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CHAPTER - I

Buddhist Literature and PÈramÊs

1.A.0. Buddhist literature

The moral, practical and ethical systems expounded by the

Buddha, who was the founder of Buddhism, known as Gotama

(Gautama) Buddha, are called the Dhamma, and are more popularly

known as Buddhism. Buddhism is a course or a way that guides a

disciple through pure living and pure thinking, to gain supreme

wisdom and deliverance from all evils and defilements.

Although the Buddha had passed away 2550 years ago, the

lamp of the Dhamma was never extinguished. It is still lightening and

this is the benefit which we have received today from the right

endeavor through successive teaching and learning (VÈda) of the

great elder disciples (Thera) of the Buddha.

Those learned, very orthodox enlightened great elder disciples

never changed the Teachings of the Buddha (Dhamma) into another

style. They never removed anything from the original Dhamma, nor

inserted or substituted new and modern words or ideas. Those pious

learned orthodox great elder disciples of the Buddha maintained well

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and guarded properly the Dhamma in its pristine purity. That was

why, it is called ‗TheravÈda‘ (The Original Teachings of the Buddha

carried by the Elders). 1 The original Teachings of the Buddha

handed down generation to generation (from the beginning of the

lineage of great elders) are divided into three divisions. These three

(Ti) divisions (PiÔaka) are called ‗TipiÔaka‘ which literally means

‗three baskets‘.

(1)Vinaya PiÔaka (The Basket of Discipline),

(2) Suttanta PiÔaka (The Basket of Discourses) and,

(3) Abhidhamma PiÔaka (The Basket of Higher Discourses).

These TipiÔakas can be categorized as NikÈyas or

Collections.

1. DÊgha-NikÈya (The Collection of Long Discourses),

(SÊlakkhandhavagga, MahÈvagga and PÈthikavagga.)

2. Majjhima-NikÈya (The Collection of Middle Length Discourses),

(M|lapaÓÓÈsa, MajjhimapaÓÓÈsa and UparipaÓÓÈsa)

3. SaÑyutta-NikÈya (The Collection of Kindred Discourses),

(I. SagÈthÈvagga, NidÈnavagga. II. Khandhavagga,

SaÄÈyatanavagga. III. MahÈvagga.)

4. A~guttara-NikÈya (The Collection of Gradual Discourses),

(I. Ekaka, Duka, Tika and Catukka NipÈta. II. PaÒcaka, Chakka, Sattaka

1 Vin.IV.480

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and AÔÔhaka NipÈta. III. Navaka, Dasaka and EkÈdasaka NipÈta.) and

5. Khuddaka-NikÈya (The Collection of Short Discourses)

(KhuddakapÈÔha, Dhammapada, UdÈna, Itivuttaka, SuttanipÈta,

VimÈnavatthu, Petavatthu, TheragÈthÈ, TherÊgÈthÈ, JÈtaka,

MahÈniddesa, C|Äaniddesa, PaÔisambhidÈmagga, ApadÈna,

BuddhavaÑsa, CariyÈpiÔaka, Netti, PeÔakopadesa and

MilindapaÒhÈ.)

1.A.1. PÈramÊ and Buddhist Literature

In the BuddhavaÑsa of Khuddaka NikÈya, the Buddha

explained about PÈramis (perfections) to be fulfilled for gaining noble

qualities. The vital role of fulfilling PÈramis is to be a noble person,

such as Buddha (supreme self enlightenment), Pacceka Buddha

(solitary Buddha), Agga SÈvaka (great chief disciples), MahÈ

SÈvaka (great elder disciples), etc.

The Bodhisatta (Bodhisattva- to be Buddha) SumedhÈ, who

became known as Gotama (Gautama) Buddha, had got exact

prophecy from DÊpa~kara Buddha. Right after hearing the prophecy,

SumedhÈ (Bodhisatta) ardently and continually practised and fulfilled

ten kinds of PÈramÊs for four incalculable world-cycles plus a

hundred thousand aeons. Those fulfilled PÈramÊs made him

perfect, unique and unsurpassed by human or Deva (deities) or

Brahma world.

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There are ten kinds of Perfections practiced by SumedhÈ, the

Bodhisatta himself in his previous lives.

1.A.2. Ten kinds of Perfections (PÈramitÈs)

In BuddhavaÑsa of KhuddakanikÈya, the Perfections (PÈramÊs) are listed as Ten in number. They are as follows:

(1) DÈna PÈramÊ - Generosity, (translated sometimes as Charity, Liberality or just alms-giving),

(2) SÊla PÈramÊ - Morality or Virtue, Discipline, Proper conduct,

(3) Nekkhamma PÈramÊ - Renunciation,

(4) PaÒÒÈ PÈramÊ - Wisdom, Insight,

(5) VÊriya PÈramÊ - Energy, Effort, Vigour, or Diligence,

(6) KhantÊ PÈramÊ - Forbearance or Patience, Tolerance, Acceptance, Endurance,

(7) Sacca PÈramÊ - Truthfulness,

(8) AdhiÔÔÈna PÈramÊ - Determination or Resolution,

(9) MettÈ PÈramÊ - Loving- kindness; and

(10) UpekkhÈ PÈramÊ - Equanimity.

These ten perfections are discussed in the following chapters

primarily based on Buddhist Literatures in TheravÈda. Buddhist

Sanskrit sources are not unanimous in the number as mentioned

before. Perfections like nekkhamma, sacca, adhiÔÔhÈna, mettÈ and

upekkhÈ are expressed only in the PÈÄi list. According to

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DhammapÈla, the ten pÈramitÈs are reduced to six: DÈnapÈramÊ,

SÊlapÈramÊ, KhantÊpÈramÊ, VÊriyapÈramÊ, JhÈnapÈramÊ

(DhyÈna) and PaÒÒÈpÈramÊ.

NekkhammapÈramÊ is taking up an ascetic life, JhÈna and

general meritoriousness. Here Nekkhamma as taking up an ascetic

life should be considered as SÊlapÈramÊ because they are of

similar nature; in the same way Nekkhamma is JhÈna, free from

hindrances (nÊvaraÓa) should be considered as JhÈnapÈramÊ.

