Course: B.Sc. Agriculture

Subject: Principles of Horticulture

Unit :4

Cultivation practices of Grape

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Botany

3. Present status of grape cultivation in the country

4. Area, Production and Productivity

5. Varieties of grapes

6. Propagation methods

7. Establishment of vineyard

8. Care and Management of vineyard

A) Training of grapevine

B) Pruning of grapevine

C) Manures and fertilizers

D) Weed management Cont…

E) Irrigation

F) Use of growth regulators

G) Pests and their management

H) Diseases and their management

9. Physiological disorders

10. Quality improvement

11. Harvesting and Post Harvest Management

12. Grapes export from India

13. Uses of grapes

History (In world)

Grapes have a long and abundant history. While they've grown wild

since prehistoric times, evidence suggests they were cultivated in Asia

as early as 5000 BC. The grape also played a role in numerous biblical

stories, being referred to as the "fruit of the vine." Grapes were also

pictured in hieroglyphics in ancient Egyptian burial tombs.

During the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, grapes were

revered for their use in winemaking. They were planted in the Rhine

Valley in Germany, a place of notable wine production, in the 2nd

century AD. Around this time, over 90 varieties of grapes were already

known.

As European travelers explored the globe, they brought the grape

with them. Grapes were first planted in the United States in the early

17th century at a Spanish mission in New Mexico. From there, they

quickly spread to the central valley of California where climate, and

absence of grape-preying insects, best supported their production.

IINTRODUCTION

In the late 19th century, almost all of the vinifera

varieties of grapes in France were destroyed by an

insect that was unintentionally brought from North

America. Fortunately, agriculturists crossbred some of

the vinifera variety with the American labrusca variety

and were able to continue the cultivation of grapes in

this region, one that is famous for its grapes and wine.

Today, as researchers continue to investigate the

health-promoting polyphenolic compounds found in

grapes, this fruit is gaining even more attention.

Currently, Italy, France, Spain, the United States,

Mexico and Chile are among the largest commercial

producers of grapes.

Botany

• Roots :

– The grape vine has spreading and descending

type of root system, root penetrate deep down to

1.8-3.6 m. the feeder roots are present up to 25 cm

depth and 60-120 cm away from the trunk.

• Trunk

– This is a permanent stem at the vine on which the

whole framework is based

• Shoot

– The succulent current season’s growth arising

from a bud after pruning

Introduction

• It is a deciduous crop. Its natural habitat is

temperate climate.

• It was introduced into north India from Iran

and Afghanistan in 1300 AD by the Muslim

invaders; and into south India in 1832 by the

Christian missionaries from France.

• However, grape was known in ancient India

though it was not commercially cultivated

until the 14th century.

• Wild grapes grown in Himachal Pradesh were

used to prepare local wine.

Introduction

• Presently grape cultivation is concentrated in

the peninsular India (surrounded Arabian

Sea, Bay of Bangal & Indian

Ocean), accounting for 90% of the total area.

• Major grape-growing states are Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and

the north-western region covering Punjab,

Haryana, Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh,

Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Vitales

Family: Vitaceae

Genus: Vitis L.

Species

Vitis acerifolia

Vitis aestivalis

Vitis amurensis

Vitis arizonica

Vitis x bourquina

Vitis californica

Vitis x champinii

Vitis cinerea

Scientific classification

Vitis x doaniana

Vitis girdiana

Vitis labrusca

Vitis x labruscana

Vitis lincecumii

Vitis monticola

Vitis mustangensis

Vitis x novae-angliae

Vitis palmata

Vitis riparia

Vitis rotundifolia

Vitis rupestris

Vitis shuttleworthii

Vitis tiliifolia

Vitis vinifera

Vitis vulpina

Introduction• Vitis is a genus decidious, rarely evergreen, shrubby

climber, distributed chiefly in the northern

hemisphere.

• This genus divided into two sugenera

– Euvitis (2n = 38)

– Muscadinia (2n = 40)

• Vitis contains about 60 species.

• Among these some popular species are

– Fox grape (Vitis valpinia)

– Frost grape (Vitis labrusca)

– River bank grape (Vitis riparia)

– Bird grape (Vitis munsoniana)

– Bullace grape (Vitis rotundifolia)

Introduction

• The wild grapes are divided into 3 geographical

groups

– American

– Middle Asia

– Oriental

• The commercial cultivars of American grapes are the

direct derives of either V. rotundifolia or V. labrusca

whereas European grapes are V. vinifera, is a

polymorphic sp. which is considered the pinnacle of

fruit quality but lacks in resistance to disease, pests

& hardiness to cold.

• V. vinifera is considered a hybrid of 2 American spp.

V. vulpina & V. labrusca

PRESENT STATUS OF GRAPE

CULTIVATION IN THE COUNTRY

Grape is grown under a variety of soil and climatic

conditions in three distinct agro-climatic zones, namely,

sub-tropical, hot tropical and mild tropical climatic regions

in India.

Sub-tropical Region:

This region covers the northwestern plains

corresponding to 28° and 32° N latitude including Delhi;

Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh;

Hissar and Jind districts of Haryana; and

Bhatinda, Ferozpur, Gurdaspur and Ludhiana districts of

Punjab.

