001; Bryan, 2007;Ferrari et al., 2007). As for other LIPs, the drivingprocesses of large-volume melt extraction from theupper mantle and large mantle-derived thermal andmaterial fluxes into the crust (causing widespread partialmelting) are also fundamental to the generation of theSilicic LIPs (e.g., Pankhurst and Rapela, 1995; Rileyet al., 2001; Bryan et al., 2002; Bryan, 2007). Thedifference between the Silicic LIPs and other continentalmafic-dominated LIPs is thought to be due to differentcrustal settings: The Phanerozoic Silicic LIPs arerestricted to continental margins where fertile, hydrouscrustal materials were built up by Phanerozoic sub-duction, and large-scale crustal melting by mafic–ultramafic LIP magmatism has been fundamental to thegeneration of the huge volumes of silicic magmas.

4. Revision to LIP types

Several different provinces were defined as LIPs byCoffin and Eldholm (1992, 1994), with the first four rep-resenting transient types of Coffin and Eldholm (2001):

– Continental flood basalt provinces– Volcanic passive (or rifted) margins (including sea-ward-dipping reflectors)

– Oceanic plateaus– Ocean basin flood basalts– Submarine ridges– Seamount groups– Anomalous seafloor-spreading crust.

This initial inventory of LIP types was strongly in-fluenced by Mesozoic to Recent examples, and byvolcanic features on the seafloor, such that the present-day distribution of LIPs has been heavily biased towardsoceanic examples (see Fig. 1 of Coffin and Eldholm,1994). In the most recent inventory of LIPs by Coffin andEldholm (2005), continental LIPs, comprising continentalflood basalt provinces (n=12) and volcanic riftedmargins

(n=18), represent less than a third of the 109 LIPs listed,with the inventory dominated by seamount groups andsubmarine ridges (n=47). Significant advances have beenmade to the geology of many regions over the last15 years, allowing the recognition of many morecontinental LIPs extending back in age to the Archean(see Table 1 of Ernst and Buchan, 2001; Ernst andBuchan, 2004; Prokoph et al., 2004; Ernst et al., 2005).

A number of the igneous province types of Coffin andEldholm (1994) no longer fit the revised definition of aLIP: submarine ridges, seamount groups and anomalousseafloor-spreading crust. These provinces are oftenspatially associated, providing a spatial–temporal con-nection between a LIP and an active hotspot (e.g.,Paraná–Etendeka flood basalt province–Walvis Ridge–Tristan de Cunha). Submarine ridges and seamounts areoften included in LIP studies because they can provide: 1)geochemical characteristics on the underlying astheno-spheric hotspot or plume; and 2) a reference point ongeochemical-isotopic variation diagrams for LIP compo-sitions (Saunders et al., 1997). However, these submarinevolcanic structures are post-LIP features forming in somecases 10's to 100's Myr after the main LIP pulse, but alsoover much longer intervals (10's to N100 Myr). In themantle plume hypothesis, submarine ridges and sea-mounts thus represent the ‘trails’ and ‘tails’ of plumes.Seamounts and seamount groups are localised topograph-ic features on the seafloor, and have a very differentvolcanic expression to other LIPs. Seamounts are cen-tralised constructive (largely submarine) volcanoes, incontrast to the very extensive plateaus of the continentalflood basalt, oceanic plateau, and ocean basin flood basaltprovinces that are built up by repeated large-volumetabular and extensive basaltic lavas, sills and lesser siliciceruptive units (e.g., Sager et al., 1999; Jerram, 2002;Jerram and Widdowson, 2005; White et al., 2008).Although seamount groups may be areally extensive, thecumulative erupted volumes are significantly less than forthe other LIPs, and/or have been emplaced over a muchlonger duration (N50 Myr). For example, the CanaryIslands are the result of persistent volcanism over the last80 Ma, which has only produced a cumulative volume of∼0.12 Mkm3 at averaged emplacement rates orders ofmagnitude less than for LIPs (Schmincke, 1982; Coelloet al., 1992; Geldmacher et al., 2001).

Many LIPs immediately precede continental breakupand the development of a new ocean basin and mid-ocean ridge spreading system. Subsequent rifting bynew spreading centres soon after formation also char-acterises the oceanic LIPs (e.g., the reconstructedOntong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi oceanic plateaus,Taylor, 2006; Kerguelen–Broken Ridge plateaus, Frey


et al., 2003; Agulhas–Maud Rise plateaus, Jokat et al.,2004). The Atlantic, Indian and Antarctic ocean ridgespreading systems can therefore be considered as theconsequence of LIP events and not the LIP event itself(cf. Sheth, 2007).

