building construction and finishing.pdf

8/20/2019 Building Construction And Finishing.pdf

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BuildingConstruction & Finishing


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Leasson Summary

• Lesson 1 Drawings and Specifications• Lesson 2 Woodworking ools! "aterials! and "ethods

• Lesson # Fi$er Line! Wire %ope! and Scaffolding • Lesson Le'eling and (rading

• Lesson ) Concrete

•Lesson * Working with Concrete

• Lesson + "asonry

• Lesson , Light Floor and Wall Framing

• Lesson - %oof Framing • Lesson 1. %oof Construction and rim Carpentry

• Lesson 11 /0terior Finish of Walls • Lesson 12 nterior Finish of Walls and Ceilings

• Lesson 1# nterior Finish of Floors! Stairs! Doors! and rim

• Lesson 1 lastering! Stuccoing! and Ceramic ile • Lesson 1) Structural Coatings and reser'ati'es

Lesson 1 Drawings and Specifications

By this time in your career, you have probably worked as an apprentice on various building projects. You probably didyour tasks without thinking much about what it takes to lay out structures so they will conform to their location, size,shape, and other building features. In this chapter, you will learn how to extract these types of information fromdrawings and specifications. You will also be shown how to draw, read, and work from simple shop drawings andsketches.

131 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Learning 4$5ecti'e6Upon completing this section, you should be able to identify the different types of structuralmembers.

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rom the builder!s standpoint, building designs and construction methods depend on many factors. "o two buildingprojects can be treated alike. #owever, the factors usually considered before a structure is designed are itsgeographical location and the availability of construction materials.It is easy to see why geographical location is important to the design of a structure, especially its main parts. $henlocated in a temperate zone, for example, the roof of a structure must be sturdy enough not to collapse under theweight of snow and ice. %lso, the foundation walls have to extend below the frost line to guard against the effects offreezing and thawing. In the tropics, a structure should have a low&pitch roof and be built on a concrete slab or haveshallow foundation walls.'ikewise, the availability of construction materials can influence the design of a structure. (his happens when certain

building materials are scarce in a geographical location and the cost of shipping them is prohibitive. In such a case,particularly overseas, the structure is likely to be built with materials purchased locally. In turn, this can affect the wayconstruction materials are used)it means working

D/7D 78D L9/ L47DS(he main parts of a structure are the load&bearing members. (hese support and transfer the loads on the structurewhile remaining e*ual to each other. (he places where members are connected to other members are called joints.(he sum total of the load supported by the structural members at a particular instant is e*ual to the total dead loadplus the total live load.(he total dead load is the total weight of the structure, which gradually increases as the structure rises and remainsconstant once it is completed. (he total live load is the total weight of movable objects +such as people, furniture, andbridge traffic the structure happens to be supporting at a particular instant.(he live loads in a structure are transmitted through the various load&bearing structural members to the ultimate

support of the earth. Immediate or direct support for the live loads is first provided by horizontal members. (hehorizontal members are, in turn, supported by vertical members. inally, the vertical members are supported byfoundations or footings, which are supported by the earth. 'ook at figure -&, which illustrates both horizontal andvertical members of a typical light&frame structure. (he weight of the roof material is distributed over the top supportingmembers and transferred through all joining members to the soil.

Figure 2:13;ypical light:frame construction3(he ability of the earth to support a load is called its soil&bearing capacity. (his varies considerably with different typesof soil. % soil of a given bearing capacity bears a heavier load on a wide foundation or footing than on a narrow one.

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Figure 2:23;ypical concrete masonry and steel structure3In building construction, a pier, sometimes called a short column, rests either directly on a footing, as shown in thelower center of figure -&1, or is simply set or driven into the ground. Building piers usually support the lowermosthorizontal structural members.


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Figure 2:#3;/0ploded 'iew of a typical light:frame house3In bridge construction, a pier is a vertical member that provides intermediate support for the bridge superstructure.(he chief vertical structural members in light&frame construction are called studs +see figures -& and -&1. (hey aresupported by horizontal members called sills or soleplates, as shown in figure -&1. 2orner posts are enlarged studslocated at the building corners. ormerly, in full&frame construction, a corner post was usually a solid piece of largertimber. In most modern construction, though, built&up corner posts are used. (hese consist of various members ofordinary studs nailed together in various ways.

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provided for the beam. 3ometimes it is either not feasible or impossible to increase the beam size or to installintermediate supports. In such cases, a truss is used. % truss is a combination of members, such as beams, bars, andties, usually arranged in triangular units to form a rigid framework for supporting loads over a span.(he basic components of a roof truss are the top and bottom chords and the web members. (he top chords serve asroof rafters. (he bottom chords act as ceiling joists. (he web members run between the top and bottom chords. (hetruss parts are usually made of -& by 5&inch or -& by 6&inch material and are tied together with metal or plywood gussetplates, as shown in figure -&5.

Figure 2:3;7 truss rafter37oof trusses come in a variety of shapes and sizes. (he most commonly used roof trusses, shown in figure -&8, forlight&frame construction are the king&post, the $&type, and the scissors trusses. (he simplest type of truss used inframe construction is the king&post truss. It is mainly used for spans up to -- feet. (he most widely used truss in light&frame construction is the $&type truss. (he $&type truss can be placed over spans up to 89 feet. (he scissors truss isused for buildings with sloping ceilings. :enerally, the slope of the bottom chord e*uals one&half the slope of the topchord. It can be placed over spans up to 89 feet.

Figure 2:)3;he most commonly used roof trusses3

132 DRAWINGS

L/7%88( 4B?/C9/6Upon completing this section, you should be able to recognize the different types of drawings and their uses.

(he building of any structure is described by a set of related drawings that give the Builder a complete, se*uential,graphic description of each phase of the construction process. In most cases, a set of drawings begins by showing thelocation, boundaries, contours, and outstanding physical features of the construction site and its adjoining areas.3ucceeding drawings give instructions for the excavation and disposition of existing ground; construction of the

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foundations and superstructure; installation of utilities, such as plumbing, heating, lighting, air conditioning, interior andexterior finishes; and whatever else is re*uired to complete the structure.(he engineer works with the architect to decide what materials to use in the structure and the construction methods tofollow. (he engineer determines the loads that supporting members will carry and the strength *ualities the membersmust have to bear the loads. (he engineer also designs the mechanical systems of the structure, such as the lighting,heating, and plumbing systems. (he end result is the architectural and engineering design sketches. (hese sketchesguide draftsmen in preparing the construction drawings.

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Figure 2:*3:7rchitectural sym$ols for plans and ele'ations3


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Figure 2:+3;7rchitectural sym$ols for doors and windows3

Site lan

% site plan +figure -&= shows the contours, boundaries, roads, utilities, trees, structures, and any other significantphysical features on or near the construction site. (he locations of proposed structures are shown in outline. (his planshows comer locations with reference to reference lines shown on the plot that can be located at the site. By showingboth existing and finished contours, the site plan furnishes essential data for the graders.


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Figure 2:,3; Site plan3

lot lan(he plot plan shows the survey marks with the elevations and the grading re*uirements. (he plot plan is used by the>ngineering %ids to set up the corners and perimeter of the building using batter boards and line stakes, as shown infigure -&?. (hus, the plot plan furnishes the essential data for laying out the building.


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Figure 2:-3; lot plan3

Foundation lan % foundation plan is a plane view of a structure. (hat is, it looks as if it were projected onto a horizontal plane andpassed through the structure. In the case of the foundation plan, the plane is slightly below the level of the top of the

foundation wall. (he plan in figure -&9 shows that the main foundation consists of -&inch and =&inch concretemasonry unit +2@0 walls measuring -= feet lengthwise and -- feet crosswise. (he lower portion of each lengthwisesection of wall is to be - inches thick to provide a concrete ledge 5 inches wide.


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Figure 2:1.3; Foundation plan3

% girder running through the center of the building will be supported at the ends by two 5&by& -&inch concretepilasters butting against the end foundation walls. Intermediate support for the girder will be provided by two -&by&-&inch concrete piers, each supported on =&by& =&inch spread footings, which are 9 inches deep. (he dotted linesaround the foundation walls indicate that these walls will also rest on spread footings.