Vines undergo dormancy and bud break

starts in the first week of March while the

rains arrive in the first week of June, and

therefore, only 90-95 days are available

from the initiation of growth to harvest.

Consequently, ‘Perlette’ is the only early

ripening variety grown in this region.

Rain damage is a problem with

Thompson Seedless in this region.

Single pruning and a single harvest is the

accepted practice here.

Hot Tropical Region:

This region covers Nashik, Sangli, Solapur,

Pune, Satara, Latur and Osmanabad districts of

Maharashtra;

Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar,

Anantapur and Medak districts of Andhra

Pradesh; and

Bijapur, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Gulberga districts

of northern Karnataka lying between 15° and

20° N latitude.

This is the major viticulture region accounting

for 70 percent of the area under grapes in the

country.

Vines do not undergo dormancy and double pruning

and a single harvest is the general practice in this

region.

Maximum and minimum temperature is 42°C and 8°C,

respectively.

The major problems in this region are soil and water

salinity and drought.

Berry growth is impaired and in certain locations pink

bluish sometimes develops on green berries due to

temperatures that drop to a low of 8°C.

Thompson Seedless and its clones (Tas-A-Ganesh,

Sonaka), Anab-e-Shahi, Sharad Seedless and Flame

Seedless are the varieties grown in this region.

Mild Tropical Region:

An area covered by 10° and 15° N latitude including Bangalore

and Kolar districts of Karnataka;

Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore; and

Madurai and Theni districts of Tamil Nadu fall in this region.

Maximum temperatures in a year seldom exceed 36°C, while the

minimum is about 12°C.

Principal varieties are Bangalore Blue (Syn. Isabella), Anab-e-

Shahi, Gulabi (Syn. Muscat Hamburg), and Bhokri. Thompson

Seedless is grown only with limited success.

Except for Thompson Seedless, two crops are harvested in a

year

Vinifera varieties susceptible to mildew suffer losses due to

unprecedented rains during flowering and fruit set in both hot and

mild tropical regions.

Area, Production and Productivity

In terms of production, grape occupies the 7th position (only 0.02%

of total fruit production) among all fruits, but it has the highest

productivity among all fruits.

While during the period from 1991-92 to 1999-2000, India's area

under grape has increased by 50% (approx.), world area under grape

had shown declining trend till 1997-98 and thereafter it started

increasing.

During the same period, India's production of grape had also shown

50% increase, whereas world production of grape shown fluctuating

trend.

According to a report, the worldwide grape production fell from 60

million tones during the mid '80s to 55 million tones in 1995.

Thereafter, it has increased to 63 million tones by 2000-

2001. However, the table grape production has remained rather

stable. The fall in grape production is mainly due to the fall in

production of wine grape.

Overall, the report clearly indicates the possibility of increase in the

production of table grapes in future. The CAGR during the period

from 1991-92 to 2000-01 indicates that India specially Maharashtra

achieved much higher rate than world as a whole.

India is credited with achieving the highest

productivity of grape i.e. average productivity of 25 tonne per ha. as

against the world average of 8 tonne per ha.and also the record yield

of 100 tonne per ha.The conducive climate in most of the important

grape growing areas, well developed production technologies and

the progressive entrepreneurship with easy availability of

institutional finance for the crop made it possible to increase the

grapeproduction and productivity. There is still scope to increase

grape production in India specially in Maharashtra by increasing the

area under cultivation.

Variety Area (ha) Production (t)

Anab-e-Shahi (white, seeded 3,000 135, 000

Bangalore Blue Syn. Isabella

(black, seeded)

4,500 180,000

Bhokri (white, seeded) 500 15,000

Flame Seedless (red, seedless) 500 10,000

Gulabi Syn. Muscat Hamburg

(purple, seeded)

1,000 30,000

Perlette (white, seedless) 1,500 60,000

Sharad Seedless - A mutant of

Kishmish Chorni (black,

seedless)

1,000 20,000

Thomson Seedless and its

mutants (white, seedless)

22,000 550,000

Total 34,000 1,000,000

Climate• Temperature, humidity and light are important for grapes.

Hot and dry climate is ideal.

• Areas with high humidity and high rainfall are not

suitable.

• The climatic requirements of vinifera are different from

those of labrusca grapes.

• Mild temperature, not exceeding 35°C in summers,

impairs the fruiting of vinifera grapes, particularly, in

Thompson Seedless.

• Higher night temperatures (above 25°C) during ripening

hamper the colour development in coloured grapes.

• Cool nights and hot days even though congenial for

coloured grapes, pink pigmentation develops in green

grapes if the diurnal differences are more than

20°C during ripening.

Climate• Under high humid conditions, the vines put forth

excessive vegetative growth at the expense of

fruiting. Berries do not ripen properly. Disease

incidence is high.

• The total amount of rainfall is not the criterion, but

the timing, frequency and duration of rainfall are

important considerations for grape cultivation. Rains

associated with cloudy weather and poor sunlight

during 45–60 days after back pruning in the tropical

India reduce the fruitful buds in a vine.