Truthfulness is of three kinds; truthful speech (vacÊsacca);

abstaining from falsehood (viratisacca) which is mental concomitant

of right speech (sammÈvÈcÈ); and truthful wisdom (ÒÈÓasacca)

which is mental concomitant of wisdom (paÒÒÈ). (NibbÈna, which is

Absolute Truth- Paramattha sacca, is not relevant here.) Out of

these, vacÊsacca and viratisacca being related to SÊla, should be

counted as SÊlapÈramÊ; ÒÈÓasacca being the concomitant of

wisdom should be counted as PaÒÒÈpÈramÊ. UpekkhÈpÈramÊ

consists of concomitant of TatramajjhattatÈ and PaÒÒÈ;

TatramajjhattatÈ should be taken as the JhÈnapÈramÊ to which it is

related; and concomitant of PaÒÒÈ which is the same as

©ÈnupekkhÈ should be taken as PaÒÒÈpÈramÊ. MettÈpÈramÊ is

included in JhÈnapÈramÊ. AdhiÔÔhÈnapÈramÊ is included in all

the six pÈramÊs. 2 Such evidence points to the fact that

DhammapÈla, being aware of a theory of the six pÈramitÈs, gave it

a new interpretation of his own, while adhering in principle to the way

2 CariyÈpiÔakaaÔÔhakathÈ, p-313

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pÈramitÈs were counted in the TheravÈda tradition. Concepts and

practices expressed by these terms are as important as other items

in the list in Buddhism. Har Dayal in this connection tries to see a

gradual growth of the doctrine of pÈramitÈ out of three fundamental

steps; namely, SÊla, SamÈdhi and PaÒÒÈ, which are often cited as

the right direction of practice one must follow in order to attain the

final goal, NibbÈna. Based on the usually accepted enumeration of

six pÈramitÈs in MahÈyÈna Buddhism, Vasubandhu in his

MahÈyÈna sutrÈla~kÈra commentary explains that the six

pÈramitÈs are fundamentally related to the three "siksas (sikkhÈ

pÈÄi)"; i.e. AdhisÊla, Adhicitta and AdhiprajÒÈ (AdhipaÒÒÈ pÈÄi).

Har Dyal's contention and the authoritative explanation of

Vasubandhu are based on the Buddhist Sanskrit sources and may

not therefore be applicable to the TheravÈda tradition of

enumeration, for the PÈÄi list does not end in PaÒÒÈ, a prerequisite

to entertain such a theory. According to BuddhavaÑsa of PÈÄi3, ten

kinds of perfections are expressed in that order and Venerable

Buddhaghosa, the author of DÊghanikÈya 4 , MajjhimanikÈya 5 ,

A~guttaranikÈya6 and Dhammasa~ganÊ7 Commentaries, also stated

3 BuddhavaÑsa PÈÄ, p-2.315

4 SÊlakkhandha aÔÔhakathÈ, p-1.60 (yathÈ kassapo bhagavÈ dÈnapÈramiÑ p|retvÈ,

sÊlanekkhammapaÒÒÈ vÊriyakhantisaccaadhiÔÔhÈnamettÈupekkhÈpÈramiÑ p|retvÈ, imÈ dasapÈramiyo, dasapupa pÈramiyo, da paramattha pÈramiyoti samattiÑsa pÈramiyo p|retvÈ, a~gapariccÈgaÑ, nayanadhanarajjaputtadÈra pariccÈganti ime paÒca pariccÈge pariccajitvÈpubbayoga pubbacariyadhammakkhÈnaÒÈtatthacariyÈdayo puretvÈ buddhacariyÈya koÔiÑ vattvÈna Ègato, tathÈ amhÈkampi bhagavÈ Ègato.)

5 M|lapaÓÓÈsa aÔÔhakathÈ, p-1.48

6 AA. 1. 76., AA,2.208., AA. 3.312

7 Dhammasa~ganÊ aÔÔhakathÈ, 54

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ten kinds of Perfections in various places. Venerable Upasena, the

author of Niddesa Commentary and Venerable MahÈnÈma, the

author of PaÔisambidÈmagga Commentary have mentioned same

number of perfections in their books. The antiquity of the teaching is

suggested by a passage found in the CariyÈpiÔaka-aÔÔhakathÈ

where all the ten perfections are mentioned under the heading of

'buddhakÈradhammÈ' said to have been preached to SÈriputta by

the Buddha himself8. The ten pÈramitÈs to the earlier doctrines in

the Canon, since the practice of every item in the list of ten is aimed

at the sublimation of social, ethical and intellectual exercises which

will eventually become conducive to the attainment of NibbÈna9.

SaddharmapuÓÉarika refers only to five pÈramitÈs. However

in the MahÈyÈnia (MahÈyÈna) texts MahÈvastu (iii,226),

Lalitavistara (340.21), KaruÓÈpuÓÉarika (127.1) and AvadÈna

sataka (i.7.4), all the six pÈramitÈs are discussed in detail. They are

as follows;

1. DÈna pÈramitÈ: 2. SÊla pÈramitÈ: 3. KsÈnti (kshanti)

pÈramitÈ: 4. VÊriya pÈramitÈ: 5. DhyÈna pÈramitÈ: (Meditation,

Concentration, Contemplation) 6. PrajñÈ (PaÒÒÈ pÈÄi) pÈramitÈ:

In the later phase, (7) the UpÈya (skillfulness in the choice of

means for conversion), (8) PraÓidhÈna (aspiration or prayer), (9)

Bala (power) and (10) JÒÈna (knowledge) were appended to the

8 CariyÈpiÔaka-aÔÔhakathÈ,p-277

9 Buddha in TheravÈda Buddhism, page-271, Toshiichi Endo, Second Edition, 2002

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already existing list of six pÈramitÈs. These four may be subsumed

respectively under DÈna, SÊla, VÊriya and PrajÒÈ. However,

MahÈyÈna texts Dasabh|mikasutra and MahÈvyuttpatti dealt with all

the ten (perfections) pÈramitÈs are noted10.

1.A.3. The Meaning of PÈramÊs

Let us see how the meaning of the word ‗PÈramÊs’ is explained

in the PÈÄi canonical texts.

In order to get an idea for a reader, the possible meanings of

the word ‗pÈramÊ’ will be expressed that have been variously

explained in the CariyÈ-Pitaka Commentary11.

PÈramÊ is the combination of parama and Ê. Parama means

'most excellent', which is used here in the sense of Future Buddhas

who are the most excellent ones. ¢ is a suffix meaning actions.

Therefore, pÈramÊ mean the work or the action of the most

excellent ones.

Or pÈrami derives from the root para with the suffix ma. The

root para means 'to fulfill'.' Since they fulfill such virtues as dÈna

(alms-giving), etc., Future Buddhas are called parama.

10

Buddhism in Global Perspective, page-20, Edited by (Mrs) Kalpakam Sankarnarayan,

Ravindra Panth, Ichijo Ogawa), Publsihed by G.D. Awashi for Somaiya Publications, Mumbai-400014, 2003, India. 11

CpA. 269

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Or para, a prefix, is attached to the root maya meaning 'to

bind.' Because future Buddhas behave as though they bind on and

attract other beings to them by means of special virtues, they are

called parama.