We therefore recommend that seamounts/seamountgroups, submarine ridges and anomalous seafloor crustno longer be considered as LIPs. A revised listing ofLIP types is given in Fig. 1 and the global distributionof Phanerozoic LIP events since 550 Ma is shown inFig. 4. LIPs can simply be subdivided into thoseoccurring on the continents or in oceanic settings. Twoimportant outcomes of our revision are: 1) therecognition of several more types of continental LIPsthan initially considered, and 2) that certainly for theMesozoic–Cenozoic, the number of LIP events occur-ring on continental crust and oceanic crust is compa-rable (Fig. 4 and compare with Fig. 1 of Coffin andEldholm, 1994), but with much of the post-LIP-relatedactivity (seamounts, spreading ridges, anomalousoceanic crust) occurring in the ocean basins (seeFig. 1 of Anderson, 2005). It is also important topoint out that the products of continental LIPs can bedeposited in oceanic settings (e.g., Ukstins Peate et al.,2003), but their primary sites of eruption andaccumulation are on the continents.

Oceanic plateaus arguably represent the largest LIPs interms of area and volume, and other authors havepreviously emphasized a peak in oceanic plateau forma-tion during the Cretaceous (e.g., Larson, 1991; Kerr, 1998,2003, 2005). At present, no oceanic LIP events during thePaleozoic are known (Fig. 4B), but assuming there was noreduced frequency of oceanic LIP-forming events in thePalaeozoic, then this is probably due to the difficulties ofrecognizing oceanic plateaus after ocean closure and asfragments within accreted terranes (see Section 5).

The mainly Cenozoic and Mesozoic provinces re-cognized and discussed by Coffin and Eldholm (1994,2005) are updated and revised here (Fig. 1) to includethose major ancient LIPs in which the dyke swarms andmafic–ultramafic intrusive provinces are dominant.Separate groupings are also made for greenstone beltsof tholeiitic and komatiitic rocks that may be ArcheanLIPs, and for the Silicic LIPs (Bryan et al., 2002; Bryan,2007). These subgroupings of LIPs also have temporalsignificance, as the (preserved) character of LIPs showssome variation through time:

– Greenstone belts of the tholeiite–komatiite associa-tion in the Archean

– Proterozoic–Paleozoic LIPs occurring as erodedflood basalts or Silicic LIPs with exposed plumbing

systems (dykes, sills, cauldrons, layered intrusions,batholiths), and

– Continental flood basalts, volcanic rifted margins,oceanic plateaus, ocean basin flood basalts andignimbrite-dominated Silicic LIPs in the Mesozoicand Cenozoic.

The characteristics of the new province types aresummarised below.

4.1. Giant continental dyke swarms, sills and mafic–ultramafic intrusive provinces

The volcanic portion of older continental LIPs islargely removed by erosion and can be deformed duringlater continental collision. Therefore, in the earlyMesozoic but especially in the Paleozoic and Protero-zoic record, continental LIPs are typically recognized bytheir exposed plumbing system of giant dyke swarms,sill provinces, large layered intrusions, and remnants offlood basalts (Ernst and Buchan, 1997, 2001). Like theiryounger flood basalt equivalents, this class of LIPs haslarge areal extents and volumes, exhibits short durationpulses and occurs in an intraplate setting, or hasintraplate geochemical characteristics (Ernst, 2007).

Giant diabase/dolerite dyke swarms having lengthsN300 km (Ernst and Buchan, 1997) are a particularlydistinctive feature of ancient eroded LIPs. Dyke distribu-tion tends to be either radial or linear. Radiating swarmscan extend more than 2000–3000 km from a focal re-gion, but generally only a portion of the radiating pattern(b90°) is preserved because of continental fragmenta-tion. Linear swarms can also extend more than 1000 kmand are defined by: 1) lower dyke intensities over broadzones (N100 km) possibly associated with portions ofbroader radiating patterns, or 2) a higher concentration ofdykes in narrow zones (b100 km) associated with rifts.Magnetic fabric studies have identified transitions fromvertical to horizontal flow for a few giant dyke swarmssuch that the majority of magma flow along the strikelength of dyke swarms N1000 km in length appears to behorizontal (e.g., Ernst and Baragar, 1992; Raposo andErnesto, 1995; Baragar et al., 1996).Where dyke swarmsintersect pre-existing sedimentary basins, magma injec-tion can change orientation, becoming sills within andnear sedimentary basins (Ernst et al., 1995; Buchan et al.1998). Dykes belonging to giant dyke swarms havetypical widths of 20–40 m, and maximum widths of100–200 m. Ultramafic dykes associated with layeredintrusions may be wider and up to 1000m (e.g., the GreatDyke of Zimbabwe is up to 11 km at surface, but narrowsat depth to about 1 km; Podmore and Wilson 1987).