Floor lanigure -& shows the way a floor plan is developedA from elevation, to cutting plane, to floor plan. %n architectural orstructural floor plan shows the structural characteristics of the building at the level of the plane of projection. %mechanical floor plan shows the plumbing and heating systems and any other mechanical components other thanthose that are electrical. %n electrical floor plan shows the lighting system and any other electrical systems.

Figure 2:113; Floor plan de'elopment3igure -&- is a floor plan showing the lengths, thicknesses, and character of the outside walls and partitions at the

particular floor level. It also shows the number, dimensions, and arrangement of the rooms, the widths and locations ofdoors and windows, and the locations and character of bathroom, kitchen, and other utility features. You shouldcarefully study figure -&-. In dimensioning floor plans, it is very important to check the overall dimension against thesum of the partial dimensions of each part of the structure.


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Figure 2:123; Floor plans3

/le'ations(he front, rear, and sides of a structure, as they would appear projected on vertical planes, are shown in elevations.3tudying the elevation drawing gives you a working idea of the appearance and layout of the structure.>levations for a small building are shown in figure -&1. "ote that the wall surfaces of this house will consist of brickand the roof covering of composition shingles. (he top of the rafter plate will be = feet - 5 inches above the level ofthe finished first floor, and the tops of the finished door and window openings < feet 15 inches above the samelevel. (he roof will be a gable roof with 5 inches of rise for every - inches length. >ach window shown in the

elevations is identified by a capital letter that goes with the window schedule +which we!ll discuss later in this chapter.


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Figure 2:1#3; /le'ations3

Framing lansraming plans show the size, number, and location of the structural members +steel or wood that make up thebuilding framework. 3eparate framing plans may be drawn for the floors, walls, and roof. (he floor framing plan mustspecify the sizes and spacing of joists, girders, and columns used to support the floor. $hen detail drawings areneeded, the methods of anchoring joists and girders to the columns and foundation walls or footings must be shown.$all framing plans show the location and method of framing openings and ceiling heights so that studs and posts canbe cut. 7oof framing plans show the construction of the rafters used to span the building and support the roof. 3ize,

spacing, roof slope, and all details are shown.


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FL44% L78S.) raming plans for floors are basically plane views of the girders and joists. igure -&5 is anexample of a typical floor framing plan.

Figure 2:13;Floor framing plan3

(he unbroken, double&line symbol is used to indicate joists, which are drawn in the positions they will occupy in thecompleted building. Couble framing around openings and beneath bathroom fixtures is shown where used. Bridging isshown by a double&line symbol that runs perpendicular to the joists. (he number of rows of cross bridging is controlledby the span of the joists; they should not be placed more than < or = feet apart. % 5&foot span needs only one row ofbridging, but a 6&foot span needs two rows."otes are used to identify floor openings, bridging, and girts or plates. "ominal sizes are used in specifying lumber.Cimensions need not be given between joists. 3uch information is given along with notes. or example, DD x 6DD joistsE -D&9DD cc indicates that the joists are to be spaced at intervals of - feet 9 inches from center to center. 'engthsmight not be indicated in framing plans. If you find this to be the case, the overall building dimensions and thedimensions for each bay or distances between columns or posts provide such information.%44F L78S.) raming plans for roofs are drawn in the same manner as floor framing plans. % Builder shouldvisualize the plan as looking down on the roof before any of the roofing material +sheathing has been added. 7aftersare shown in the same reamer as joists.

S=4 D%7W8(S3hop drawings are sketches, schedules, diagrams, and other information prepared by the contractor +Builder toillustrate some portion of the work. %s a Builder, you will have to make shop drawings for minor shop and fieldprojects. (hese may include shop items)such as doors, cabinets, and small portable buildings, prefabricated berthing*uarters, and modifications of existing structures.3hop drawings are prepared from portions of design drawings, or from freehand sketches based on the Builder!s pastbuilding experience. (hey must include enough information for the crew to complete the job. "ormally, the Builder

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bases the amount of re*uired detailing on the experience level of the crew expected to complete the project. $hen anexperienced building crew will be doing the work, it is not necessary to show all the fine standard details.$hen you make actual drawings, templates +when available should be used for standard symbols. 3tandardtechnical drawing techni*ues are recommended but not mandatory.

F%//=78D S@/C=/SBuilders must be able to read and work from drawings and specifications and make *uick, accurate sketches whenconveying technical information or ideas. 3ketches that you will prepare may be for your own use or for use by othercrewmembers. /ne of the main advantages of sketching is that few materials are re*uired. Basically, pencil and paper

are all you need. (he type of sketch prepared and personal preference determine the materials used.@ost of your sketches will be done on some type of scratch paper. (he advantage of sketching on tracing paper is theease with which sketches can be modified or&redeveloped simply by placing transparent paper over previous sketchesor existing drawings. 2ross&sectional or graph paper may be used to save time when you need to draw sketches toscale. or making dimensional sketches in the field, you will need a measuring tape or pocket rule, depending on theextent of the measurements taken. In freehand pencil sketching, draw each line with a series of short strokes insteadof with one stroke. 3trive for a free and easy movement of your wrist and fingers. You don!t need to be a draftsman oran artist to prepare good working sketches.reehand sketches are prepared by the crew leader responsible for the job. %ny information that will make the projectmore understandable may be included, although sketches needn!t be prepared in great detail.

13# SECTIONAL VIEWS

Learning 4$5ecti'e60pon completing this section, you should be able to interpret sectional views.

3ectional views, or sections, provide important information about the height, materials, fastening and support systems,and concealed features of a structure. igure -&8 shows the initial development of a section and how a structurelooks when cut vertically by a cutting plane. (he cutting plane is not necessarily continuous, but, as with the horizontalcutting plane in building plans, may be staggered to include as much construction information as possible. 'ikeelevations, sectional views are vertical projections. (hey are also detail drawings drawn to large scale. (his aids inreading, and provides information that cannot be given on elevation or plan views. 3ections are classified as typicaland specific.

Figure 2:1)3;De'elopment of a sectional 'iew3

(ypical sections represent the average condition throughout a structure and are used when construction features arerepeated many times. igure -&6 shows typical wall section %&% of the foundation plan in figure -&9. You can seethat it gives a great deal of information necessary for those constructing the building, 'et!s look at these a little moreclosely.

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Figure 2:1*3;7 typical section of a masonry $uilding3(he foundation plan shown in figure -&9 specifies that the main foundation of this structure will consist of a --& by -=&foot concrete block rectangle. igure -&6, which is section %&% of the foundation plan, shows that the front and rear

portions of the foundation +-=&foot measurements are made of -&by&=&by&6&inch 2@0s centered on a 9&by&-5&inch concrete footing to an unspecified height. (hese are followed by =&inch 2@0s, which form a 5&inch ledger forfloor joist support on top of the -&inch units. In this arrangement, the =&inch 2@0s serve to form a 5&inch support forthe brick. (he main wall is then laid with standard - l-&by&5&by&=&inch face brick backed by 5&by&=&by& 6&inch [email protected] B&B +figure -&


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Figure 2:1,3;Door and window details3

13 SCHEDULES

Learning 4$5ecti'e60pon completing this section, you should be able to interpret building schedules.

% schedule is a group of general notes, usually grouped in a tabular form according to materials of construction.:eneral notes refer to all notes on the drawing not accompanied by a leader and an arrowhead. Item schedules fordoors, rooms, footings, and so on, are more detailed. (ypical door and window finish schedule formats are presentedin the next section.

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a$le 2:13;Door Schedule

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F8S= SC=/D


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Lesson 2 Woodworking ools! "aterials! and "ethods

%s a builder, hand and power woodworking tools are essential parts of your trade. (o be a proficient woodworkingcraftsman, you must be able to select, use, and maintain a large variety of field and shop tools effectively. Feep inmind that you are responsible for knowing and observing all safety precautions applicable to the tools and e*uipmentyou operate.

231 POWER TOOLS

L/7%88( 4B?/C9/6Upon completing this section, you should be able to determine the proper use andmaintenance requirements of portable power tools.