• Rainfall during flowering, and berry ripening cause

enormous damage to grapes. If rains coincide with

flowering, the panicles are destroyed by downy

mildew. Rains during ripening cause berry cracking

and rotting.

Soil

• Soil with good drainage and water-holding capacity in a pH

range of 6.5–7.5 is ideally-suited for grapes.

• Presence of excess salts, particularly sodium and free calcium

is detrimental for grapes. Vines become weak and their

productive life span is reduced.

• When the soil contains more free calcium than 12%, vines

suffer from iron deficiency and the soil gradually becomes

sodic.

• High content of sodium in soil posses drainage problems and

the root growth is impaired.

• Soils of Maharashtra, Haryana and Punjab are saline-alkali.

Free calcium content is also high in soils of Maharashtra.

Varieties

• About 8000 varieties are recognised all over the

world.

• Thomson Seedless- Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra

• Anab-a-shahi -Hydrabad region

• Bagalore Blue – Karnataka

• Seedless varieties – North India ( Pusa Seedless,

Beayty Seedless, Perlette

1. Thompson Seedless Grapes:

These grapes are seedless,

sweet-tart, and crunchy.

Thomson Seedless account for the bulk of

Table Grape exports from India.

Availability: Mid Jan - Mid April

2.Sonaka Seedless Grapes:

Sonaka Seedless is a Bud-sport of

Thompson Seedless grapes with elongated

berries. After Thompson Grapes these

account for the second largest (Bulk wise)

grape variety exports from India.

Availability: Mid Jan - Mid April

INDIAN GROWING VARITIES1

2

These grapes are seedless,

Black and make very good

Table and Wine Grapes.

Availability: January & February

4. Red Flame Seedless Grapes

Are the result of a cross between Thompson,

Cardinal and other grape varieties.

Flame grapes are one of the most popular

varieties along with Thompson grapes .These

grapes are seedless, sweet-tart, and crunchy.

Availability: January & February

3. Black Seedless Grapes:

3

4

1.Xarel.lo

One of the traditional varieties from the Lower and

Central Penedes producing fresh, fruity and light

wines.. It is also the base wine used to make cava.

2.Macebeo

This variety is found mainly in the Central Penedes and is used to

give a fruity aroma to Brut and Nature cavas. It is also used to

produce full-bodied dry and fruity wines.

3.Parellada

The finest and most delicate of the traditional Catalan white

varieties.When grown in cool mountain microclimates (Upper

Penedès) it produces aromatic dry white wines, light and with delicate

fruity aromas.

A. WHITE VARITIES

ABROAD GROWING VARIETIES

5

1.Garnacha

This variety is the most cultivated Mediterranean

grape worldwide. It makes excellent red and rosé

wines that benefit from thick and sensual tannins. If

the grapes are cultivated in poor soils, with low

yields, the red wines can attain a power and

expression that is stunning, hence wines made from

Garnacha are so sought after.

2.Merlot

A noble international variety, grown in our Middle

Penedèsvineyards.

It has small berries, of very dark blue colour,

medium thick skins and a sugary pulp. It produces

excellent varietal wines, characterized by their

finesse, their elegance and their fine and velvety

tannins

B. RED VARIETIES

6

7

Varieties

• Beauty seedless = Queen of Vineyard x Black Kishmish

• Pusa seedless – Clonal selection from Thomson Seedless at

IARI

• Perlette = Queen of Vineyard x Sultanina marble -26

• Thompson Seedless – Introduction from the University of

California Deris (USA)

• Arkavati = Black Champa x Thompson Seedless, evolved by

IIHR, Bangalore

• Anab-e-Shahi – Brought from West Asia by Abdul Baquer Khan

in 1890.

Propagation methods

Grapevines are propagated by

seeds, cuttings, layering, budding,

or grafting.

New plants have been produced by

several in vitro techniques, including

embryoid formation and fragmented

shoot tip cultures (Krul and

Mowbray, 1985).

• Grape is mostly propagated by hardwood stem cuttings.

• Four-noded cuttings from well mature canes on proven

vines are made.

• The diameter of cuttings should be 8–10mm. Cuttings are

mostly obtained from October pruning in the peninsula.

• Rooting of cuttings is not a problem. However,

Thompson Seedless roots are poorer than Anab-e-Shahi

or Bangalore Blue.

• To increase the rooting of stem cuttings, they should

either be soaked or dipped to cover the basal buds in IBA

solution. For overnight soaking, 500ppm IBA solution is

used, while 2000ppm solution is used for quick dipping

for 10 sec. before planting the cuttings.

• Quick dip method is preferred. Cuttings after treating with

IBA should be planted in the nursery or directly in the

field.

• Cuttings are planted in nursery either in beds or

polybags for rooting. The beds or polybags should

be under partial shade. The rooting media should

have 30–40% well-decomposed cattle manure to

retain moisture and similar proportion of sand to

provide drainage. The beds or rooting medium

should be treated with Chloropyriphos or Furadan

granules to prevent termite damage. Light frequent

watering is to be given to the cuttings.

• For planting in field, 3–4 cuttings should be planted

at each spot. Cuttings are covered with green twigs

to provide shade. After rooting, one good cutting is

retained at each spot. Gap filling should also be

done at this stage.