Fig. 4. Revised global distribution of Large Igneous Provinces. A) LIP events from 0–275 Ma, updated and revised from the PLATES project database and map (Institute of Geophysics, University ofTexas, Austin). Map excludes seamount groups, submarine ridges and anomalous seafloor-spreading crust that have previously been considered LIPs by Coffin and Eldholm (1992, 1994, 2001, 2005).Interpreted remnants of Mesozoic oceanic plateaus accreted around the Pacific margins (Sorachi, Japan; western Cordillera of Colombia and Ecuador; Cache Creek, Canada) are not shown because ofthe lack of detailed information on their original areal extent, volume and duration. Annotated ages denote the onset of the main phase or first pulse of magmatism to the LIP event; note that some LIPshave precursor magmatism at lower intensity up to 10 Myr prior. Some LIPs are shown in small typeface to aid in figure clarity. Abbreviations: CAMP, Central Atlantic Magmatic Province; HALIP,High Arctic Large Igneous Province; NAIP, North Atlantic Igneous Province; OJP, Ontong Java Plateau. B) LIP events from 275–550 Ma. The inferred extent of each LIP event is shown by a dashedline, and many remain poorly mapped and studied. The number of well-defined LIP events (in terms of area, volume, duration and setting) is much reduced (in comparison with the younger record) noexamples of accreted oceanic LIPs have been recorded for this period, which generally corresponds to Gondwanaland assembly.

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tinued).



An impressive dyke swarm-dominated event is the1270 Ma Mackenzie LIP, which extends over 2.7 Mkm2

of the Canadian Shield (Baragar et al., 1996; Buchan andErnst, 2004). The mid-Proterozoic Mackenzie magmaticevent comprises three major components: the Mackenziedykes with a length N2000 km, which form a giant ra-diating dyke swarm that fans over 100° across the north-ern and central Canadian shield; the Coppermine Riverflood basalts representing an erosional volcanic remnantexposed ∼400 km south of the focal point to the dykeswarm, and layered intrusions such as Muskox, located atshallow depths beneath the southernmost exposure ofthe Coppermine River basalts (Baragar et al., 1996).Widespread U–Pb dating by LeCheminant and Heaman(1989) and Heaman and LeCheminant (1993) yieldedages of 1267–1272 Ma and established the essentialcontemporaneity of the preserved intrusive systemthroughout its enormous geographic extent. Likewise,the 1078–1070MaWarakurna LIP of central and westernAustralia, comprising layered mafic–ultramafic intru-sions, mafic to silicic volcanic rocks and dikes distributedover an area of 1.5 Mkm2, including a 1000-km-longmafic sill province (Wingate et al., 2004) demonstrates thelarge lateral extent and short duration of large volumes ofmagma intruded during LIP events.

The 2055MaBushveld intrusion of South Africa is theworld's largest layered igneous intrusion, and is regardedas the intrusive equivalent of a flood basalt province,given its large volume and short duration (Hatton, 1995;Eales and Cawthorn, 1996; Cawthorn and Walraven,1998; Kinnaird, 2005). It consists of a 9-km thick layeredsuite that was intruded beneath a volcanic carapace ofwhich a 3-km thick volcanic/pyroclastic sequence is pre-served (Kruger, 2004). Related igneous activity extendsfor another 350 km to the west with the correlation of theMolopo Farms layered intrusion of Botswana (e.g.,Reichardt, 1994; Kinnaird, 2005), and with additionalmagmatism scattered throughout the Kaapvaal craton(e.g., Mapeo et al. 2006; de Waal et al., 2007).

4.2. Silicic LIPs

Silicic igneous rocks are an integral part of all con-tinental LIPs from the oldest Precambrian (e.g., Twistand French, 1983; Thorne and Trendall, 2001; Blakeet al., 2004; Vervoort et al., 2007) to the youngestCenozoic examples, and are particularly prevalent in theMesozoic–Cenozoic continental flood basalt provincesand along volcanic rifted margins. In these LIPs, silicicvolcanic and volcaniclastic rocks can form substantialparts of the eruptive stratigraphy and represent a sig-nificant contribution to the total magmatic output of a

LIP (Bryan et al., 2002). It is underappreciated that thescale of some of the individual silicic units in LIPs isvast (e.g., in the Paraná–Etendeka flood basalt province,the largest silicic units cover areas N0.1 Mkm2), beinglarger than the associated flood basalt lavas, such thatthey are ranked as amongst the largest volume terrestrialeruptive units so far recognized (Milner et al., 1995;Marsh et al., 2001; Ewart et al., 1998b, 2004b).