Your duties as a Builder include developing and improving your skills and techni*ues when working with differentpower tools. In this section, we!ll identify and discuss the most common power tools that are in the Builder!s workshopor used on the jobsite. $e!ll also discuss safety precautions as they relate to the particular power tool underdiscussion. You must keep in mind and continually stress to your crew that woodworking power tools can bedangerous, and that safety is everyone!s responsibility.

S=4 44LS %s a Builder, you might be assigned to a shop. (herefore, you will need to know some of the common power tools ande*uipment found there.

Shop %adial 7rm Sawigure 1& illustrates a typical shop radial arm saw. (he procedures used in the operation, maintenance, andlubrication of any shop radial arm saw are found in the manufacturers! operator and maintenance manuals. (he safetyprecautions to be observed for this saw are found in these same manuals. (he primary difference between this sawand other saws of this type +field saws is the location of controls.

Figure #:13;7 shop radial arm saw

ilt:7r$or a$le Bench Saw


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% tilt&arbor table bench saw +figure 1&- is so named because the saw blade can be tilted for cutting bevels by tiltingthe arbor. (he arbor, located beneath the table, is controlled by the tilt handwheel. In earlier types of bench saws, thesaw blade remained stationary and the table was tilted. % canted +tilted saw table is hazardous in many ways; mostmodern table saws are of the tilt&arbor type.

Figure #:23;ilt:ar$or $ench saw3(o rip stock, remove the cutoff gauges and set the rip fence away from the saw by a distance e*ual to the desiredwidth of the piece to be ripped off. (he piece is placed with one edge against the fence and fed through with the fenceas a guide.(o cut stock s*uare, set the cutoff gauge at ?9G to the line of the saw and set the ripping fence to the outside edge ofthe table, away from the stock to be cut. (he piece is then placed with one edge against the cutoff gauge, held firmly,and fed through by pushing the gauge along its slot.(he procedure for cutting stock at an angle other than ?9G +called miter cutting is similar, except that the cutoff gaugeis set to bring the piece to the desired angle with the line of the saw.or ordinary ripping or cutting, the saw blade should extend above the table top = to 5 inch plus the thickness ofthe piece to be sawed. (he vertical position of the saw is controlled by the depth of cut handwheel, shown in figure 1&-. (he angle of the saw blade is controlled by the tilt handwheel. >xcept when its removal is absolutely unavoidable,the guard must be kept in place.(he slot in the table through which the saw blade extends is called the throat. (he throat is contained in a small,removable section of the table called the throat plate. (he throat plate is removed when it is necessary to insert awrench to remove the saw blade.(he blade is held on the arbor by the arbor nut. % saw is usually e*uipped with several throat plates, containing throatsof various widths. % wider throat is re*uired when a dado head is used on the saw. % dado head consists of twooutside grooving saws +which are much like combination saws and as many intermediate chisel&type cutters +calledchippers as are re*uired to make up the designated width of the groove or dado. :rooving saws are usually I3&inchthick; conse*uently, one grooving saw will cut a =&inch groove, and the two, used together, will cut a 5&inch groove.Intermediate cutters come in various thicknesses./bserve the following safety precautions when operating the tilt&arbor table bench sawA

• Co not use a ripsaw blade for crosscutting or a crosscut saw blade for ripping. $hen ripping and crosscutting

fre*uently, you should install a combination blade to eliminate constantly changing the blade. @ake sure the

saw blade is sharp, unbroken, and free from cracks before using. (he blade should be changed if it becomesdull, cracked, chipped, or warped. • Be sure the saw blade is set at proper height above the table to cut through the wood.

• %void the hazard of being hit by materials caused by kickbacks by standing to one side of the saw.

• %lways use a push stick to push short, narrow pieces between the saw blade and the gauge.

• Feep stock and scraps from accumulating on the saw table and in the immediate working area.

• "ever reach over the saw to obtain material from the other side.

• $hen cutting, do not feed wood into the saw blade faster than it will cut freely and cleanly.

• "ever leave the saw unattended with the power on.

Band Saw %lthough the band saw +figure 1&1 is designed primarily for making curved cuts, it can also be used for straightcutting. 0nlike the circular saw, the band saw is fre*uently used for freehand cutting.

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Figure #:#3;Band saw3(he band saw has two large wheels on which a continuous narrow saw blade, or band, turns, just as a belt is turnedon pulleys. (he lower wheel, located below the working table, is connected to the motor directly or by means of pulleysor gears and serves as the driver pulley. (he upper wheel is the driven pulley.(he saw blade is guided and kept in line by two sets of blade guides, one fixed set below the table and one set abovewith a vertical sliding adjustment. (he alignment of the blade is adjusted by a mechanism on the backside of the upperwheel. (ensioning of the blade)tightening and loosening&is provided by another adjustment located just back of theupper wheel.2utoff gauges and ripping fences are sometimes provided for use with band saws, but you!ll do most of your workfreehand with the table clear. $ith this type of saw, it is difficult to make accurate cuts when gauges or fences areused.(he size of a band saw is designated by the diameter of the wheels. 2ommon sizes are 5&, 6&, =&, -9&, 19&, 16&,5-&, and 5=&inch&diameter wheel machines. (he 5&inch size is the smallest practical band saw. $ith the exception ofcapacity, all band saws are much the same with regard to maintenance, operation, and adjustment. % rule of thumb used by many 3eabees is that the width of the blade should be one&eighth the minimum radius to becut. (herefore, if the piece on hand has a 5&inch radius, the operator should select a -&inch blade. Con!t construethis to mean that the minimum radius that can be cut is eight times the width of the blade; rather, the ratio indicates thepractical limit for high&speed band saw work.Blades, or bands, for band saws are designated by points +tooth points per inch, thickness +gauge, and width. (here*uired length of a blade is found by adding the circumference of one wheel to twice the distance between the wheelcenters. 'ength can vary within a limit of twice the tension adjustment range.Band saw teeth are shaped like the teeth in a hand ripsaw blade, which means that their fronts are filed at ?9G to theline of the saw. 7econditioning procedures are the same as those for a hand ripsaw, except that very narrow band

saws with very small teeth must usually be set and sharpened by special machines./bserve the following safety precautions when operating a band sawA • Feep your fingers away from the moving blade.

• Feep the table clear of stock and scraps so your work will not catch as you push it along.

• Feep the upper guide just above the work, not excessively high. • Con!t use cracked blades. If a blade develops a click as it passes through the work, the operator should shut off

the power because the click is a danger signal that the blade is cracked and may be ready to break. %fter the sawblade has stopped moving, it should be replaced with one in proper condition.

• If the saw blade breaks, the operator should shut off the power immediately and not attempt to remove any part

of the saw blade until the machine is completely stopped. • If the work binds or pinches on the blade, the operator should never attempt to back the work away from the

blade while the saw is in motion since this may break the blade. (he operator should always see that the

blade is working freely through the cut. • % band saw should not be operated in a location where the temperature is below 58G. (he blade may breakfrom the coldness.

• 0sing a small saw blade for large work or forcing a wide saw on a small radius is bad practice. (he saw blade

should, in all cases, be as wide as the nature of the work will permit.


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• Band saws should not be stopped by thrusting a piece of wood against the cutting edge or side of the band saw

blade immediately after the power has been shut off; doing so may cause the blade to break. Band saws with 16&inch&wheel diameters and larger should have a hand or foot brake.

• >xercise particular care when sharpening or brazing a band saw blade to ensure the blade is not overheated and

the brazed joints are thoroughly united and finished to the same thickness as the rest of the blade. It isrecommended that all band saw blades be butt welded where possible; this method is much superior to theold style of brazing.

Drill ress

igure 1&5 shows a drill press. +(he numbers in the figure correspond to those in the following text. (he drill press isan electrically operated power machine that was originally designed as a metal&working tool; as such, its use would belimited in the average woodworking shop. #owever, accessories, such as a router bit or shaper heads, jigs, andspecial techni*ues, now make it a versatile woodworking tool as well.