• Rootstocks are employed for grapes to

overcome salinity, nematode damage and to

impart vigour to vines.

• In normal soils with good and adequate

water for irrigation, rootstock is not

necessary.

• In nematode-prone soils, the rootstock 1613

can be used for Anab-e-Shahi or Thompson

Seedless.

• In saline soils, Dogridge is better.

• Use of Dogridge in non-saline, nematode-free

soils, particularly under mild climatic

conditions makes the vines barren by

imparting excess vigour.

The land is tilled and laid into plots of 120 m x 180 m separated by

3 m wide roads. Land within a plot is leveled perfectly to have a

gradient of less than 1 percent in any direction to ensure uniform

discharge of water through the emitters of drip irrigation systems.

Trenches of 75 cm width, 75 cm depth and 118 m length in a north-

south direction with a gap of 3 m between trenches are opened with

heavy machinery. They are closed with topsoil, up to a height of 45 cm

after 15 days exposure to sun. The remaining gap is filled with a

mixture of soil, cattle manure, single super phosphate, sulphate of

potash and micro-nutrients. Usually, 50 kg of cattle manure, 2.5 kg of

super phosphate, 0.5 kg of sulphate of potash and 50 g each of ZnSO4

and FeSO4 are added to the soil for every running meter length of the

trench.

Land Preparation and Vine Establishment

Planting Season

The best season for planting the rooted cuttings of cultivated

varieties in the main field is September-October whereas for

rootstocks it is February-March

Spacing

Spacing generally varies with the varieties and soil fertility. For

vigorous varieties it is 6 m x 3 m or 4 m x 3 m and 3 m x 3 m or 3 m x

2 m for less vigorous varieties.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF VINEYARDS

(A) Training of Vines:

Many training systems are in vogue in India, but the most popular are

Bower, Telephone and Flat Roof Gable systems

1.Bower System:Owing to the high productive potential, bower was a very

popular system of training in the past. It is highly suited for vigorous

varieties like Anab-e-Shahi, Bangalore Blue and Gulabi. But in varieties

like Thompson Seedless and Tas-A-Ganesh where vine vigour and

excessive foliage density affects the productivity adversely, this

system is not popular.

2.Telephone System:T-trellis is used in this system of training. With three top wires

and ‘T’ shaped supports, the trellis looks like a telephone pole and

wires and hence the name.

This system is followed for moderately vigorous varieties like

Thompson Seedless and other seedless cultivars in about 25-30

percent of the vineyard area in Maharashtra. Yields in this system are

less than the bower. In very hot and dry places, sunburn of the berries

and of the arms are experienced in summer.

3.Flat Roof Gable System:

Combining the advantage of bower and the extended Y

systems and eliminating their disadvantages, an inter-connected Y

trellis forming a flat roof gable is being adopted. This system is

particularly followed for vigorous vines (vines grafted on rootstocks).

The bunches are protected from direct sunlight and well exposed to

sprays of pesticides. The clusters hang within the reach of the worker

of an average height. Owing to these advantages, this system is

gaining popularity among the growers in Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh and Karnataka.

(B) Pruning of Vines :

Three distinct pruning practices are in vogue in relation to cropping

in the three grape growing regions of the country.

In the sub-tropical region, vines are pruned only once in December

and the crop is harvested once. Half of the canes are pruned to

renewal spurs and the rest to fruiting canes (3-4 nodes for Perlette).

In hot tropical regions, vines are pruned twice but only one crop is

harvested. All canes in a vine are pruned back to single node spurs

in March-May to develop canes and the canes are forward pruned in

October-November for fruiting. The number of nodes retained on a

cane varies with the variety and cane thickness. There is no scope

to prune earlier than October and later than November due to

unfavorable weather conditions.

In the mild tropical region, vines are pruned twice and the crop is

harvested twice. In varieties like Gulabi and Bangalore Blue, which

are fairly resistant to rain damage and in which fruit bud

differentiation is not impaired by cloudy weather and rains, pruning

is done at any time of the year. As a result, five crops are harvested

every two years.

(C) Application of Manure and Fertilizers:

At the time of planting about 75 tonnes of cattle manure 5

tonnes of caster cake and 2 1/2 tonnes of super phosphate per

hectare are applied .After the vine has grown for 3-4 weeks it is given

an application of 100 to 150 g of Ammonium sulphate and 250g of

caster cake every month during the first six months after planting. The

quantities of fertilizer applied from 2nd year onwards are given in

table.

Age of vine

(Nutrients Kg/ha)

Summer Pruning Winter Pruning

N P205 K20 N P205 K20

2nd Year 250 250 250 250 250 250

3rd Year 300 300 300 300 300 300

4th Year 350 350 350 300 350 400

5th Year 500 400 400 400 400 500

(D) Weed Management :

Farmyard manure and compost are the major sources of weed

seeds from outside. The problematic weeds in vineyards are bermuda

grass (Cynodon dactylon) and nut grass (Cyperus rotundus). The weed

intensity is less in bower trained vineyards.

Mechanical control is most common means of weed control in India.