In addition to representing a significant igneouscomponent in a dominantly mafic LIP, there are somesilicic igneous provinces that meet the criteria of a LIP,but have low proportions of basalt expressed at thesurface (Silicic LIPs; Bryan et al., 2002; Bryan, 2007).Importantly, some Silicic LIPs are spatially and tem-porally related to other LIPs. For example, the ChonAike Silicic LIP of South America–Antarctica is linkedwith the Karoo and Ferrar flood basalt provinces(Pankhurst et al., 1998, 2000). Interestingly, the largestSilicic LIP (Whitsunday igneous province, Bryan, 2007)and the largest known oceanic plateau and LIP (OntongJava–Manihiki–Hikurangi Plateau complex; Taylor,2006) were emplaced at the same time ∼120 Ma, withthe latter occurring offshore from the fragmenting con-tinent (Fig. 5B). However, the spatial association of asilicic igneous province with a LIP may be obscured bycontinental rifting and fragmentation, and/or by poorlyconstrained plate reconstructions. The Chon Aike SilicicLIP is a clear example of this where continental riftingand seafloor spreading have isolated the Silicic LIP fromits neighbouring and coeval continental flood basaltprovinces (Karoo–Ferrar; Fig. 5A). The Malani silicicigneous province of India is another example, which iscoeval with mafic magmatism in the Seychelles, SouthChina, Korea (Ogcheon), and Australia (Mundine Well),although limited paleomagnetic data do not currentlysupport a single grouping of all these igneous provinces(Li et al., in press).

TheMesozoic–Cenozoic examples of Silicic LIPs arethe best preserved, and their characteristics have beensummarised in Bryan et al. (2002), Bryan (2007) andWhite et al. (2008). Silicic LIPs have several unifyingcharacteristics: 1) extrusive volumes are N0.25 Mkm3

(up to ∼3 Mkm3); 2) the provinces comprise N80% byvolume of dacite–rhyolite, with transitional calc-alkalineI-type to A-type intraplate signatures; 3) rhyolitic ignim-brite is the dominant volcanic lithology; 4) the duration ofigneous activity is up to 40 Myr, but during which a largeproportion of the magma volume was erupted duringshorter intervals or pulses of 3–10 Myr; and 5) crustalsetting— Silicic LIPs are exclusively continental as theyare produced by large-scale crustal anatexis, and manywere a pre-rift magmatic event along volcanic rifted

Fig. 5. Plate reconstruction maps showing the spatial relationships between coeval Silicic LIPs and mafic-dominated LIPs. A) Gondwanalandreconstruction at 200 Ma (Dalziel, 1992; Dalziel et al., 2000) showing the distribution of the Karoo and Ferrar continental flood basalt provinces and theChon Aike Silicic LIP. Abbreviations: AP, Antarctic Peninsula; E, Ellsworth–Whitmore block; MBL, Marie Byrd Land; NZ, New Zealand; TI, ThurstonIsland. B) Eastern Gondwanaland reconstruction for ∼120 Ma showing the LIP cluster of the Whitsunday Silicic LIP, Louisiade oceanic plateau and theOntong Java–Hikurangi–Manihiki (OJHMP) reconstructed oceanic plateau (Taylor, 2006). Both theWhitsunday Silicic LIP and OJHMP formed rapidlyat∼120Ma. The structure, age and composition of the Louisiade Plateau are poorly understood, but it has been suggested to have an igneous basement ofsimilar age and structure to the Ontong Java Plateau (Cowley et al., 1998). However, plate reconstructions indicate it was adjacent to the easternGondwanaland margin during the Cretaceous (i.e. is continental in origin) and became separated following seafloor spreading in the Coral Sea Basin(Gaina et al., 1999). Regional-scale crustal lineaments, which have partitioned deformation and influenced rifting along the eastern Gondwanalandmargin are also shown. Abbreviations: HP, Hikurangi Plateau; LHR, Lord Howe Rise; MP, Manihiki Plateau; NZ, New Zealand; OJP, Ontong JavaPlateau; PNG, Papua New Guinea; SNR, southern Norfolk Ridge. Reconstruction is based on Bryan et al. (1997), Gaina et al. (1998, 1999), Muller et al.(2006), Sutherland (1999) and Mortimer (2006). The palaeogeographic position of the OJP is based on Riisager et al. (2003).