Or para°, a prefix, is attached to the root maja meaning 'to be

pure'; paraÑ means 'more'. Because Future Buddhas are free of

mental impurities and far purer than others, they are called parama.

Or paraÑ, a prefix, is attached to the root maya meaning 'to

go' paraÑ means 'superior.' Because Future Buddhas go to the

superior state of NibbÈna in a special manner, they are called

parama.

Or paraÑ, a prefix, is attached to the root mu meaning to

determine.' Because Future Buddhas determine their next existence

as they do in the case of the present, they are called parama. (This

means that as Future Buddhas are able to ascertain precisely what

should be done to make the present existence pleasant and

faultless; they are able to do so with regard to the next existence.

That is, they have the ability to improve their existences.)

Or paraÑ, a prefix, is attached to the root mÊ meaning 'to put

in'. Therefore altogether pÈramÊ means 'more.' Because Future

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Buddhas 'put in' more and more such virtues as SÊla (morality). etc.,

into their mind, they are called pÈramÊ12.

Or paraÑ, means 'different from' or 'opposed to'; mÊ is the root

meaning 'to crush', because Future Buddhas crush all their enemies,

which are in the form of impurities and different from and opposed to

all virtues, they are called pÈramÊ.

Or pÈra, a noun, is attached to the root maja meaning 'to

purify'; pÈra means 'the other shore.' Here saÑsÈra is to be taken

as 'this shore' and NibbÈna is 'the other shore', because Future

Buddhas make themselves purified as well as others on the other

shore of NibbÈna. Therefore they are called pÈramÊ.

Or pÈra, a noun, is attached to the root mava meaning 'to

bind' or 'to put together.' Because Future Buddhas bind or put beings

together in NibbÈna, they are called pÈramÊ.

Or the root is maya, meaning 'to go.' Because Future Buddhas

go to the other shore of NibbÈna, they are called pÈramÊ.

Or the root is mu, meaning 'to understand.' Because Future

Buddhas fully understand the other shore of NibbÈna as it really is,

they are called pÈramÊ.

12

The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, Page-41, Bhaddanta VicittasÈrÈbhivaÑsa, Trans, U KO LAY AND U TIN LWIN, Ti NI Publication, Yangon, Myanmar, 1991.

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Or the root is mÊ meaning 'to put in.' Because Future

Buddhas put in and convey beings to the other shore of NibbÈna,

they are called pÈramÊ. Or the root is mÊ, meaning 'to crush.'

Because Future Buddhas enter into NibbÈna by crushing and

eradication all impurities which are enemies of beings, they are

called pÈramÊ.

These are the various meanings presented in accordance with

sabhÈvanirutti (natural etymology).

ParamÈnaÑ aya° pÈramÊ: pÈramÊ means property in the

form of practices of Future Buddhas; (or) paramÈnaÑ kammaÑ

pÈramÊ: pÈramÊ means duties of Future Buddhas; PÈramissa

bhÈvo pÈramitÈ, pÈramissa kammaÑ pÈramitÈ: duties that bring

about knowledge that such a person is a Future Buddha.

The entire meaning is a series of duties such as dÈna and

others to be fulfilled by Future Buddhas is called pÈramÊ (or

pÈramitÈ).

In the JinÈla~kÈra Sub-commentary, it is said: "PÈraÑ

nibbÈnaÑ ayanti gacchanti etÈhÊ ti pÈramiyo, nibbÈnasÈdhakÈ hi

dÈnacetanÈdayo dhammÈ pÈramÊ ti vuccanti," meaning to say that

"DÈnacetanÈ or the volition of alms-giving, etc., which forms the

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way to NibbÈna, the other side of saÑsÈra, should be called

pÈramÊ.13"

In the CariyÈpiÔaka Commentary14 , it is said: tanhÈmÈna-

diÔÔhÊhi anupahatÈ karun' upÈyakosalla-pariggahita dÈnÈdayo

guÓÈ pÈramiyo. PÈramÊ is constituted by virtues such as dÈna,

etc., that are to be grasped by means of compassion and

cleverness. Compassion is shown towards beings who are not

spoiled (overwhelmed) by craving, pride and wrong view. Cleverness

means wisdom in seeking ways and means in dÈna, etc., (these are

to be guided by compassion and wisdom) are to be named pÈramÊ

(This explanation is made with special reference to pÈramÊ of

SammÈsambuddhas.)

1.A.4. Actions of PÈramÊs

The noble ones who strive for escape from the wrong place of

the ocean (saÑsÈra) and to get to the right place of the land of

(NibbÈna) are called the SammÈsambuddhas, meaning the noblest

of noble ones. All their actions or deeds are called ‗PÈramÊs‘. These

actions or deeds cover up everything that they have done from the

time they had received the prophesy that they will become the

Buddhas up to the time of their passing away into NibbÈna. In truth,

all the actions or deeds of the noble ones from kalyÈÓa

13

The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, p-43, Mingun Sayadaw, Trns, U Ko Lay and U Tin Lwin,

Published by Ti Ni Ministrative Body, Yangon Myanmar, 1991. 14

CariyÈpiÔaka aÔÔhakathÈ, p-269

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puthujjanas 15 (the persons who practice meritorious actions or

deeds) up to the Paccekabuddhas are embraced by the actions or

deeds of the Buddhas, just as the footprints of the elephant can

contain the footprints of all other animals. To determine whether a

deed amounts to an act of pÈramÊ, the actions or deeds of the

Bodhisatta from the time he had received the prophesy up to the

time of his final passing away should be studied and used as it is the

yardstick for comparison.

All actions or deeds done can be divided into three types-

physical actions or deeds (kÈyakamma), verbal actions or deeds

(vacÊkamma), mental actions or deeds (manokamma). All types of

good actions or deeds are meritorious actions or deeds (kusala)

while all types of evil actions or deeds are de-meritorious actions or

deeds (akusala). There is no difference between ignoble and noble

person's concern with the actions or deeds.

For this reason, it is not possible to differentiate between noble

and ignoble actions or deeds on the nature of the actions or deeds

done. Referring to this, the Buddha teaches ‗CetanÈhaÑ bhikkhave

kammaÑ vadÈmi,‘16 i.e., I say that determinate thought is action.

According to this teaching, no differentiation can be made between

noble and ignoble actions or deeds on the basis of the nature of the

actions or deeds done. It should be understood that differentiation is

15

M.T.1.159 16

A.2.363 (Translated by E.M. Hare 3.294 first print edition Delhi 2006)

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to be made only on the basis of the cetanÈ (intention, volition) in the

doing of actions or deeds.