Dhaincha and sunhemp are grown as intercrops to check the weeds in

vineyards trained to T, V or Y trellises. Post-emergent weedicides-

Paraquat (7.5 kg/ha) or Glyphosate (2.0kg/ha), is also recommended.

Glyphosate offers a long time control of weeds as compared to Paraquat

(E) Supplementary Irrigation :

Since grapes are grown in areas where the evapotranspiration

exceeds the precipitation, irrigation is essential. Less than 10 percent of

the vineyard areas are surface irrigated, while the rest is irrigated by drip

systems. Water requirement is calculated based on the pan evaporation

using 0.8 as the crop factor. Water is applied at different rates at different

stages of vine growth and berry development.

(F) Use of growth regulators (CCC, GA, Hydrgen Cyanamid) :

1) CCC

The CCC is used to suppress the vigour of vines and

increase the fruitfulness of buds. It is sprayed at 500 ppm

concentration at 5-leaf stage after back pruning. If weather is

cloudy, cool and rainy, it is sprayed on the foliage once again at

10-leaf stage.

2) Gibberallic acid

Gibberallic acid (GA) is used invariably in all seedless

varieties. It is sprayed at 10 ppm to elongate the clusters, 22–25

days after forward pruning (4–5-leaf stage). It is also sprayed

on clusters @ 40ppm at 50% bloom stage for thinning the

berries. For increasing the berry size, the clusters are dipped in

60ppm GA alone or in a mixture of GA (30ppm) with 10ppm BA

or 2ppm CPPU at pearl millet or bajra grain-sized berries and

again at red gram sized berries.

Care must be taken not to treat the clusters with GA before

bajra grain-sized berries. Otherwise, berries of uneven size

form a cluster. For increasing berry size, vines are girdled.

Girdling is a process of removing 2–3mm wide strip of bark

around the stem without injuring the wood. This is also to

be done at the bajra grain-sized berries.

3) Hydrogen Cyanamid

Hydrogen Cyanamid is used to hasten and increase

the bud-break at winter pruning. Buds are swabbed with

cotton soaked in 1.5% solution of hydrogen cyanamide 48

hr after pruning. Hastening the bud-break with hydrogen

cyamide also hastens the ripening of grapes in the north.

Thiourea (4.0%) mixed with 1% Bordeaux mixture is also

used to increase bud-break in south.

Quality Improvement

1. Shoot and Cluster Thinning:Only one or two clusters are retained per cane depending upon the

density of the latter. Irrespective of the number of clusters, only the

apical two or three shoots are retained. In vines trained to the flat roof

gable, individual shoot length is encouraged rather than the total

canopy size for preventing sunburn of the berries.

2. Production of Loose Clusters:Pre-bloom GA sprays of 10 ppm and 15 ppm are given respectively

on the 11th to 14th day after bud break for cluster elongation. Rachides

of the clusters are trimmed to retain 8-10, depending on the number of

leaves available per cluster. Clusters are dipped in GA solution of 30-40

ppm when 10-20 percent of the flowers open in each cluster for berry

thinning.

4. Increasing Berry Size:Manual means are used to supplement chemical thinning to ensure

adequate berry thinning and improve the quality of grapes.

Approximately 90-120 berries are retained per cluster depending upon

the number of leaves available to nourish it at 8-10 berries per every

leaf depending on its size. Clusters are dipped in GA solution of 40-50

ppm concentration once at 3-4 mm size of the berries and again at 7-8

mm size. When berry diameter is to be increased to more than 16 mm,

clusters are dipped in a mixture of 10 ppm BA + 25 ppm GA or 2 ppm

CPPU + 25 ppm GA or 1 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA instead of

GA alone at these two stages.

In addition to the treatment with growth regulators, berry size and

crispiness are increased by girdling. The width and depth of girdling

are 1-1.5 mm. Girdling is done at 4-5 mm diameter of the berries.

5. Increasing the TSS Content:Berry thinning and cluster thinning to maintain adequate leaf/fruit

ratio (5 cm2), while girdling will ensure a TSS content of 20°B.

Harvesting and Post harvest management

Grapes are harvested when fully ripe, since they do not ripen after

harvesting. In seeded grapes, the seeds become dark brown when

they are fully ripe, while in seedless varieties, their characteristic berry

colour develops fully.

Grapes should be harvested during cool time of the day. Harvested

grapes are trimmed, graded and packed. For local markets, grapes are

packed in bamboo strip baskets using newspaper and grape leaves as

cushioning material. One basket contains 6kg of grapes. For distant

markets (within the country), wood or corrugated cardboard boxes are

used for packing. Old newspapers, hay and paper shreds are used as

cushioning material. The size of packing is 6 or 8kg in wood boxes,

and 2 or 4kg in cardboard boxes. Transport of grapes is mainly by

trucks.

Variety

Yield (t/ha)

Period of HarvestAverag

e

Potenti

al

Anab-e-Shahi 45 90 February-May, July,

November-December

Bangalore Blue 40 60 January-March, June-

December

Bhokri 30 50 November-December, June-

July

Gulabi 30 50 January-March, June-

December

Perlette 40 50 June

Thompson Seedless and other

seedless varieties

25 50 January-April

Yield :

(G) Pests and their Management

The important pests of grapes in India are, flea beetles,

thrips, mealy bugs and leaf hoppers.