margins (Bryan, 2007). The Whitsunday igneous prov-ince is the largest of the world's Silicic LIPs where theeruptive output (N2.2 Mkm3) and preserved areal extentof volcanism and its products (N3 Mkm2) surpass that ofmany other LIPs (Bryan et al., 1997, 2000; Bryan, 2007).The Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico is representative

of the general Silicic LIP architecture, being an extensive,relatively flat-lying ignimbrite plateau covering anenormous area (N0.5 Mkm2) to ≥1 km thickness. Moreancient examples occur as continental caldera systemsand major batholiths (e.g., the ∼320–280 Ma Kennedy–Connors–Auburn province, northeast Australia; Bryan


et al., 2003). Silicic LIPs are expected to have similarlyextensive mid to upper crustal granitic batholith under-pinnings and dyke swarms, and more mafic igneousunderplate at lower crustal depths (Ferrari et al., 2007).Large thermal and mass inputs from the mantle on thescale of those required to produce the continental floodbasalt provinces are likely in order to produce the SilicicLIPs (Bryan et al., 2002). The initiation of crustal partialmelting and rhyolite magma generation in the Chon AikeSilicic LIP was in response to crustal heating andmagmatic underplating related to emplacement of theKaroo–Ferrar continental flood basalt provinces (Rileyet al., 2001), and is supported by the close temporal–spatial linkages between these LIPs (Fig. 5A).

4.3. Archean greenstone belts(tholeiite–komatiite association)

The extrapolation of the LIP record into the Archeanis more speculative. Several workers have comparedArchean tholeiitic basalt sequences with modern floodbasalt provinces (see summary in Arndt, 1999), anderosional remnants of typical Archean flood basaltprovinces include the Fortescue sequence of the Pilbaracraton in Australia and the Ventersdorp sequence of theKaapvaal craton in southern Africa (Eriksson et al.,2002). However, most Archean volcanic rocks occur asdeformed and fault-fragmented packages termed green-stone belts (de Wit and Ashwal, 1997, 1998). One classof greenstone belts contains mafic to silicic igneousrocks with calc-alkaline geochemical signatures and hasbeen interpreted to be remnants of island arc and riftedisland arc terranes that developed remotely from con-tinents. However, the other major class of greenstonebelts consists of tholeiite sequences that often containkomatiites, and these are the best candidates for beingremnants of Archean LIPs.

With respect to the classification criteria distin-guished herein (area, volume, duration, pulsed natureto magmatism, and intraplate setting/characteristics), theLIP nature of tholeiite–komatiite greenstone belts re-mains somewhat equivocal. Deformation and faultinggenerally prevent the tracing of Archean tholeiite–komatiite greenstone belts over LIP-scale distances. Animportant exception occurs in the Rae craton of northernCanada where the ca. 2700Ma Prince Albert, WoodburnLake, and Mary River Groups define a linear belt, whichextends for a distance of 1500 km (N0.2 Mkm2), andmay be linked with a mantle plume and/or a LateArchean breakup margin (e.g., MacHattie et al., 2004).Another example of an extensively preserved ArcheanLIP is the ∼2.7 Ga Bulawayan Supergroup, which con-

tains 4–6 km thick mafic–ultramafic–silicic volcanicsequences that extend for ∼0.25 Mkm2 across theZimbabwe Craton (Prendergast, 2004). Other extensive(N800-km strike length) submarine volcanic sequencescontaining tholeiites and komatiites occur in the YilgarnCraton (Norseman–Wiluna Belt) and Canadian SuperiorProvince (Abitibi Belt), and are also significant for beingthe largest and most intensely mineralized Late Archeangreenstone belts (Ni, Fe; Barley et al., 1998). Eventvolume is even more difficult to assess given the defor-mation in most greenstone belts. The full scale of tho-leiitic–komatiitic greenstone belts, and how many are ofLIP scale, is likely to only become clearer when robustLate Archean reconstructions are achieved (Bleeker,2003).

The tholeiite–komatiite sequences in Archean green-stone belts contain a variety of volcanic (massive topillowed lavas, hyaloclastites) and subvolcanic intrusive(dykes, sills) facies. Individual lavas can be traced forkilometres, whereas lava packages have been traced forup to 100 km along strike (Arndt, 1999; Prendergast,2004). Many tholeiite–komatiite lava successions arethe result of submarine eruption and emplacement,however, much of the mafic–ultramafic and associatedsilicic volcanism recorded by the 2.7 Ga FortescueGroup of the Pilbara Craton was subaerial (Arndt, 1999;Blake, 2001). The apparent lateral continuity of themafic–ultramafic lavas, the general lack of interbeddedsedimentary rocks and the massive character of the lavaunits have been collectively interpreted to indicate therapid eruption of large volumes of magma analogous tothe Mesozoic–Cenozoic flood basalt provinces.