Figure #:3;Drill press3

(he motor +9 is mounted to a bracket at the rear of the head assembly + and designed to permit H&belt changing

for desired spindle speed without removing the motor from its mounting bracket. our spindle speeds are obtained bylocating the H&belt on any one of the four steps of the spindle&driven and motor&driven pulleys. (he belt tensioning rod+6 keeps proper tension on the belt so it doesn!t slip.(he controls of all drill presses are similar. (he terms 4right4 and 4left4 are relative to the operator!s position standing infront of and facing the drill press. 4orward4 applies to movement toward the operator. 47earward4 applies tomovement away from the operator.(he onoff switch + is located in the front of the drill press for easy access.(he spindle and *uill feed handles +- radiate from the spindle and *uill pinion feed +1 hub, which is located on thelower right&front side of the head assembly +. ulling forward and down on any one of the three spindle and *uillfeed handles, which point upward at the time, moves the spindle and *uill assembly downward. 7elease the feedhandle +- and the spindle and *uill assembly return to the retracted or upper position by spring action.(he *uill lock handle +5 is located at the lower left&front side of the head assembly. (urn the *uill lock handleclockwise to lock the *uill at a desired operating position. 7elease the *uill by turning the *uill lock handle

counterclockwise. #owever, in most cases, the *uill lock handle will be in the released position.(he head lock handle +8 is located at the left&rear side of the head assembly. (urn the head leek handle clockwise tolock the head assembly at a desired vertical height on the bench column. (urn the head lock handle counterclockwiseto release the head assembly. $hen operating the drill press, you must ensure that the head lock handle is tight at alltimes.

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(he head support collar handle +6 is located at the right side of the head support collar and below the head assembly.(he handle locks the head support collar, which secures the head vertically on the bench column, and prevents thehead from dropping when the head lock handle is released. (urn the head support collar lock handle clockwise to lockthe support to the bench column and counterclockwise to release the support. $hen operating the drill press, ensurethat the head support collar lock handle is tight at all times. %s you face the drill press, the tilting table lock handle is located at the right&rear side of the tilting table bracket. (helockpin secures the table at a horizontal or 58G angle. (his allows you to move the table to the side, out of the way forlong pieces of wood. (he table support collar += allows you to raise or lower the table. (urn the tilting table lockhandle counterclockwise to release the tilting table bracket so it can be moved up and down or around the bench

column. 'ock the tilting table assembly at the desired height by turning the lock handle clockwise. $hen operating thedrill press, ensure that the tilting table lock handle is tight at all times.(he adjustable locknut +5 is located on the depth gauge rod +


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(he lathe shown in figure 1&8 has an iron bed and comes in assorted lengths. (he bed is a broad, flat surface thatsupports the other parts of the machine.(he headstock is mounted on the left end of the lathe bed. %ll power for the lathe is transmitted through theheadstock. It has a fully enclosed motor that gives variable spindle speed. (he spindle is threaded at the front end toreceive the faceplates. % faceplate attachment to the motor spindle is furnished to hold or mount small jobs havinglarge diameters. (here is also a flange on the rear end of the spindle to receive large faceplates, which are heldsecurely by four stud bolts.(he tailstock is located on the right end of the lathe and is movable along the length of the bed. It supports one end ofthe work while the other end is being turned by the headstock spur. (he tail center can be removed from the stock by

simply backing the screw. (he shank is tapered to center the point automatically.@ost large sizes of lathes are provided with a power&feeding carriage. % cone&pulley belt arrangement provides powerfrom the motor, and trackways are cast to the inside of the bed for sliding the carriage back and forth. %ll machineshave a metal bar that can be attached to the bed of the lathe between the operator and the work. (his serves as ahand tool rest and provides support for the operator in guiding tools along the work. It may be of any size and isadjustable to any desired position.In lathe work, wood is rotated against the special cutting tools +illustrated in figure 1&6. (hese tools include turninggouges +view %; skew chisels +view B; parting tools +view 2; round&nose +view C; s*uare&nose +view >; and spear&point +view chisels. /ther cutting tools are toothing irons and auxiliary aids, such as calipers, dividers, andtemplates.

Figure #:*3;Lathe cutting tools3

(urning gouges are used chiefly to rough out nearly all shapes in spindle turning. (he gouge sizes vary from = to -or more inches, with 5&, 15&, and &inch sizes being most common.3kew chisels are used for smoothing cuts to finish a surface, turning beads, trimming ends or shoulders, and formaking H&cuts. (hey are made in sizes from = to - - inches in width and in right&handed and left&handed pairs.arting tools are used to cut recesses or grooves with straight sides and a flat bottom, and also to cut off finished work

from the faceplate. (hese tools are available in sizes ranging from = to 15 inch.3craping tools of various shapes are used for the most accurate turning work, especially for most faceplate turning. %few of the more commonJ y used shapes are illustrated in views C, >, and of figure 1&6. (he chisels shown in viewsB, >, and are actually old jointer blades that have been ground to the re*uired shape; the wood handles for thesehomemade chisels are not shown in the illustration. % toothing iron +figure 1&


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'athe turning can be extremely dangerous. You therefore must use particular care in this work. /bserve the followingsafety precautionsA

• $hen starting the lathe motor, stand to one side. (his helps you avoid the hazard of flying debris in the event of

defective material. • (he tool rest must be used when milling stock.

• %djust and set the compound or tool rest for the start of the cut before turning the switch on.

• (ake very light cuts, especially when using hand tools.

• "ever attempt to use calipers on interrupted surfaces while the work is in motion.

?ointer (he jointer is a machine for power planing stock on faces, edges, and ends. (he planing is done by a revolvingbutterhead e*uipped with two or more knives, as shown in figure 1&=. (ightening the set screws forces the throat pieceagainst the knife for holding the knife in position. 'oosening the set screws releases the knife for removal. (he size ofa jointer is designated by the width, in inches, of the butterhead; sizes range from 5 to 16 inches. % 6&inch jointer isshown in figure 1&?.

Figure #:,3;Four:knife $utterhead for a 5ointer3 Figure #:-3;Si0:inch 5ointer3

(he principle on which the jointer functions is illustrated in figure 1&9. (he table consists of two parts on either side ofthe butterhead. (he stock is started on the infeed table and fed past the butterhead onto the outfeed table. (hesurface of the outfeed table must be exactly level with the highest point reached by the knife edges. (he surface of theinfeed table is depressed below the surface of the outfeed table an amount e*ual to the desired depth of cut. (heusual depth of cut is about 6 to = inch.

Figure #:1.3;4perating principle of a 5ointer3

(he level of the outfeed table must be fre*uently checked to ensure the surface is exactly even with the highest pointreached by the knife edges. If the outfeed table is too high, the cut will become progressively more shallow as thepiece is fed through. If the outfeed table is too low, the piece will drop downward as its end leaves the infeed table,and the cut for the last inch or so will be too deep.


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(o set the outfeed table to the correct height, first feed a piece of waste stock past the cutterhead until a few inches ofit lie on the outfeed table. (hen, stop the machine and look under the outfeed end of the piece. If the outfeed table istoo low, there will be a space between the surface of the table and the lower face of the piece. 7aise the outfeed tableuntil this space is eliminated. If no space appears, lower the outfeed table until a space does appear. "ow, run thestock back through the machine. If there is still a space, raise the table just enough to eliminate it."ote that the cutterhead cuts toward the infeed table; therefore, to cut with the grain, you must place the piece withthe grain running toward the infeed table. % piece is edged by feeding it through on edge with one of the faces heldagainst the fence. % piece is surfaced by feeding it through flat with one of the edges against the fence. #owever, thisoperation should, if possible, be limited to straightening the face of the stock. (he fence can be set at ?9G to produce

s*uared faces and edges, or at any desired angle to produce beveled edges or ends./nly sharp and evenly balanced knives should be used in a jointer cutting head. (he knives must not be set to taketoo heavy a cut because a kickback is almost certain to result, especially if there is a knot or change of grain in thestock. (he knives must be securely refastened after the machine has been standing in a cold building over theweekend.>ach hand&fed jointer should be e*uipped with a cylindrical cutting head, the throat of which should not exceed ach hand&fed jointer should have an automatic guard that covers all the sections of the head on the working side ofthe fence or gauge. (he guard should automatically adjust horizontally for edge jointing and vertically for surface work,and it should remain in contact with the material at all times.$hen operating the jointer, observe the following safety precautionsA

• %lways plane with the grain. % piece of wood planed against the grain on a jointer may be kicked back.