1. Flea beetles:

The adult beetles scrape the sprouting buds and eat

them up completely after each pruning. Damaged buds fail to

sprout. Insecticides like carbaryl at 0.15 percent, quinolphos at

0.05 percent, dichlorvas at 0.1 percent or phosalone at 0.05

percent are sprayed from the fourth day until the emergence of

leaves.

2. Thrips:

DamageVarious species of thrips can damage wine grape shoots, leaves,

and fruit. The two species most commonly found on Pacific

Northwest grapes are western flower thrips, Frankliniella

occidentalis; and grape thrips, Drepanothrips reuteri. Onion thrips,

Thrips tabaci; Thrips minuta; and Frankliniella minuta also appear

occasionally, but are not damaging. During and shortly after bloom,

thrips may scar the berries. As the berries enlarge, the scars restrict

growth of the epidermis, producing misshapen and split berries.

Extensive berry scarring can also lead to a severe loss of pigment in

red varieties. Thrips feeding on shoots can severely stunt leaf and

shoot growth in the spring and summer.

ControlThrips are effectively controlled by spraying phosphamidon at 0.05

percent, carbaryl at 0.125 percent, phosalone at 0.05 percent or

malathion at 0.05 percent. Prophylactic sprays of insecticides

against thrips are given once in five days from the initiation of

bloom to berry set.

3. Mealy Bugs:

Mealy bugs are the most serious and problematic pests of grapes

in India.DamageMealy bug, Pseudococcus maritimus, is a serious pest of both wine

and juice grapes. This pest produces a honeydew that makes the fruit,

shoots, and foliage sticky. A black fungus,Cladosporium spp., grows on

the honeydew, producing a sooty mold. Serious honeydew and sooty

mold contamination will make the fruit unsuitable for processing into

wine or juice.

Controli) Avoid spraying broad-spectrum insecticides particularly synthetic

pyrethroids.

ii) Spray only dichlorvas at 0.1 percent mixed with neem oil 0.2 percent

or tridemorph at 0.1 percent.

iii) Release cryptolaemus montrozieri beetles at 8,000-10,000 per

hectare when the berries start softening. It is better to release a

mixed population of grubs and adults rather than only adults.

4. Leaf hopper

Damage

Two species of leafhopper, the western grape leafhopper, Erythroneura

elegantula, and the Virginia creeper leafhopper, Erythroneura ziczac, feed on grape

leaves by puncturing the leaf cells and sucking out the cell contents. Repeated

feeding causes reduced photosynthesis; heavily damaged leaves will desiccate and

abscise. Thick infestations of leafhopper can defoliate a vineyard if no treatment is

applied. Large populations of adult leafhoppers may be present in vineyards before

harvest. These winged adults annoy workers by flying in their faces. Nymphs also

cause worker discomfort by trying to pierce exposed skin.

Control

Insecticides are most effective when the majority of the leafhopper population

consists of third and fourth instar nymphs. Eggs are protected from exposure to insecticides

because they are embedded in the leaf tissue, and adults are more tolerant of insecticides

than nymphs are. When insecticide applications are properly timed, one or two treatments

should provide sufficient control for the season, depending on the material used. One

treatment of imidacloprid or dimethoate will usually give season-long control, while two

treatments of carbaryl, endosulfan or azinphos-methyl may be necessary in high-pressure

situations

1. Powdery Mildew

Cause:

Uncinula necator, a fungal disease common to all areas of the

PNW. The disease tends to be more severe on the Westside of the

Cascades but is a chronic problem in arid districts where over-the-canopy

irrigation is used for early-season frost protection or watering. Vitis

vinifera (European) cultivars commonly are susceptible to powdery

mildew. Other hosts include Boston ivy, Virginia creeper, and Ampelopsis

(porcelain berry). The fungus may over winter as a group of thin threads

called hyphae, inside the vine’s dormant buds and/or as small black

bodies (cleistothecia) on the exfoliating bark of the vine.

Symptoms:

Powdery mildew can attack all aboveground plant parts. In early

stages, whitish or grayish patches are on leaves and, if severe, ultimately

cover both surfaces. Colonies are more easily detected in full sunlight.

Later in the season, the mildew darkens and is peppered with minute

black dots (cleistothecia). On fruit, the fungus at first may look grayish or

whitish but later has a brownish, russeted appearance. Infected fruit

cracks and drops from the cluster.

(H) Diseases and their Management

Even blossoms sometimes can be infected, causing them to dry up or fail

to set fruit. When green shoots and canes are infected, the affected

tissues appear dark brown to black in feathery patches. Patches later

appear reddish brown on the surface of dormant canes.

Flag shoots are difficult to detect. Some young shoots may be covered

with a large white mass of threads or mycelium. Others may have only a

hint of thin threads on the shoot. Shoots generally are delayed in bud

break and appear stunted and somewhat yellowed compared to healthy

shoots.