Whether it is a physical, or verbal, or mental, or kusala or

akusala deed, if it is done at the sacrifice of one‘s life for the well-

being of the people in the world (loka), it is a noble deed called

pÈramÊs.

1.A.5. Main Characteristic of PÈramÊs

To know if a deed is a pÈramÊ or not, there are two

distinguishing characteristics to consider. They are: (1) its aim is to

have compassion on others and (2) to liberate from the round of

rebirths and actions or deeds done, such as almsgiving, etc. Such

actions which are based on the above aims are PÈramÊs.

Otherwise, they are not PÈramÊs.

According to the first aim, it is necessary to work for the

welfare of others without paying attention to one‘s own welfare; it is

easy for a person with shallow loving-kindness (metta), shallow

compassion (karuÓa) and shallow volition (cetanÈ) to perform it. As

it is the nature of a worldling (puthujjana) to love himself best (atta

samaÑ pemaÑ natthi17), a person who loves others is a noble man,

he will think of his own welfare first.

17

S. 1.6

15

Therefore, not to put one‘s welfare first, a person must have

love for others more than he loves himself, otherwise it will be

impossible for him not to think of his welfare and to work for the

welfare of others. In truth, PÈramÊs are not for normal persons but

are for the noble ones. Therefore, only the noble ones really know

the meaning of PÈramÊs and practise it properly. Normal persons

don‘t have the knowledge how to follow and practise it.

1.A.6. Division of Level of Perfections

There are thirty kinds of perfections to be fulfilled by

Bodhisatta: ten in ordinary perfections, ten in higher perfections,

and ten in supreme perfections.

All external objects, such as a wife and children, animate and

inanimate things belonging to a person, are the objects through

which the ten ordinary perfections are fulfilled. One‘s own limbs or

head or any organs of the body are the objects through which the

ten higher perfections are fulfilled. One‘s own life (being sacrificed)

is the object through which the ten supreme perfections are fulfilled.

Of those three categories of objects, undertakings that

forsake the first category are called ordinary perfections.

Undertakings that forsake the second are called higher perfections.

Those that forsake the third, i.e. one‘s own life, are called supreme

perfections. Those perfections are explained in detail in the

following:

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(1) Giving away one's external objects such as wife, children,

wealth and property is DÈnapÈramÊ; giving up one's limbs, such as

hands, feet, etc. is DÈna UpapÈramÊ; giving up one's life is DÈna

Paramattha pÈramÊ.

(2) Likewise, observing a present and not making a breach on

account of one's external objects such as wife, children, wealth and

property is SÊlapÈramÊ; observing a present and not making a

breach on account of one's limbs, such as hands, feet, etc. is SÊla

UpapÈramÊ; observing a present and not making a breach on

account of one's life is SÊla ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(3) Cutting off attachment to one's external objects and going

forth from household life is Nekkhamma PÈramÊ; Cutting off

attachment to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc and going forth

from household life is Nekkhamma UpapÈramÊ; Cutting off

attachment to one's life and going forth from household life is

Nekkhammma ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(4) Rooting out attachment to one's external objects and

deciding deliberately what is beneficial to beings and what is not is

PaÒÒÈpÈramÊ; Rooting out attachment to one's limbs such as

hands, feet, etc. and deciding deliberately what is beneficial to

beings and what is not is PaÒÒÈ UpapÈramÊ; Rooting out

attachment to one's life and deciding deliberately what is beneficial

to beings and what is not is PaÒÒÈ ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(5) Striving to fulfill and become accomplished in the

aforementioned PÈramÊs and those to be mentioned later is

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VÊriyapÈramÊ; striving to fulfill and become accomplished in the

aforementioned UpapÈramÊs and those to be mentioned later is

VÊriya UpapÈramÊ; striving to fulfill and become accomplished in

the aforementioned ParamatthapÈramÊs and those to be mentioned

later is VÊriya ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(6) Being with patience the vicissitudes which endanger one's

external objects is KhantÊpÈramÊ; being with patience the

vicissitudes which endanger one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc. is

KhantÊ UpapÈramÊ; Being with patience the vicissitudes which

endanger one's life is KhantÊ ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(7) Not abandoning truth on account of one's external objects

is SaccapÈramÊ; not abandoning truth on account of one's limbs

such as hands, feet, etc. is Sacca UpapÈramÊ; not abandoning truth

on account of one's life is Sacca ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(8) Unshakeable determination in spite of destruction of one's

external objects while holding firmly that 'PÈramÊ such as DÈna, etc.

can be fulfilled only with indestructible determination is

AdiÔÔhÈnapÈramÊ; unshakeable determination in spite of

destruction of one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc. is AdiÔÔhÈna

UpapÈramÊ; unshakeable determination in spite of destruction of

one's life is AdiÔÔhÈna ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(9) Not abandoning loving-kindness towards beings

(continuous suffusion of beings with loving-kindness) even if they

have caused destruction to one's external objects is MettÈpÈramÊ;

not abandoning loving-kindness towards beings even if they have

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caused destruction to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc. is MettÈ

UpapÈramÊ, not abandoning loving-kindness towards beings even if

they have caused destruction to one's life is MettÈ

ParamatthapÈramÊ.

(10) Maintaining a neutral attitude towards beings and their

volitional activities irrespective of whether they have been helpful or

harmful to one's external objects is UpekkhÈpÈramÊ; maintaining a

neutral attitude towards beings and their volitional activities

irrespective of whether they have been helpful or harmful to one's

limbs such as hands, feet, etc. is UpekkhÈ UpapÈramÊ; maintaining

a neutral attitude towards beings and their volitional activities

irrespective of whether they have been helpful or harmful to one's life

is UpekkhÈ ParamatthapÈramÊ.

One who can fulfill only the first ten perfections can attain the

enlightenment of a Noble Disciple (sÈvaka). One who fulfills only the

first ten and the second ten in higher perfections can attain the

enlightenment of a Solitary Buddha (paccekabuddha). One who can

fulfill all thirty (ordinary perfections, higher perfections and supreme

perfections) attains Supreme Self-Enlightenment. 18

1.A.7. Disciples' PÈramÊs

There are three classes of enlightenment of a Noble Disciple:

18

A Manual of the Buddhism, page-484, Ledi Sayadaw, Trans, U Tin Oo (Myaung), Published by Mother Ayeyarwaddy Publishing House, Yangon, Myanmar, 2004.

19

(i) an Ordinary Noble Disciple (pakati sÈvaka),

(ii) a Great Disciple (mahÈ sÈvaka), and

(iii) a Chief Disciple. (agga sÈvaka)

By fulfilling the first ten perfections for one aeon and a

hundred thousand world cycles19, one can attain the enlightenment

of a Chief Disciple. By the Chief Disciples are meant the Buddha‘s

two principal Noble Disciples like the Venerable SÈriputta and

MahÈ MoggallÈna for Gotama Buddha.