• "ever place your hands directly over the inner cutterhead. 3hould the piece of wood kick back, your hands willdrop on the blades. 3tart with your hands on the infeed bed. $hen the piece of wood is halfway through, reacharound with your left hand and steady the piece of wood on the outfeed bed. inish with both your hands onthe outfeed bed.

• "ever feed a piece of wood with your thumb or finger against the end of the piece of wood being fed into the

jointer. Feep your hands on top of the wood at all times. • %void jointing short pieces of wood whenever possible. Koint a longer piece of wood and then cut it to the desired

size. If you must joint a piece of wood shorter than = inches, use a push stick to feed it through the jointer. • "ever use a jointer with dull cutter blades. Cull blades have a tendency to kick the piece, and a kickback is

always dangerous. • Feep the jointer table and the floor around the jointer clear of scraps, chips, and shavings. %lways stop the

jointer before brushing off and cleaning up those scraps, chips, and shavings.

• "ever joint a piece of wood that contains loose knots. • Feep your eyes and undivided attention on the jointer as you are working. Co not talk to anyone while operating

the jointer. 7emember, the jointer is one of the most dangerous machines in the woodworking shop. /nly experienced andresponsible personnel should be allowed to operate it using the basic safety precautions provided above.

Surfacer % single surfacer +also called a single planer is shown in figure 1&. (his machine surfaces stock on one face +theupper face only. +Couble surfacers, which surface both faces at the same time, are used only in large planing mills.

Figure #:113;Single surfacer3(he single surfacer cuts with a cutterhead like the one on the jointer, but, on the single surfacer, the cutterhead islocated above instead of below the drive rollers. (he part adjacent to the cutterhead is pressed down against the feedbed by the chip breakers +just ahead of the cutterhead and the pressure bar +just behind the cutterhead. (hepressure bar temporarily straightens out any warp a piece may have; a piece that goes into the surfacer warped willcome out still warped. (his is not a defect in the machine; the surfacer is designed for surfacing only, not for truing


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warped stock. If true plane surfaces are desired, one face of the stock +the face that goes down in the surfacer mustbe trued on the jointer before the piece is feed through the surfacer. If the face that goes down in the surfacer is true,the surfacer will plane the other face true./bserve the following safety precautions when operating a surfacerA

• (he cutting head should be covered by metal guards.

• eed rolls should be guarded by a hood or a semicylindrical guard.

• "ever force wood through the machine.

• If a piece of wood gets stuck, turn off the surfacer and lower the feed bed.

Shaper (he shaper is designed primarily for edging curved stock and for cutting ornamental edges, as on moldings. It canalso be used for rabbeting, grooving, fluting, and beading.(he flat cutter on a shaper is mounted on a vertical spindle and held in place by a hexagonal spindle nut. % groovedcollar is placed below and above the cutter to receive the edges of the knives. Ball bearing collars are available foruse as guides on irregular work where the fence is not used. (he part of the edge that is to remain uncut runs againsta ball bearing collar underneath the cutter, as shown in the bottom view of figure 1&-. % three&wing cutter +top view offigure 1&- fits over the spindle. 2utters come with cutting edges in a great variety of shapes.

Figure #:123;hree:wing cutter for a shaper3

or shaping the side edges on a rectangular piece, a light&duty shaper has an adjustable fence, like the one shown onthe shaper in figure 1&1. or shaping the end edges on a rectangular piece, a machine of this type has a sliding fencesimilar to the cutoff gauge on a circular saw. (he sliding fence slides in the groove shown in the table top.


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Figure #:1#3;Light:duty shaper with ad5usta$le fence3

/n larger machines, the fence consists of a board straightedge, clamped to the table with a hand screw, as shown infigure 1&5. % semicircular opening is sawed in the edge of the straightedge to accommodate the spindle and thecutters. $henever possible, a guard of the type shown in the figure should be placed over the spindle.

Figure #:13;Shaper ta$le showing straightedge fence and guard3

or shaping curved edges, there are usually a couple of holes in the table, one on either side of the spindle, in whichvertical starter pins can be inserted. $hen a curved edge is being shaped, the piece is guided by and steadied againstthe starter pin and the ball bearing collar on the spindle.$hen operating a shaper, observe the following safety precautionsA

• 'ike the jointer and surfacer, the shaper cuts toward the infeed side of the spindle, which is against the rotation of

the spindle. (herefore, stock should be placed with the grain running toward the infeed side. • @ake sure the cutters are sharp and well secured. • If curved or irregularly shaped edges are to be shaped, place the stock in position and make sure the collar will

rub against the part of the edge, which should not be removed. • $henever the straight fence cannot be used, always use a starting pin in the table top.

• "ever make extremely deep cuts.

• @ake sure the shaper cutters rotate toward the work.


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• $henever possible, always use a guard, pressure bar, hold&down, or holding jig.

• If possible, place the cutter on the shaper spindle so that the cutting will be done on the lower side of the stock.

• Co not attempt to shape small pieces of wood.

• 2heck all adjustments before turning on the power.

•

S7F/A 84/(he spindle shaper is one of the most dangerous machines used in the shop. 0seextreme caution at all times.

4%7BL/ =78D 44LSIn addition to using power shop tools, you will be re*uired to operate different types of portable hand tools in the field.You therefore need to understand the safety precautions associated with these.

orta$le /lectric Circular Saw(he portable electric circular saw is used chiefly as a great labor&saving device in sawing wood framing members onthe job. (he size of a circular saw is determined by the diameter of the largest blade it can use. (he most commonlyused circular saws are the < 5& and = 5&inch saws. (here are two different types of electric saws, as shown infigure 1&8A the side&drive +view % and the worm&drive +view B. 2ircular saws can use many different types of cuttingblades, some of which are shown in figure 1&6.

Figure #:1)3:Side:dri'e 'iew 7 and worm:dri'e 'iew B circular saws

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Figure #:1*3:Circular saw $lades3

C4"B8748 C%4SSC


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Figure #:1+3:Different ways to use a circular saw3

/bserve the following safety precautions when operating a circular sawA • Con!t force the saw through heavy cutting stock. If you do, you may overload the motor and damage it. • Before using the saw, carefully examine the material to be cut and free it of nails or other metal objects. 2utting into

or through knots should be avoided, if possible. • Cisconnect the saw from its power source before making any adjustments or repairs to the saw. (his includes

changing the blade. • @ake sure all circular saws are e*uipped with guards that automatically y adjust themselves to the work when in

use so that none of the teeth protrude above the work. %djust the guard over the blade so that it slides out ofits recess and covers the blade to the depth of the teeth when you lift the saw off the work.

• $ear goggles or face shields while using the saw and while cleaning up debris afterward. • :rasp the saw with both hands and hold it firmly against the work. (ake care to prevent the saw from breaking

away from the work and thereby causing injury. • Inspect the blade at fre*uent intervals and always after it has locked, pinched, or burned the work. Cisconnect the

saw from the power source before performing this inspection. • Inspect daily the electric cords that you use for cuts or breaks. Before cutting boards, make sure the cord is not

in the way of the blade.

Sa$er Saw(he saber saw +figure 1&= is a power&driven jigsaw that cuts smooth and decorative curves in wood and light metal.

@ost saber saws are light&duty machines and not designed for extremely fast cutting.


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Figure #:1,3:Sa$er saw3 Figure #:1-3:Sa$er saw $lades3

(here are several different, easily interchangeable blades +figure 1&? designed to operate in the saber saw. 3omeblades are designed for cutting wood and some for cutting metal.(he best way to learn how to handle this type of tool is to use it. Before trying to do a finished job with the saber saw,

clamp down a piece of scrap plywood and draw some curved as well as straight lines to follow. You will develop yourown way of gripping the tool, which will be affected somewhat by the particular tool you are using. /n some tools, forexample, you will find guiding easier if you apply some downward pressure on the tool as you move it forward. If youdon!t use a firm grip, the tool will tend to vibrate excessively and roughen the cut. Co not force the cutting faster thanthe design of the blade allows or you will break the blade.You can make a pocket cut with a saber saw just like you can with a circular saw, although you need to drill a starterhole to begin work. % saber saw can also make bevel&angle and curve cuts./bserve the following safety precautions when operating the saber sawA

• Before working with the saber saw, be sure to remove your rings, watches, bracelets, and other jewelry.