A characteristic of many Archean greenstone belts ismultiple pulses. For example, the Abitibi belt has pulsesof tholeiitic–komatiitic magmatism at 2750–2735 Ma,2725–2720 Ma and 2718–2710 Ma (Ayer et al., 2002).The Fortescue flood basalt of the Pilbara craton haspulses at ca. 2770, 2720, and 2690 Ma (Thorne andTrendall, 2001; Blake et al., 2004; Pirajno, 2004).Whether these represent multiple pulses of a single LIPor the juxtaposition of separate LIPs is unknown. Thefinal parameter is intraplate setting/characteristics. Thedominant view is that the tholeiite–komatiite-bearinggreenstone belts are not produced by subduction, andindeed some are thought to be obducted oceanic plateaus(e.g., Kent et al., 1996; Tomlinson and Condie, 2001).However, many Archean tholeiite–komatiite examplesshowing geochemical evidence for crustal contaminationand contemporaneous emplacement with significantvolumes of silicic igneous rocks (e.g., Yilgarn) suggestemplacement onto submerged continental platforms(Arndt, 1999), submerged highly extended continental


crust, or into intracontinental rift basins (e.g., Pilbara,Kaapvaal). These examples with continental basementand associated silicic igneous rocks are more analogous tothe Mesozoic–Cenozoic volcanic rifted margins andcontinental flood basalt provinces. In addition, greenstonebelts with komatiites are probably not produced bynormal spreading ridge processes because komatiitesindicate source region temperatures higher than thoseassociated with normal spreading ridges, and the crustallycontaminated geochemical signatures indicate eruption incontinental regions (Arndt, 1999). However, somecontroversy exists for both these points. There is someevidence for the production of komatiites by melting ofwet mantle under subduction conditions (e.g., Parman andGrove 2005), although this process may be rare (e.g.,Arndt et al., 1998), and it is also possible that normal ridgeproduction can produce komatiite magmas, particularlygiven a hotter Archean geotherm (e.g., de Wit andAshwal, 1995).

5. Fragmented LIPs

An important issue in identifying LIPs and deter-mining their original attributes (area, volume, duration,magmatic pulses, and setting) is that many becomefragmented, and that fragmentation can occur soon afterthe LIP event. Continental LIPs can be fragmented intwo ways: 1) by plate-breakup processes in whichcomponents of the LIP end up on separate riftedcontinental blocks, cratons or oceanic plates, and/or 2)by deep erosion in which the continuity of the floodbasalts and volcanic cover sequences are lost, and unitsbelonging to the exposed plumbing system of the LIPhave a scattered distribution. The propagation of mid-ocean ridge spreading centres and ridge jumps are themechanisms by which oceanic LIPs have been frag-mented, and separations between the various LIPfragments can be large, as evidenced for the OntongJava–Manihiki and Hikurangi plateau fragments (Tay-lor, 2006). The importance of reconstructions is under-lined by this interpretation, because if correct, it thenestablishes a single Ontong Java–Manihiki–HikurangiLIP with an original size of nearly 80 Mkm3 (Fig. 5B).

Reconstructions for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic con-tinental LIPs can be undertaken using constraints fromthe seafloor age distributions. For example, closing ofthe central Atlantic ocean allows reconstruction of the∼200 Ma CAMP LIP with components (mainly dykesand sills) in North America, South America, Europe, andAfrica (Fig. 4A). As another example, the two pieces ofthe ∼132 Ma LIP, the Paraná of South America and theEtendeka of southwest Africa are reconstructed by

closure of the South Atlantic. In contrast, Paleozoicreconstructions are less robust and few constraints existfor Proterozoic reconstructions (e.g., Buchan et al.,2001). Fortunately, progress in Precambrian reconstruc-tions is being made using the classical paleomagneticmethod (e.g., Wingate et al., 2002; Li et al., 2004), andmore recently with combined LIP ‘barcode’ (Fig. 6)and ‘dyke swarm piercing point’ methods (Bleeker andErnst, 2006).

An additional problem is deciding whether coevalmagmatic units that are located on different cratonsactually should be reconstructed into a single LIP orwhether they represent simultaneous but independentLIP events (separate LIP nodes). In the younger record,there are several examples of such coeval but indepen-dent LIP nodes (plume-clusters of Ernst and Buchan,2002 and Ernst, 2007; cf. superplume of Larson, 1991).For example, LIPs at ∼130–120 Ma include theParaná–Etendeka of South America–Africa breakup,the Trap dykes of southern Greenland, the initiation ofthe Kerguelen LIP and emplacement of the Bunburybasalts in southwestern Australia, the initial pulse of theHigh Arctic Large Igneous Province, the initiation of theWhitsunday Silicic LIP, the final phases of the ShatskyRise, initial submarine flood basalt volcanism in theNauru Basin and at the Magellan Rise and probably, aninitial pulse of the Ontong Java Plateau (Table 1). Asecond example of coeval but independent LIP nodes isthe essentially coeval 65–62 Ma Deccan and 62 MaNorth Atlantic LIPs of India–Seychelles and Europe–Greenland, respectively.