By fulfilling the same perfections for a hundred thousand

world cycles, one can attain the enlightenment of a Great Disciple.

By the Great Disciples are meant the distinguished Noble Ones,

numbering eighty for Gotama Buddha.

There is no mention of duration for the maturity of an ordinary

Noble Disciple. One has to infer it from such statements as are

found in certain commentaries. In a commentary on Arahants‘

supernormal power of recollecting former existences, an ordinary

Noble One is said to be able to recall existences from a hundred to

a thousand world cycles20. This has generally been taken as the

maturity period for an ordinary Noble Disciple.

Regarding the Chief and Great Disciples, the periods for

maturity stated earlier refer only to the periods after these Noble

Ones had received formal recognition by a living Buddha. The 19

A.A.1. 121 20

A.A.1.127

20

Buddha predicts when, where, and under what circumstances he

will attain which type of enlightenment. This is called ―receiving the

word‖ (vyÈkaranaÑ).

The scriptures are silent on the duration for fulfilling the

perfections before such recognition or assurance. The interval

between the arising of any two Buddhas is beyond reckoning. It

may be any number of world cycles. A Noble Disciple (as the term

signifies) can arise only when a Buddha becomes or his teaching is

extant. So it is important to remember that those durations

mentioned above refer only to those Noble Ones who encountered

Gotama Buddha.

As to the Noble Disciples: in the commentary on the

SuttanipÈta there are three types: (i) one who depends on

confidence for his enlightenment, (ii) one who depends on diligence,

and (iii) one who depends on wisdom.

1.A.8. Solitary Buddha's PÈramÊs

Similarly, Solitary Enlightenment (Paccekabuddha) is also of

three types. The commentaries say that the enlightenment of a

Solitary Buddha is attained after fulfilling the ten perfections and the

ten higher perfections for two aeons and a hundred thousand world

cycles21.

21

SN.A.1.47

21

1.A.9. The Perfect Enlightened Buddha's

PÈramÊs

There are three types of the Perfect Enlightenment of Buddha,

which are also called:

(i) PaÒÒÈdhika Buddha,

(ii) SaddhÈdhika Buddha, and

(iii) VÊriyÈdhika Buddha 22.

(a) A Buddha who depends on wisdom (paÒÒÈ) for his

enlightenment, after receiving the assurance, has to fulfill

the ten perfections, the ten higher perfections, and the ten

supreme perfections for four aeons and a hundred thousand

world cycles.

(b) A Buddha who depends on diligence (vÊriya) has to fulfill the

perfections for eight aeons and a hundred thousand world

cycles.

(c) A Buddha who depends on confidence (saddhÈ) has to fulfill

the perfections for sixteen aeons and a hundred thousand

world cycles.

This is what has been recorded in the ancient commentaries

(KurundÊ, MahÈpaccarÊ AÔÔhakathÈ and MahÈ AÔÔhakathÈ).

However, there are different views regarding the maturity periods for 22

Dt. 1.298

22

the three types of Buddha. They are found in later works such as the

ApadÈna Commentary and in sub-commentaries such as Sotattaki,

TathÈgatuppatti, MahÈvaÑsaÔikÈ, etc.

1.A.10. The Role of PÈramÊs

In the birth stories of the Buddhas (jÈtakas), the reason for

fulfilling PÈramÊs is found that for the welfare of beings (‗loka‘)

bodhisattvas accumulate kammas (actions) and ÒÈÓa (wisdom).

Sometimes they had to undergo many animal existences. In fact,

being in animal existences is because of committing akusala

(demeritorious) actions.

From this point, it is evident that the Bodhisattas had

committed akusala actions or deeds not only for their own good but

also to prevent adhamma (wrong action) and to get the better of

dhamma.

They had committed akusala actions or deeds, they were

reborn as animals and they became leaders, such as kings,

ministers, etc. When they were born as monkeys, they became kings

of monkey, when they were born as haÑsÈ (ducks), they became

kings of haÑsÈ (ducks). But they were mostly reborn as human

beings and became leaders in those lives.

Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas, BuddhasÈvakas (disciples of

Buddha), who practiced pÈramÊs in their previous lives, have got

23

(attained) enlightenment because they ardently had practiced

PÈramÊ.

The ten kinds of PÈramÊ will be discussed in three chapters

respectively according to five NikÈyas; DÈnapÈramÊ, SÊlapÈramÊ

and NekkhammapÈramÊ will be disscussed in the Second Chapter.

PaÒÒÈpÈramÊ, VÊriyapÈramÊ, and KhantÊpÈramÊ will be

discussed in the Third Chapter. In the Fourth Chapter SaccapÈramÊ,

AdhiÔÔhÈnapÈramÊ, MettapÈramÊ and UpekkhÈpÈramÊ in will be

disscussed.

1.A.11. DhyÈna PÈramitÈ (Perfection of

Meditation)

This perfection is the fifth perfection of MahÈyana and they

accepted six pÈramitas according to MahÈvastu, Lalitavistara,

KaruÓÈpuÓÉarika and AvadÈna sataka. DhyÈna denotes

meditation and also contemplation. The cultivation of stable and

perfect mind, purged of all impure thoughts is a pre-requisite for the

practice of DhyÈna. Quietude and serenity are achieved through

meditation. Consequently the psychic powers are increased.

Normally, renunciation and seclusion are prescribed for the

cultivation of meditation and contemplation. Even those in the

household life practise meditation for inner peace and calmness.

However, this pÈramitÈ is special for recluses, though not prohibited

for householders.

24

The MahÈyÈna texts KaruÓÈpuÓÉarika, Bodhisattva Bh|mi

and MahÈyÈna S|trÈla~kÈra refer to the group of fourfold

meditations, technically called "Brahma VihÈras", to be practiced by

a Bodhisattva. They are known as (I) MaitrÊ (MettÈ pÈÄi)-bhÈvanÈ,

(2) KaruÓÈ bhÈvanÈ, (3) MuditÈ bhÈvanÈ and (4) UpeksÈ

(upekkhÈ pÈÄi) bhÈvanÈ. These BhÈvanÈs indicate the cultivation

of four-fold good feelings viz. 23 , friendliness, compassion,

sympathetic joy and equanimity. Since these four types of meditation

are also found in PataÒjali's Yoga S|tra, it is presumed that they

belong to the national stock of Indian Philosophy. However, it is

pertinent to note that only the first three bhÈvanas viz, MaÊtri,

KaruÓÈ and MuditÈ are found in many texts such as MahÈvastu and

SamÈdhirÈja S|tra. In the MaÓimekalai, these three are prescribed

for the eradication of hatred, one of the three evils being the

impediments on the path to NirvÈÓa. CÈttanÈr has also prescribed

Asubha bhÈvanÈ for the extirpation of lust. It denotes the meditation

on the impermanence, sorrowfulness, soullessness and

loathsomeness of all things. The cultivation of Asubha bhÈvanÈ cuts

at the root of lust, the first obstacle on the spiritual journey.