2. Downey mildew

Symptoms:

The disease is characterized by yellowish-green lesions (oil

spots) that form on the upper surfaces of leaves and turn reddish-

brown, necrotic, or mottled as they expand. A cottony mass of fungal

mycelium on the underside of leaves gives the lesions a downy white

appearance that is also characteristic of the disease. All green parts

of the vine that have mature, functioning stomata, including fruit,

leaves, and young shoots, can become infected and covered with a

white, downy, sporulating mass of mycelium. . Infections of young

berries can be mistaken for powdery mildew. When cluster infections

occur late in the season, fruit does not soften and appears mottled

and light green to red in color. Severely infected leaves may fall

prematurely.

(Plasmopara viticola)

MANAGEMENT

Preventive management consists of effective soil drainage

and reduction of sources of over wintering inoculum. In a vineyard

that depends on sprinkler irrigation, extend the interval between

irrigations as long as possible.

(Plasmopara viticola) On Fruits small light pale yellow spots appear

on upper surface and whitish downy growth on lower side. In severe

case the entire leaf is affected, turn brown and later drop off fruit

becomes greyish,hard and often mummified.

Control : Collect infested leaves,shoots,berries etc. and destroy.

Spray Bordeux mixture 1% or Foltaf 0.1 to 0.2% or system

fungicides,Ridomil 25% WP 0.1 to 0.2%.

.

3. ANTHRACNOSE :

Anthracnose is a southern disease that also occurs in

northern regions. Some table grape varieties are particularly

susceptible. Symptoms occur on all aboveground parts of the vine,

particularly on young tissues. Leaves develop numerous dark brown

spots, 1/25 to 1/5 inch (1 to 5 mm) in diameter. As the centers fall out,

lesions take on a “shot-hole” appearance. Severe infections curl and

distort leaves. Lesions on shoots are sunken and dark brown with

grayish centers.

Source of infection:

Anthracnose over winters on infected canes. It spreads to

all new growth during wet periods in early spring

Symptoms :

( Elsinoe ampelina )

Management:

i. Avoid highly susceptible cultivars. Vidal and Reliance are the two

cultivars that have been severely infected: Although other cultivars

are susceptible, it should be noted that other cultivars in close

proximity to infected Vidal and Reliance were not affected by the

disease in 1998. I am not suggesting that growers do not plant

Vidal (an important wine grape) and Reliance (an important seedless

table grape); however, it is important to remember their high degree

of susceptibility.

ii. Sanitation is very important. Prune out and destroy as much infected

wood and possible during the dormant season. This includes

infected cluster stems and berries.

iii. Canopy Management. Any practice that opens the canopy to

improve air circulation and reduce drying time of susceptible tissue

is beneficial for disease control. These practices include selection

of the proper training system, shoot positioning and leaf removal.

iv. Eliminate wild hosts (grapes) near the vineyard. The disease has

been observed on wild grapes in southern Ohio and was present on

wild grapes near the vineyard in southern Ohio where the disease was

a problem in 1998. Wild grapes provide an excellent place for the

disease to develop, and serve as an excellent reservoir for the disease

near the vineyard. It is probably impossible to eradicate wild grapes

from the woods, but a serious effort should be made to at least remove

them from the fence rows and as far from the vineyard as possible

(create a buffer zone). Remember the spores are spread over relatively

short distances by splashing rain and should not be able to move over

long distances into the vineyard.

v. Use of Fungicides. Where the disease is a problem, the use of

fungicides is highly recommended. Fungicide recommendations for

anthracnose control consist of a dormant application of Liquid Lime

Sulfur in the early spring, followed by the applications of foliar

fungicides during the growing season.

Liquid Lime Sulfur is applied as a dormant application in early spring

at the rate of 10 gallons/acre. The application should be delayed as late

in the spring as possible, but should be made before the buds swell.

Lime sulfur is very caustic and can cause vine damage if applied after

bud swell and green tissue is present. This spray is directed at

eradicating (burning out) the fungus on infected tissue that was

missed during dormant pruning, and is considered to be very

important for obtaining effective control.

Lime sulfur has a bad smell (rotten eggs) and is caustic to wires and

sprayers. Special care should be taken when using it to avoid drift to

non-target plants and objects, and to thoroughly clean the sprayer

after use. Once the disease is "cleaned up" in the vineyard, it may not

be necessary to use Lime sulfur every year.

Foliar fungicides

Many of the fungicides used in our "normal" disease management

program for control of Phomopsis cane and leaf spot, black rot and

downy mildew should be beneficial for anthracnose control. After the

dormant application of lime sulfur, foliar fungicide applications should

be started at 4 to 10 inch shoot growth and continued at 7 - 14 day

intervals. Please note that this is the "normal" timing for our currently

recommended fungicide program. Mancozeb and Captan are both

recommended for early season control of Phomopsis cane and leaf spot

and should have activity against anthracnose. Benlate is reported to

have good activity against anthracnose, but is not generally used in our

"normal" early season disease control program.

If anthracnose is a serious problem in the vineyard, incorporation of

Benlate into the spray program could be considered. Although I have

not seen any data for control of grape anthracnose, Abound fungicide is

reported to have good activity against similar anthracnose diseases on

other crops and should have good activity on grape anthracnose.

Copper fungicides have also been reported to have good activity

against grape anthracnose.