• If you are wearing long sleeves, roll them up. Be sure the saber saw is properly grounded.

• 0se the proper saw blade for the work to be done, and ensure the blade is securely locked in place.

• Be sure the material to be cut is free of any obstructions.

• Feep your full attention focused on the work being performed. • :rip the handle of the saw firmly. 2ontrol the forward and turning movements with your free hand on the front

guide. • (o start a cut, place the forward edge of the saw base on the edge of the material being worked, start the motor, and

move the blade into the material.

orta$le %eciprocating Saw(he portable reciprocating saw +saw&all +figure 1&-9 is a heavy&duty power tool that you can use for a variety ofwoodworking maintenance work, remodeling, and roughing&in jobs. You can use it to cut rectangular openings, curvedopenings, along straight or curved lines, and flush.Blades for reciprocating saws are made in a great variety of sizes and shapes. (hey vary in length from - - to -inches and are made of high&speed steel or carbon steel. (hey have cutting edges similar to those shown in figure 1&

?.

Figure #:2.3:%eciprocating saw3

Before operating this saw, be sure you are using a blade that is right for the job. (he manufacturer!s instruction

manual shows the proper saw blade to use for a particular material. (he blade must be pushed securely into theopening provided. 7ock it slightly to ensure a correct fit, then tighten the setscrew.(o start a cut, place the saw blade near the material to be cut. (hen, start the motor and move the blade into thematerial. Feep the cutting pressure constant, but do not overload the saw motor. "ever reach underneath the materialbeing cut.


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/bserve the following safety precautions when operating a reciprocating sawA • Cisconnect the saw when changing blades or making adjustments.

• lace the foot of the saw firmly on the stock before starting to cut.

• Con!t cut curves shaper than the blade can handle.

• $hen cutting through a wall, make sure you don!t cut electrical wires.

%outer (he router is a versatile portable power tool that can be used free hand or with jigs and attachments. igure 1&-

shows a router typical of most models. It consists of a motor containing a chuck into which the router bits are attached.(he motor slides into the base in a vertical position. By means of the depth adjustment ring, easy regulation of thedepth of a cut is possible. 7outers vary in size from 5 to - - horsepower, and the motor speed varies from =,999to -


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Figure #:2#3:orta$le electric power plane3

(he power plane is essentially a high&speed motor that drives a cutter bar, containing either straight or spiral blades,

at high speed./perating the power plane is simply a matter of setting the depth of cut and passing the plane over the work. irst,make careful measurements of the piece, where it is to fit, and determine how much material has to be removed.(hen, the stock being planed should be held in a vise, clamped to the edge of a bench, or otherwise firmly held.2heck the smoothness and straightness of all the edges.If a smoothing cut is desired, make that cut first and then recheck the dimensions. @ake as many passes asnecessary with the plane to reach the desired dimensions, checking fre*uently so as not to remove too much material.(he greater the depth of the cut, the slower you must feed the tool into the work. eed pressure should be enough tokeep the tool cutting, but not so much as to slow it down excessively. Feep wood chips off the work because they canmar the surface of the stock as the tool passes over them. Feep your hands away from the butterhead or blades whena cut is finished.(he '&shaped base, or fence, of the plane should be pressed snugly against the work when planing, assuring that theedge will be cut s*uare. or bevel cuts, loosen the setscrew on the base, set the base at the desired bevel, and then

retighten the setscrew./bserve the following safety precautions when operating a portable power planeA

• @ake sure that the plane is turned off before plugging it in.

• @ake sure you disconnect the plug before making any adjustment.

• Con!t attempt to power plane with one hand)you need two.

• %lways clamp your work securely in the best position to perform the planing.

• $hen finished planing, make sure you disconnect the power cord.

orta$le ower Drillsortable power drills have generally replaced hand tools for drilling holes because they are faster and more accurate.$ith variable&speed controls and special clutch&drive chucks, they can also be used as electric screwdrivers. @orespecialized power&driven screwdrivers are also available; these have greatly increased the efficiency of many

fastening operations in construction work.(he two basic designs for portable electric drills +figure 1&-5 are the spade design for heavy&duty construction +view % and the pistol&grip design for lighter work +view B. 3izes of power drills are based on the diameter of the largestdrill shank that will fit into the chuck of the drill.


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Figure #:23:=ea'yduty 12:inch porta$le drill 'iew 7 and light:duty 12:inch porta$le drill 'iew B3

(he right&angle drill is a specialty drill used in plumbing and electrical work. It allows you to drill holes at a right angleto the drill body./bserve the following safety precautions when operating a portable drillA

• @ake sure that the drill or bit is securely mounted in the chuck.

• #old the drill firmly as prescribed by the manufacturer of the drill. • $hen feeding the drill into the material, vary the pressure you apply to accommodate the different kinds of

stock. Be careful not to bind the drill or bit. • $hen drilling a deep hole, withdraw the drill several times to clean the drill bit.

orta$le Sanders(here are three types of portable sandersA belt, disk, and finish sanders. $hen using a belt sander +figure 1&-8, becareful not to gouge the wood. (he size of a belt sander is usually identified by the width of its sanding belt. Beltwidths on heavier duty models are usually 1 or 5 inches. Cepending on the make and model, belt lengths vary from -to -< inches. Cifferent grades of&abrasives are available.

Figure #:2)3:Belt sander3

(he disk sander +figure 1&-6 is a useful tool for removing old finish, paint, and varnish from siding, wood flooring, andconcrete. or best results with a disk sander, tip the machine lightly with just enough pressure to bend the disk. 0se along, sweeping motion, back and forth, advancing along the surface. $hen using a disk sander, always operate it withboth hands.

Figure #:2*3:orta$le disk sander3

(he finish sander +figure 1&-


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Figure #:2+3:wo types of finish sanders6 or$ital 'iew 7 and oscillating 'iew B3

/bserve the following safety tips when operating portable sandersA • @ake sure the sander is off before plugging it in.

• @ake sure that you use two hands if using the belt sander.

• Con!t press down on the sander. (he weight of the sander is enough to sand the material.

• @ake sure the sander is disconnected when changing sandpaper.

• Feep the electrical cord away from the area being sanded.

ower 8ailers and Staplers(here is a wide variety of power nailers and staplers available. % typical example of each is shown in figure 1&-=. %heavy&duty nailer is used for framing or sheathing work; finish nailers are used for paneling or trimming. (here is alsoa wide variety of staplers that you can use for jobs, such as fastening sheeting, decking, or roofing. (hese tools areoften driven by compressed air. (he amount of pneumatic, or air, pressure re*uired to operate the tool depends on thesize of the tool and the type of operation you are performing. 2heck the manufacturer!s manual for the proper airpressure to operate the tool.


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Figure #:2,3:=ea'yduty pneumatic nailer 'iew 7 and pneumatic stapler 'iew B3

(he power nailer and power stapler are great timesaving tools, but they are also very dangerous tools. /bserve thefollowing safety precautions when using themA

• 0se the correct air pressure for the particular tool and job.

• 0se the right nailer or stapler for the job and also the correct nails and staples.

• Feep the nose of the tool pointed away from your body. • $hen you are not using a nailer or stapler or if you are loading one, disconnect the air supply.

232 MATERIALS

L/7%88( 4B?/C9/60pon completing this section, you should be able to identify the types, sources, uses, andcharacteristics of the common woods used on various construction projects.