UpeksÈ (UpekkhÈ pÈÄi) means equanimity, balanced and

serene outlook. It is the same state of mind both in adversity and

prosperity. He who practices this BhÈvanÈ is free from love and hate.

To him gold and stone remain the same. This mental condition is

23

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, p. 226, Har Dayal, M.A, Ph.D. Published by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1999, 2004.

25

known as "Sama Citta"24.

Saddharma-puÓÉarika S|tra expresses that the Bodhisattvas

also fulfill the fifth PÈramitÈ, i.e. DhyÈna or Meditation Perfection in

order to attain enlightenment as below:

"One could also see bodhisattvas entering deep into

meditation practices, their bodies and minds still and unmoving, in

that manner seeking the unsurpassed way."25

According to PÈÄi TipiÔaka, if one wants to get JhÈna or

enlightment (Magga and Phala), he will get that knowledge but he

has to practice the path which was guided by the Buddha. The

Buddha showed the path to practice in the following way. One has to

resort to some secluded spot; which should be in forest or, under

tree (tree-root) or, mountain or, glen or, rock-cave or, cemetery or,

wooded upland or, open space or heap of straw; and under tree

(tree-root) or empty hut, he should sits cross-legged, with body erect,

seting mindfulness in front of him. Putting away all hankering, he

abides with heart free therefrom; he cleanses his mind of hankering:

putting away ill-will and hatred, he abides with heart free therefrom;

kindly and compassionate to all creatures, he cleaness his mind of

ill-will and hatred: putting away sloth and torpor, he abides free

therefrom; conscious of light, mindful and self-possessed, he

cleanses his mind of sloth and torpor: putting away flurry and worry,

he abides poised; with heart serene within, he cleanses his mind of

24

Buddhism in Global Perspective, page-29, Edited by (Mrs) Kalpakam Sankarnarayan, Ravindra Panth, Ichijo Ogawa), Publsihed by G.D. Awashi for Somaiya Publications, Mumbai-400014, 2003, India 25

Bodhisattva and S|nyatÈ, page-316, Bhikkuni Gioi Huong, Published by Eastern Book Linker, Delhi, 110007, India, 2005.

26

flurry and worry: putting away doubt, he abides with doubt passed by;

no more he questions Why? of right things; he cleanses his mind of

doubt26.

He, by getting rid of these five hindrances-defilements of the

mind and weakening to intuitive wisdom-aloof from pleasures of the

senses, aloof from unsilled states of mind, enters and abides in the

first meditation, which is accompanied by initial thought and

discursive thought, is born of aloofness and is rapturous and joyfull.

By allaying initial and discursive thought, the mind subjectively

tranquillised and fixed on one point, he enters and abides in the

26 YodhÈjÊvasutta, page-2-81, A~guttaranikÈya, Pa~caka. (So vivittaÑ senÈsanaÑ bhajati

araÒÒaÑ rukkham|laÑ pabbataÑ kandaraÑ giriguhaÑ susÈnaÑ vanapatthaÑ abbhokÈsaÑ

palÈlapu~jaÑ. So pacchÈbhattaÑ piÓÉapÈtappaÔikkanto nisÊdati pall~kaÑ ÈbhujitvÈ ujuÑ

kÈyaÑ paÓidhÈya parimukhaÑ satin upaÔÔhapetvÈ. So abhijjhaÑ loke pahÈya vigatÈbhijjhena

cetasÈ viharati, abhijjhÈya cittaÑ parisodheti. VyÈpÈdappadosaÑ pahÈya avyÈpannacitto

viharati sabbapÈÓabh|tahitÈnukampÊ, vyÈpÈdappadosÈ cittaÑ parisodheti. ThinamiddhaÑ

pahÈya vigatathinamiddho viharati ÈlokasaÒÒÊ sato sampajÈno, thinamiddhÈ cittaÑ

parisodheti. UddhaccakukkuccaÑ pahÈya anuddhato viharati ajjhattaÑ v|pasantacitto,

uddhaccakukkuccÈ cittaÑ parisodheti. VicikicchaÑ pahÈya tiÓÓavicikiccho viharati

akathaÑkathÊ kusalesu dhammesu, vicikicchÈya cittaÑ parisodheti.

So ime pa~ca nÊvaraÓe pahÈya cetaso uppakkhilese paÒÒÈya dubbalÊkaraÓe vivicceva

kÈmehi(p) pÊtiyÈ ca virÈgÈ upekkhako ca viharati sato sampajÈno, sukha~ca kÈyena

paÔisaÑvedeti yaÑ taÑ ariyÈ Ècikkhanti-'upekkhako satimÈ sukhavihÈrÊ'ti tatiyaÑ jhÈnaÑ

upasampajja viharati. Sukhassa ca pahÈnÈ dukkhassa ca pahÈnÈ, pubbeva

somanassadomanassÈnaÑ attha~gamÈ adukkhamasukhaÑ upekkhÈsatipÈrisuddhiÑ catutthaÑ

jhÈnaÑ upasampajja viharati.

So evaÑ samÈhite cite parisuddhe pariyodÈte ana~gaÓe vigat|pakkilese mudub|te kammaniye

thite Ène~jappatte ÈsavÈnaÑ khayaÒÈÓÈya cittaÑ abhininnÈmeti. So 'idaÑ dukkhan'ti

yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ dukkhasamudayo'ti yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ dukkhanirodho'ti

yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ dukkhanirodhagÈmitÊ paÔipadÈ'ti yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ime

ÈsavÈ'ti yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ Èsavasamudayo'ti yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ

Èsavanirodho'ti yathÈb|taÑ pajÈnÈti, 'ayaÑ ÈsavanirodhagÈminÊ paÔipadÈ'ti yathÈb|taÑ

pajÈnÈti. Tassa evaÑ jÈnato evaÑ passato kÈmÈsavÈpi cittaÑ vimuccati, bhavÈsavÈpi cittaÑ

vimuccati, avijjÈsavÈpi cittaÑ vimuccati, vimuttasmiÑ vimuttamiti ÒÈÓÑ hoti. 'KhÊÓÈ jÈti,

vusitaÑ brahmacariyaÑ, kataÑ karaÓÊyaÑ, nÈparaÑ etthattÈyÈti pajÈnÈti.)