Physiological Disorders

Of physiological disorders, uneven ripening, post-harvest berry

drop, flower-bud and flower drop and pink berry formation are major

ones.

1. Uneven ripeningPresence of green berries in a ripe bunch of coloured grapes is

called uneven ripening. It is a varietal character and a problem in

Bangalore Blue, Bangalore Purple, Beauty Seedless and Gulabi grapes.

Within a variety this problem varies from bunch-to-bunch. Generally

inadequate leaf area, and non-availability of reserves to a developing

bunch is the reason. Cultural practices like cluster thinning, girdling and

use of growth regulators can reduce uneven ripening. Application of

Ethephon (250ppm) at colourbreak stage is recommended to reduce the

problem.

2. Post harvest berry dropThis is due to weak pedicel attachment to the berries. This is

common in Anab-e-Shahi, Cheema Sahebi and Beauty Seedless. Spraying

of NAA (50ppm), a week prior to harvesting can minimize the post-harvest

berry drop.

3. Flower-bud and flower dropWhen panicles are fully expanded, the flower-buds drop

before the fruit set. This is common in north India but not in the

south. The reasons for this disorder are not known. Stem girdling

about 10 days prior to full bloom can reduce the problem.

4. Pink berry formationIt is a common disorder in Thompson Seedless and its clone

Tas-A-Ganesh in Maharashtra. Pink blush develops on a few ripe

berries close to harvesting. The pink colour turns to dull red colour

and the berries become soft and watery. They do not stand for long

after harvesting. Although the definite cause of the disorder is not

known, it is recommended to spray a mixture of 0.2% ascorbic acid

and 0.25% sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate at fortnightly intervals

commencing berry softening.

Uses of grapes

1) Raisin grapes: are the only processed products in India.

Approximately 30% of seedless grapes are dried to produce 15,000

tonnes of raisins. Golden bleached raisins are produced by shade

drying the clusters after dipping in either boiling solution of sodium

hydroxide (0.2–0.3%) and exposing to sulphur fumes. Dipping in

soda oil (dipping oil) containing ethyl oleate and potassium

carbonate and shade drying is the most common method of

preparing raisins in India.

Seeded grapes of Anab-e-Shahi are also dried in very small

quantities to make raisins.

2) Table grapes:

The table grapes which as utilized either as a fresh fruit or for

decorative purpose. The table grapes should have attractive

appearance, good eating and shipping quality and should be sold at a

reasonable price. The berries should be large uniform in size shape

and colour. the eating quality include the aroma test texture of skin

and pulp and seedless ness

e.g.- Perlette, Thompson seedless, Anab-e-shahi(seed), Cheema

sahebi, Bangalore blue,Pusa seedless,Tas-e-ganesh, Sonaka, Sharad

seedless

3) Wine grapes:

Grapes of high acidity and low sugar are suitable for

dry or table wine. While sweet or desert wine are prepared

from grapes with high sugar content and low acid . The

grape and flavor be retained in the wine .

e.g.- early mascat, Perlette,Thompson seedless, Beauty

seedless, make good quality of wine.

4) juice grapes:

Champion, Black champa, Arka shyam, Bangalore

blue, beauty seedless are good for juice making

5) Canning grape :

Seedless grapes are used in caning. Important varieties

are Thompson Seedless & Perlette

Grapes are exported to middle-east, Europe and south Asian

countries. Grapes are packed in ventilated cardboard boxes using dual

release sulphur dioxide releasing pads (grape guard) as an inpacking

material to check the postharvest diseases during transit and storage.

Strict cold chain is maintained right from harvesting by precooling and

cold storage. Boxes are stored at 0°–1°C temperature and 90–95%

relative humidity in cold storage. They are transported by sea in

refrigerated containers.

Most of the grapes produced in India, irrespective of variety, are

consumed fresh. Negligible quantities of Bangalore Blue are crushed to

make juice and wine for household consumption. Wine is also

produced in India with French collaboration by some private industries

growing certain French varieties.

MARKETING :

Harvesting :

is done in the early hours of the morning when ambient

temperatures are low.

Bunches of grapes are carefully placed in a single layer in

crates and are kept in the shade.

Grading:

Removal of unwanted berries, watered, small berries and

grading bunches as per size and colour are undertaken.

Image References:

1. http://imghost1.indiamart.com/data2/AR/YR/IMFCP-236657/photo12-

250x250.jpg

2. http://img.21food.com/20110609/product/1306518600338.jpg

3. http://imghost1.indiamart.com/data2/AR/YR/IMFCP-236657/photo3-

250x250.jpg

4. http://imghost1.indiamart.com/data2/AR/YR/IMFCP-236657/photo3-

250x250.jpg

5. http://www.vinariatinto.com/images/xarello.gif

6.http://intoxreport.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/im_2_16_5_var.jpg

7. http://www.vinyaescude.com/res/RamsNegres/merlot.jpg

Web References:1. www.agri info.in

2. www.nhb.gov.in/Horticulture%20Crops/Grape/Grape1.htm

3. nrcgrapes.nic.in/zipfiles/POP-Diseases_InsectPests-Grapes.pdf

4. agmarknet.nic.in/grapes.pdf