/f all the different construction materials, wood is probably the most often used and perhaps the most important. (hevariety of uses of wood is practically unlimited. ew 3eabee construction projects are accomplished without usingsome type of wood. It is used for permanent structures as well as concrete forms, scaffolding, shoring, and bracing,which may be used again and again. (he types, sources, uses, and characteristics of common woods are given intable 1&. (he types of classifications of wood for a large project are usualJ y designated in the project specificationsand included in the project drawings.

a$le #:13:Common Woods

A/S S4>2# >ast of @ississippi andsoutheastern 2anada

2abinetwork, imitationmahogany furniture,

3imilar to birch but notso durable when


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wood dowels, capping,boat trim, interior finish,tool handles, turnery,shoe lasts, carving,flooring

exposed to weather,shrinks and checksconsiderably, closegrain, light or dark redcolor

BI72# >ast of @ississippi7iver and north of gulf

coast states, southeast2anada, and"ewfoundland

2abinetwork, imitationmahogany furniture,

wood dowels, capping,boat trim, interior finish,tool handles, turnery,carving

#ard, durable, finegrain, even texture,

heavy, stiff, strong,tough, takes highpolish, works easily,forms excellent base forwhite enamel finish, butnot durable whenexposed. #eartwood islight to dark reddishbrown in color

B0((>7"0( 3outhern 2anada,@innesota, eastern0.3. as far south as

%labama and lorida

(oys, altars,woodenware, millwork,interior trim, furniture,

boats, scientificinstruments

Hery much like walnutin color but softer, notso soft as white pine

and basswood, easy towork, coarse grained,fairly strong

C/0:'%3 I7 acific coast and British2olumbia

Ceck planking on largeships, shores,strongbacks, plugs,filling pieces andbulkheads of smallboats, buildingconstruction, dimensiontimber, plywood

>xcellent structurallumber, strong, easy towork, clear straightgrained, soft but brittle.#eartwood is durable incontact with ground,best structural timber ofnorthwest

>'@ 3tates east of 2olorado %griculturalimplements, wheel&stock, boats, furniture,crossties, posts, poles

3lippery, heavy, hard,tough, durable, difficultto split, not resistant todecay

#I2F/7Y %rkansas, (ennessee,/hio, and Fentucky

(ools, handles, wagonstock, hoops, baskets,vehicles, wagon spokes

Hery heavy, hard,stronger and tougherthan other nativewoods, but checks,shrinks, difficult to work,subject to decay andinsect attack

@%'> %ll states east of2olorado and 3outhern2anada

>xcellent furniture,high&grade floors, toolhandles, shipconstruction, crossties,counter tops, bowlingpins

ine grained, grainoften curly or 4Birds!s>yes,4 heavy, tough,hard, strong, rathereasy to work, but notdurable. #eartwood islight brown, sap woodis nearly white

'IH> /%F 3outhern %tlantic andgulf coasts of 0.3.,

/regon, and 2alifornia

Implements, wagons,shipbuilding

Hery heavy, hard,tough, strong, durable,

difficult to work, lightbrown or yellow sapwood nearly white

@%#/:%"Y #onduras, @exico, urniture, boats, decks, Brown to red color, one

http://amazon.com/gp/product/0807123129?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0807123129&adid=0743d3ca-fa1f-4b24-b2a0-96b99de2b7aahttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0807123129?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0807123129&adid=0743d3ca-fa1f-4b24-b2a0-96b99de2b7aahttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0807123129?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0807123129&adid=0743d3ca-fa1f-4b24-b2a0-96b99de2b7aahttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0156001209?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0156001209&adid=5b5ea4ae-03bc-4891-a91f-44f92c5fc222http://amazon.com/gp/product/0807123129?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0807123129&adid=0743d3ca-fa1f-4b24-b2a0-96b99de2b7aahttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0807123129?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0807123129&adid=0743d3ca-fa1f-4b24-b2a0-96b99de2b7aahttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0156001209?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0156001209&adid=5b5ea4ae-03bc-4891-a91f-44f92c5fc222


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2entral %merica,lorida, $est Indies,2entral %frica, andother tropical sections

fixtures, interior trim inexpensive homes,musical instruments

of most useful ofcabinet woods, hard,durable, does not splitbadly, open grained,takes beautiful finishwhen grain is filled butchecks, swells, shrinks,warps slightly

"/7$%Y I"> 3tates bordering :reat'akes

Cimension timber,masts, spars, piling,interior trim

'ight, fairly hard,strong, not durable incontact with ground

#I'II">@%#/:%"Y

hilippine Islands leasure boats,medium&gradefurniture, interior trim

"ot a true mahogany,shrinks, expands, splits,warps, but available inlong, wide, clear boards

/'%7 Hirginias, (ennessee,Fentucky, and

@ississippi Halley

'ow&grade furniture,cheaply constructed

buildings, interior finish,shelving drawers,boxes

3oft, cheap, obtainablein wide boards, warps,

shrinks, rots easily,light, brittle, weak, butworks easily and holdsnails well, fine&textured

7>C 2>C%7 >ast of 2olorado andnorth of lorida

@othproof chests, liningfor linen closets, sills,and other uses similarto white cedar

Hery light; soft, weak,brittle, low shrinkage,great durability, fragrantscent, generally knotty,beautiful when finishedin natural color, easilyworked

7>C /%F Hirginias, (ennessee, %rkansas, Fentucky,/hio, @issouri,@aryland

Interior finish, furniture,cabinets, millwork,crossties whenpreserved

(ends to warp, coarsegrain, does not last wellwhen exposed toweather, porous, easilyimpregnated withpreservative, heavy,tough, strong

7>C$//C 2alifornia :eneral construction,tanks, paneling

Inferior to yellow pine and fir in strength,shrinks and splits little,extremely soft, light,

straight grained, verydurable, exceptionallyresistant to decay

3702> "ew York, "ew>ngland, $est Hirginia,central 2anada, :reat'akes states, Idaho,$ashington, /regon

7ailway ties, resonancewood, piles, airplanes,oars, masts, spars,baskets

'ight, soft, low strength,fair durability, closegrain, yellowish, sapwood indistinct

30:%7 I"> 2alifornia and /regon 3ame as white pine Hery light, soft,resembles white pine

(>%F India, Burma, (hailand,and Kava

Ceck planking, shaftlogs for small boats

'ight brown color,strong, easily worked,durable, resistant tomoisture damage

http://amazon.com/gp/product/0752842927?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0752842927&adid=a69ee081-8e0a-4385-aba3-a1e9b692c846http://amazon.com/gp/product/0817309497?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0817309497&adid=c0e38a19-2364-4db2-aa08-186b70683471http://amazon.com/gp/product/1555572294?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=1555572294&adid=3bc6c884-df93-476c-bc06-8c9b16a6e50bhttp://amazon.com/gp/product/1555572294?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=1555572294&adid=3bc6c884-df93-476c-bc06-8c9b16a6e50bhttp://amazon.com/gp/product/B000LI10AA?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=B000LI10AA&adid=d1aca7ec-1530-42cc-9589-9208875aefb7http://amazon.com/gp/product/0312331037?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0312331037&adid=d687656e-9cb6-48af-8edb-4ce2d29b8f0chttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0312331037?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0312331037&adid=d687656e-9cb6-48af-8edb-4ce2d29b8f0chttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0752842927?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0752842927&adid=a69ee081-8e0a-4385-aba3-a1e9b692c846http://amazon.com/gp/product/0817309497?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0817309497&adid=c0e38a19-2364-4db2-aa08-186b70683471http://amazon.com/gp/product/1555572294?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=1555572294&adid=3bc6c884-df93-476c-bc06-8c9b16a6e50bhttp://amazon.com/gp/product/B000LI10AA?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=B000LI10AA&adid=d1aca7ec-1530-42cc-9589-9208875aefb7http://amazon.com/gp/product/0312331037?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0312331037&adid=d687656e-9cb6-48af-8edb-4ce2d29b8f0chttp://amazon.com/gp/product/0312331037?ie=UTF8&tag=sweethavenpub-20&link_code=em1&camp=212341&creative=384049&creativeASIN=0312331037&adid=d687656e-9cb6-48af-8edb-4ce2d29b8f0c


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$%'"0( >astern half of 0.3.except southern %tlanticand gulf coasts, somein "ew @exico, %rizona, 2alifornia