27

second meditation, which is devoid of initial and discursive thought,

is born of concentration and is rapturous and joyful. By the fading out

of rapture, he dwells with equanimity, attentive and clearly conscious,

and experiences in his person that joy of which the ariyans say:

'joyful lives he who has equanimity and is mindful', and he enters

and abides in the third meditation. By getting rid of joy, by getting rid

of anguish, by the going down of his former pleasures and sorrows,

he enters and abides in the fourth meditation, which has neither

anguish nor joy, and which is entirely purified by equanimity and

mindfulness27.

With the heart thus serene, purified, cleansed, spotless, devoid

of defilement, supple, ready to act, firm and imperturbable, he bends

the mind to know the destruction of the cankers. As it really is, he

understands: this is ill-as it really is, he understands: this is the origin

of ill-as it really is, he understands: this is the ending of ill-as it really

is, he understands: this is the way leading to the ending of ill. As it

really is, he understands the thought: these are the cankers, this is

the origin of the cankers, this is the ending of the cankers, and this is

the way leading to the ending of the cankers.

Knowing this, seeing this, his heart will be free from the canker

of lust, free from the canker of becomings, free from the canker of

ignorance, and in the freedom will come the knowledge of that

freedom, and he will know: Birth is destroyed; lived is the godly life;

27

NÈgasuttaÑ, page-3-233, NavakanipÈta A~guttaranikÈya. GanÓakamoggallÈna suttaÑ, page-3-53, UparipannÈsa.

28

done is what had to be done; there is no more of this state28.

Next, let us move on to briefly present the remaining

pÈramitÈs which are in a later period appended to the earlier list of

six pÈramitÈs. They are supplementary pÈramitÈs.

1.A.12. UpÈya Kausalya PÈramitÈ Perfection

of Skillfulness or Perfection in the

expedients of conversion

The supreme knowledge in the Buddhist principles and

scriptures, the Bodhisattva (Bodhisatta pÈÄi) should be equipped

with the efficient techniques to impart the wisdom to the followers of

Buddhism. He is expected to be a good preacher. He should also

find out the expedients to make the non-believers and adherents of

other systems believe and follow the Buddhist way life.

In the MahÈyÈna texts liberality (dÈna), pleasant speech (priya

vacanam), sagacious conduct (artha-caryÈ) (atthacariya pÈÄi) and

practicing the virtues which are preached to others (SamÈn-Èrhat)

(samÈnattatÈ pÈÄi 29 ) are said to be the four requisites for an

efficient preacher to convince others to turn to his faith. The Tamil

Buddhist manual Tiruppatikam mentions that the Bodhisattva's

28

The book of the Gradual Sayings, Volume III, (Five) page-76, translated by E.M.HARE, First Indian Edition: Delhi, 2006. 29

PÈthikavagga pÈÄi, p-3.156, A~guttara (catuttukka) p-1.341

29

preaching pertains to the destruction of transmigration. His way it

called Peruvali, a Tamil equivalent to the word MahÈyÈna and he

gets the epithet 'Peruvaliyan' that is, one who practices and

preaches the peruvali, the great path. In the Buddhist Tamil epic

MaÓimekalai, Bodhisattva AravaÓa AÔikaÄ is depicted to be an

excellent preacher, having erudition in the perfection of UpÈya and

converting also the royal persons, merchants, courtesans and others

to Buddhism. SaÑgha Dharma, another character of the same epic

preached the greatness of the Buddha and bodhisattva, their selfless

service to all living beings and their turning the Wheel of Dharma for

the welfare of the world.

According to MahÈyÈna, the Buddha used this expedient or

partial method in his teaching until near the end of his days, when he

enlarged it to the revelation of reality, or the preaching of his final

and complete truth. Saddharma PunÓÉarika S|tra relates some

interesting parables. Among them one 'Parable is the Lost Son, in

Chapter IV which is briefly as follows:

A certain poor man lost a loved son who left his home and

went out to a far country. Later father became rich, his son

wandering about in search of food and raiment. The father suddenly

saw a young poor man whom he knew to be his son but his son was

filled with fear at the thought that he had perhaps come into wrong

street and might be punished for his rashness. So, he ran away in

great haste. His father now exhibited his UpÈya-Kausalya by letting

the poor fellow go away. Then, he called two poor men of humble

30

origin and said to them to hire him as a labourer for cleaning the

refuge-barrel in his house. Then, the father put on dirty clothes, took

a basket in his hand, and going near to his son, said: "Work here, my

man; do not go anywhere Look upon me as your own father

henceforward you are to me like my son". In this way, the father

found the chance of speaking to his son, who thereupon felt happier

in the house. But he continued to live in his hovel straw and did the

same menial work for twenty years. At last, the rich man fell sick and

felt that his days were numbered. So, he first gave much wealth to

the young man, and then he gathered together all his kinsfolk and

citizens, said to them: "He is my son; I am his father. To him, I leave

all my possessions". The son was greatly astonished at this, and

enjoyed exceedingly in his heart.

In this parable, father is the Buddha; the son is every pious

Buddhist; the labour of cleaning the refuge-barrel is the lower

teaching about NirvÈÓa (Liberation); the declaration of the filial

relation is the higher doctrine of MahÈyÈna.30

MahÈkaruÓÈ and UpÈyakosalla ©ÈÓa form basic conditions

for all the perfections. Through them Bodhisattas are able to promote

constantly the welfare and happiness of other beings, without

concern for their own interest. Although performing the duties of

Bodhisattas which are beyond the capability of ordinary men, they do

not consider them too wearisome. Because MahÈkaruÓÈ and

UpÈyakosalla ©ÈÓa exist in them, welfare and happiness accrue to

30

Bodhisattva and S|nyatÈ, page-324, Bhikkuni Gioi Huong, Published by Eastern Book Linker,

Delhi, 110007, India, 2005.

31

those who develop confidence in them, who show respect to them,

who have occasion to see Bodhisatta or recollect their virtues.

To explain further: out of compassion and wisdom, it is through

wisdom that a Boddhisatta attains omniscience; it is through

compassion, that he performs the duties of a Buddha. Through

wisdom, he is able to cross the ocean of SaÑsÈra; through

compassion, he goes to the rescue of beings. Through wisdom, he

understands thoroughly suffering of others; through compassion, he

endeavours to alleviate their suffering; through wisdom he becomes

wearied of suffering; through compassion, he accepts the same

disgusting suffering as happiness in order to work for the liberation of

beings. Through wisdom he aspires after NibbÈna; through

compassion, he continues to go round and round in SaÑsÈra.

Thus, compassion and wisdom are beneficial in many ways.