The second type of LIP fragmentation is where in-tense and/or long-lived erosion has obscured the con-tinuity of volcanic (±subvolcanic) rock. In these cases,paleomagnetic, geochemical and especially geochrono-logical techniques are required to show that widelydistributed dykes, sills, layered intrusions, batholiths andany erosional remnants of volcanic rocks that wereemplaced synchronously, and which have geochemicalsimilarity, are therefore, likely to belong to the sameLIP event. The 1076 Ma Warakurna LIP of central andwestern Australia is an excellent example of how a verylarge and deeply eroded LIP event has been recognizedthrough the collation of detailed radiometric and paleo-magnetic age constraints andmay also have geochemicalsimilarity, (Wingate et al., 2004). Importantly, this conti-nental LIP had not been fragmented by rifting processes,but has been significantly eroded.

Another point regards the shortage of oceanic LIPs inthe pre-200 Ma record (Fig. 4B), which may indicate apoor preservation potential of oceanic LIPs during sub-duction, the difficulty of recognizing partially subducted,

Fig. 6. Age spectrum (‘bar code’) of LIP events through time (revised and updated from earlier versions in Ernst and Buchan 2001, 2004; Ernst et al.,2005). Column A: LIPs sensu stricto, i.e. events that satisfy criteria defined herein, regarding areal extent, inferred volume, short duration pulse orpulses, and intraplate setting. Column B: interpreted LIP ‘fragments’ (as discussed in the text), and which are linked to LIPs based on the presence of‘proxy’ criteria such as diabase dykes with an average width N10 m, thick diabase sills or tholeiitic-komatiites in the case of Archean examples (seealso discussion of LIP proxies in Ernst, 2007). Only events with an age uncertainty less than 20 myr are included. Selected events are labelled at thestarting age of the main pulse, and for multi-pulse LIPs, the arrow is placed at the oldest pulse. Not all LIP events are labelled for clarity. Associatedsupercontinents are listed along the left side. LIP abbreviations are: BLIP, Baltic Large Igneous Province; CAMP, Central Atlantic MagmaticProvince; CSDG, Central Scandinavian Dolerite Group; HALIP, High Arctic Large Igneous Province; NAIP, North Atlantic Igneous Province;OJHMP, Ontong Java–Hikurangi–Manihiki Plateau. Locations for LIP events are: NA, North America; SA, South America; EU, Europe; AF, Africa;AS, Asia; AU, Australia; AN, Antarctica; and PA, Pacific Ocean.


and accreted oceanic LIPs within orogenic belts formedduring ocean closure, or that fewer past LIP eventsoccurred in oceanic settings. Oceanic plateaus are morebuoyant than oceanic crust, and therefore are expected tobe more resistant to subduction, leading to accretion ontocontinental margins and preservation in the geologic

record (Kerr, 2003). Collisional orogenesis and thejamming of subduction zones are predicted where large(N104 km2) and N30-km thick oceanic plateaus arrive atsubduction zones, as has been evident with the OntongJava Plateau colliding with the Solomon islands arc(Cloos, 1993). Remnants of Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic


accreted oceanic plateaus are now being recognizedaround the north Pacific margins (e.g., Sorachi, Japan,Kimura et al., 1994; Tatsumi et al., 1998; westernCordillera of Columbia and Ecuador, Kerr et al., 1997;Kerr and Tarney, 2005; Cache Creek and Wrangellia,Canada, Pallister et al., 1989; Tardy et al., 2001; seesummary in Kerr, 2003). A related point is the apparentshortage of ancient volcanic rifted margins, with respect tothe present day where up to 90% of the global riftedmargins are volcanic (Menzies et al., 2002). As noted byCoffin and Eldholm (2001), some ophiolite fragmentspreserved in accreted terranes along convergent marginsmay be obducted sections of unrecognized volcanicpassive margins and oceanic plateaus.