>xpensive furniture,cabinets, interiorwoodwork, gun stocks,tool handles, airplanepropellers, fine boats,musical instruments

ine cabinet wood,coarse grained buttakes beautiful finishwhen pores closed withwood filler, mediumweight, hard, strong,easily worked, darkchocolate color, doesnot warp or check brittle

$#I(> 2>C%7 >astern coast of 0. 3.,and around :reat'akes

Boat planking, railroadties, shingles, siding,posts, poles

3oft, lightweight, closegrained, exceptionallydurable when exposedto water, not strongenough for buildingconstruction, brittle, lowshrinkage, fragment,generally knotty

$#I(> /%F (he Hirginias,(ennessee, %rkansas,

Fentucky, /hio,@issouri, @aryland, andIndiana

Boat and ship stems,stern&posts, knees,

sheer strakes, fenders,capping, transoms,shaft logs, framing forbuildings, strongfurniture, tool handles,crossties, agriculturalimplements, fenceposts

#eavy, hard, strong,medium coarse grain,

tough, dense, mostdurable of hardwoods,elastic, rather easy towork, but shrinks andlikely to check. 'ightbrownish grey in colorwith reddish tinge,medullary rays arelarge and outstandingand present beautifulfigures when *uartersawed, receives highpolish

$#I(> I"> @innesota, $isconsin,@aine, @ichigan, Idaho,@ontana, $ashington,/regon, and 2alifornia

atterns, any interior job or exterior job thatdoesn!t re*uiremaximum strength,window sash, interiortrim, millwork, cabinets,cornices

>asy to work, finegrain, free of knots,takes excellent finish,durable when exposedto water, expands whenwet, shrinks when dry,soft, white, nails withoutsplitting, not verystrong, straight grained

Y>''/$ I"> Hirginia to (exas @ost important lumber

for heavy constructionand exterior work,keelsons, risings, fillingpieces, clamps, floors,bulkheads of smallboats, shores, wedges,plugs, strongbacks,staging, joists, posts,piling, ties, pavingblocks

#ard, strong,

heartwood is durable inthe ground, grainvaries, heavy, tough,reddish brown in color,resinous, medullaryrays well marked

L


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3easoning of lumber is the result of removing moisture from the small and large cells of wood) drying. (headvantages of seasoning lumber are to reduce its weight; increase its strength and resistance to decay; and decreaseshrinkage, which tends to avoid checking and warping after lumber is placed. % seldom used and rather slow methodof seasoning lumber is air&drying in a shed or stacking in the open until dry. % faster method, known as kiln drying, haslumber placed in a large oven or kiln and dried with heat, supplied by gas& or oil&fired burners. 'umber is considereddry enough for most uses when its moisture content has been reduced to about - or 8 percent. %s a Builder, you willlearn to judge the dryness of lumber by its color, weight, smell, and feel. %lso, after the lumber is cut, you will be ableto judge the moisture content by looking at the shavings and chips.

D/F/CS 78D BL/"S=/S % defect in lumber is any flaw that tends to affect the strength, durability, or utility value of the lumber. % blemish is aflaw that mars only the appearance of lumber. #owever, a blemish that affects the utility value of lumber is alsoconsidered to be a defect; for example, a tight knot that mars the appearance of lumber intended for fine cabinet work.Harious flaws apparent in lumber are listed in table 1&-.

a$le #:23;Wood Defects and Blemishes

C4""48 87"/ D/SC%48

Bark ocket atch of bark over which the tree has grown,and has entirely or almost entirely enclosed

2heck 3eparation along the lengthwise grain, causedby too rapid or nonuniform drying

2ross :rain :rain does not run parallel to or spiral aroundthe lengthwise axis

Cecay Ceterioration caused by various fungi

Fnot 7oot section of a branch that may appear on asurface in cross section or lengthwise. % cross&sectional knot maybe loose or tight. %lengthwise knot is called a spike knot

itch ocket Ceposit of solid or li*uid pitch enclosed in the

wood

3hake 3eparation along the lengthwise grain thatexists before the tree is cut. % heart shakemoves outward from the center of the tree andis caused by decay at the center of the trunk. %wind shake follows the circular lines of theannual rings; its cause is not definitely known

$ane law in an edge or corner of a board or timber.It is caused by the presence of bark or lack ofwood in that part

$arp (wist or curve caused by shrinkage thatdevelops in a once flat or straight board

Blue 3tain % blemish caused by a mold fungus; it doesnot weaken the wood

CL7SSFC748 4F L


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S4FW44DS =7%DW44DS

Couglas fir 3outhern pine $estern larch

Basswood $illow %merican elm

#emlock $hite fir 3pruce

@ahoganyL 3weet gum $hite ashL

onderosa pine $estern red cedar 7edwood

Beech Birch 2herry

2ypress $hite pine 3ugar pine

@aple /akL $alnutL

L/pen&grained wood

(he *uality of softwood lumber is classified according to its intended use as being yard, structural, factory, or shoplumber. Yard lumber consists of those grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for ordinary building purposes.3tructural lumber is - or more inches in nominal thickness and width and is used where strength is re*uired. actoryand shop lumber are used primarily for building cabinets and interior finish work.'umber manufacturing classifications consist of rough dressed +surfaced and worked lumber. 7ough lumber has notbeen dressed but has been sawed, edged, and trimmed. Cressed lumber is rough lumberthat has been planed on one or more sides to attain smoothness and uniformity. $orked lumber, in addition to beingdressed, has also been matched, shiplapped, or patterned. @atched lumber is tongue and groove, either sides orends or both. 3hiplapped lumber has been rabbeted on both edges to provide a close&lapped joint. atterned lumberis designed to a pattern or molded form.

Softwood (rading(he grade of a piece of lumber is based on its strength, stiffness, and appearance. % high grade of lumber has veryfew knots or other blemishes. % low grade of lumber may have knotholes and many loose knots. (he lowest gradesare apt to have splits, checks, honeycombs, and some warpage. (he grade of lumber to be used on any construction job is usually stated in the specifications for a set of blueprints. Basic classifications of softwood grading includeboards, dimension, and timbers. (he grades within these classifications are shown in table 1&5.

a$le #:3:Softwood Lum$er (rades


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'umber is graded for *uality in accordance with %merican 'umber 3tandards set by the "ational Bureau of 3tandardsfor the 0.3. Cepartment of 2ommerce. (he major *uality grades, in descending order of *uality, are select lumber andcommon lumber. (able 1&8 lists the subdivisions for each grade in descending order of *uality.

=ardwood (rades:rades of hardwood lumber are established by the "ational #ardwood 'umber %ssociation. %3 +firsts and secondsis the best grade. It specifies that pieces be no less than 6&inches wide by =&feet long and yield at least =1 1 percentclear cuttings. (he next lower grade is selects, which permits pieces 5&inches wide by 6&feet long. % still lower grade is"o. common.


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'umber in this group is expected to yield 66 -1 percent clear cuttings.

Lum$er SiEes3tandard lumber sizes have been established in the 0nited 3tates for uniformity in planning structures and in orderingmaterials. 'umber is identified by nominal sizes. (he nominal size of a piece of lumber is larger than the actualdressed dimensions. 7eferring to table 1&6, you can determine the common widths and thicknesses of lumber in theirnominal and dressed dimensions.

a$le #:)3:(rades and Su$di'isions of Lum$er

S/L/C L


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L7"87/D L


48/141

Figure #:#23:Laminated and sawed lum$er or plywood $eam3

Figure #:##3:Stressed skin panel3

robably the greatest use of lamination is in the fabrication of large beams and arches. Beams with spans in excess of99 feet and depths of = - feet have been constructed using -&inch boards. 'aminations this large are factoryproduced. (hey are glued together under pressure. @ost laminations are spliced using scarf joints +figure 1&15, andthe entire piece is dressed to ensure uniform thickness and width. (he depth of the lamination is placed in a horizontalposition and is usually the full width of the beam +figure 1&18.

Figure #:#3:Scarf 5oints3


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Figure #:#)3:Laminated $eam3

LAW44Dlywood is constructed by gluing together a number of layers +plies of wood with the grain direction turned at rightangles in each successive l

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