These two kinds not only form the foundation of the PÈramÊ; they

are the basic condition of the aspiration after Buddhahood as well.

But these two kinds were not accepted as perfections according to

TheravÈda31.

1.A.13. PraÓidhÈna PÈramitÈ (Perfection of

Compassion and Prayer)

This perfection is known as DayÈ in the Tamil Buddhist poems. 31

The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, page-27, Baddanta VicittasÈrÈbhivaÑsa (MingonSayadaw) trans, U Kolay and U Tin Lwin, Ti Ni Publication Series, Yangon Myanmar, 1992.

32

However, the specialists translated praÓidhÈna to mean prayer,

compassion, entreaty and supplication. It also denotes the prayers

and vows. It also means solemn aspiration. In the Dharma-

Samhraha (section 112), three features of praÓidhÈna are described:

(1) The aspiration to happy births, (2) the aspiration to the welfare of

all and (3) the aspiration for the purification of Buddha-fields.

According to the MahÈyÈna texts, PraÓidhÈna denotes the wishful

thinking of a liberated Bodhisattva for the deliverance of other beings.

The cultivation of this pÈramitÈ is associated with the devotion to the

Buddhist pantheon. In the Tamil Buddhist tradition, DayÈ pÈramitÈ

takes the place of PraÓidhÈna. DayÈ denotes the consummation of

compassion. This perfection has been elucidated through the

narration of many JÈtaka stories such as the avadÈna of drstivisa,

sacrifice of the hare, the avadÈnas of monkey and matsya etc.

According to Mahatma Gandhi's won words, PraÓidhÈna is: "the key

of the morning and the belt of the evening". That is, if we start the

day with it, prayer can become the spring of hope and courage to

deal with routine activities. Also, closing the day with a prayer would

enable us to cease worrying about what has been done or left

undone. Thus, on the one hand PraÓidhÈna helps us in sanctifying

our daily work as an offering to the Buddha and on the other in

perfecting our observance of the vows. PraÓidhÈna, thus is a

'necessary spiritual disciplines.'

It is so not merely because it is indispensable for the practice

of truth and ahiÑsÈ but because it helps in the observance of the

33

other vows too.

The essence of PraÓidhÈna is its conduciveness to peace and

order in the individual and social life. This is born out by the following

words of his: "without prayer there is no inward peace", "the man of

prayer will be at peace with himself and with the whole world...

Prayer is the only means of bringing about orderliness and peace

and repose in our daily acts".32

1.A.14. Bala PÈramitÈ (Perfection of

Strength)

In the MahÈyÈna texts, the Bodhisattva is accorded an equal

position with the Buddha who was known by the epithet Dasabala.

Different lists of balas are found in the Buddhist scriptures. Among

the thirty seven principles and practices that mould the personality of

a Bodhisattva to attain enlightenment, five balas are treated very

important. They are: faith (sraddhÈ, saddhÈ pÈÄi), energy (vÊrya),

mindfulness (smrti, sati pÈÄi), concentration (samÈdhi) and wisdom

(prajÒÈ). In some texts, merit (puÓya), wisdom (prajÒÈ) knowledge

(jÒÈna), ksÈnti (mental peace) and vÊrya (energy) are projected. All

these balas constitute the moral, mental and physical power of the

32

Bodhisattva and S|nyatÈ, page-326, Bhikkuni Gioi Huong, Published by Eastern Book Linker,

Delhi, 110007, India, 2005

34

super human being, that is, Bodhisattva. The balas are essential for

him to discharge the social obligations and missionary activities.

Tiruppatikam described this pÈramitÈ, by praising the Bodhisattva

possessing full vigour and strength and bereft of any blame. Next in

the series comes the last perfection known as JÒÈna pÈramitÈ.

1.A.15. JÒÈna PÈramitÈ (Perfection of

Knowledge)

This perfection is the last perfection known as JÒÈna pÈramitÈ.

JÒÈna means spiritual knowledge. According to the Buddhist

tradition, preserved in the commentary of the Jain Tamil epic

NÊlakesi (A.D 850), this pÈramitÈ denotes the perfection in the

study and realization of the contents of AbhidharmapiÔaka. It is to

be understood that the Abhidhamma (PÈÄi) denotes the piÔaka of

TheravÈda while the Abhidharma (Sanskrit) indicates the piÔaka of

MahÈyÈna Buddhism. According to W. M. Mcgovern, the

Abhidharma piÔaka of the YogÈcÈra Buddhist consisted twelve

texts including Maitreya's Yoga VihÈga SÈstra, Asang's S|trÈla~kara

SÈstra, Vasubandhu's Dasabh|mike SÈstra and DignÈga's

PramÈÓa Samuccaya SÈstra. It seems that YogÈcÈra teachers

named the piÔaka as sÈstra. Hence, JÒÈna pÈramitÈ is a special

perfection in the sÈstras of the YogÈcÈra philosophy. It is different

from PrajÒÈ PÈramitÈ in the sense that the latter emphasized the

study of all texts including the TipiÔakas. The Tamil poem of

35

Tiruppatikam, quoted already to illustrate the PrajÒÈ PÈramitÈ is

again presented to elucidate JÒÈna pÈramitÈ also in the

commentaries of Nilakesi and SivajÒÈna SiddhiyÈr Parapakkam. 33

According to the book of Boddhisattva and S|nyatÈ, it is

difficult to draw any definite distinction between PrajÒÈ PÈramitÈ

and JÒÈna PÈramitÈ. It is evident that non-dualistic knowledge is

inseparable from the Boddhisattva's experience in all its aspects. It is

this experience, in both its conceptual and perceptual aspects.

JÒÈna is the essential clarity and unerring sensibility of a mind that

no longer clings to reified concepts of any kind. It is direct and

sustained awareness of the truth, for a Boddhisattva, that meaning

and existence are found only in the interface between the

components of an unstable and constantly shifting web of

relationships, which is everyday life, while PrajÒÈ is the strength of

intellectual discrimination elevated to the status of a liberating power,

a precision tool capable of slicing through obstructions that take the

form of afflictions and attachments to deeply engrained hereditary

patterns of thought and action. PrajÒÈ has an analysis quality which

does not seem to figure as a specific characteristic of non-dualistic

knowledge developed by the Boddhisattva of JÒÈna PÈramitÈ. In

other words, JÒÈna PÈramitÈ is similar to PrajÒÈ PÈramitÈ, but

JÒÈna refers more to intellectual knowledge and PrajÒÈ to

33

Buddhism in Global Perspective, page-32, Edited by (Mrs) Kalpakam Sankarnarayan, Ravindra Panth, Ichijo Ogawa), Publsihed by G.D. Awashi for Somaiya Publications, Mumbai-400014, 2003, India