6. Conclusions

Earth history has been punctuated by events duringwhich large volumes of mafic and generally subordinatesilicic and ultramafic magmas were generated and em-placed by processes distinct from those observable atmodern plate boundaries, and predicted by plate-tectonictheory. Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) are the preservedexpression of these anomalous magmatic events. How-ever, few LIPs have been fully characterised in terms oftheir size, variation in melt emplacement rate through-out the LIP event, geochemical character and inferreddistribution of mantle source areas, plumbing system foremplacing and distributing magma in the crust, and linkswith ore deposits and climate change (Ernst et al., 2005).Our revised definition emphasizes several key character-istics (large volume, short duration or pulsed character ofthe igneous events, intraplate tectonic setting and com-position) that are hallmarks of these unusual magmaticevents, and distinguish them from modern magma gen-erating processes at plate boundaries. The reviseddefinition therefore is aimed at directing future studiestowards a better characterisation of LIPs. Althoughbased on Earth examples, the revised definition shouldalso provide the framework for characterising possibleplanetary LIPs thought to exist on Mars, Venus and theMoon (Head and Coffin, 1997; Head, 2004, 2006;Hansen, 2007; Ernst, 2007).

As a consequence of the revised definition, a numberof oceanic volcanic features are no longer considered asLIPs (seamount groups, submarine ridges, anomalousseafloor-spreading crust), whereas three new provincetypes are included: 1) dyke swarm, sill and mafic–ultramafic intrusion-dominated provinces that are thedominant and preserved expression of Paleozoic–Proterozoic LIPs; 2) greenstone belts of tholeiitic andkomatiitic rocks that may be Archean LIPs; and 3) Silicic

LIPs emplaced along fertile continental margins wherewidespread partial melting (driven by large mantle-derived thermal and material fluxes into the crust) andconsequent silicic magma eruption replaced the moretypical outpouring of large volumes of basaltic magma.

Additionally, a separate grouping (‘waiting room’) maybe required for those smaller-scale igneous provinces thatcould have been a LIP or part of a LIP, but currently do notmeet the dimension criteria due to a lack of data or sizelimitations as a consequence of erosion or burial and/orcontinental fragmentation (e.g., Ernst, 2007). New LIPswillbe identified as additional age data are obtained allowingcorrelation of what were previously considered unrelatedigneous events in different and widely separated tectonicterranes, as has occurred many times over the last decadesince the first inventory of LIPs by Coffin and Eldholm(1991, 1992, 1994) (e.g., the 1078–1070 Ma, WarakurnaLIP; Wingate et al., 2004; and 2215 Ma Ungava LIP of theSuperior craton, Buchan et al., 1998).We recommend in thecases of areally extensive regions (N10,000 km2) of igneousrock, as highlighted by Sheth (2007), that “igneous terrane”(following the proposed usage of terrane by Irwin, 1972) is amore appropriate but informal term to describe such regionsdominated by igneous rocks, regardless of age, volume,composition or tectonic setting.

An accurate definition is vital to assist with newLIP recognition, to avoid confusion over the use andmeaning of the term Large Igneous Province, and toensure the terminology keeps pace with the rapid ad-vances in our understanding of LIP events. Most im-portantly, the revised definition is intended to provide animproved framework for petrogenetic models on theorigin of LIPs, and an ability to better recognize thoseLIPs in the geologic record most likely to have hadregional to global environmental and climatic effectsand/or signalled major tectonic and geodynamic eventsin Earth history.

Acknowledgments

We thank the participants at the IAVCEI InternationalConference on Continental Volcanism, held in Guangz-hou, China, May 14–18, 2006 for helpful discussions onthis topic, in particular David Peate, Ingrid Ukstins Peate,Nicholas Arndt, Shan de Silva, Christian Tegner, MichaelMcCurry and Oded Navon. In addition, Don Anderson,Andy Saunders, Hetu Sheth, Gillian Foulger, SamiMikhail, Vic Camp, Alexei Ivanov, Rajat Mazumder,Sarajit Sensarma, Kamal Sharma and Bernard Bonin arethanked for web-based discussions (http://www.mantle-plumes.org/LIPClassTop.html) on LIP definition andclassification. Further information is also available on the

http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/06july.html

http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/06july.html


http://www.mantleplumes.org/LIPClassTop.html

http://www.mantleplumes.org/LIPClassTop.html


LIPs Commission website: www.largeigneousprovinces.org. Carmen Gaina, Franco Pirajno, Vic Camp, PeterHooper, Luca Ferrari, Chris Harrison, William Sager andDavid Evans are thanked for discussions on aspects of thismanuscript.We acknowledge the formative works ofMikeCoffin and Olav Eldholm that have been instrumental inadvancing our understanding of LIPs. The supportive andchallenging reviews of Andrew Kerr and Gillian Foulgerhelped improve the manuscript. The editorial and journalsupport of Martin Flowers and Herman Engelen, respec-tively, are also acknowledged.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can befound, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.08.008.

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