building technology reviewer-1(1)

8/17/2019 Building Technology Reviewer-1(1)

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

• SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL

LINE CHECK.

• PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.

• PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL)

BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.

• 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD OF

SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.

• SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL TO

STABILIZE FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED STAKING OUT! WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS

OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERETHE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.

IT INCLUDES CLEARING" STAKING" BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE

E#ACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.

• STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN

INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS.

• BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE

WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE

BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.

• STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER

BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL ANDFOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

$. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS" SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT IS

FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.

%. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS SUGGESTED

THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETICENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT E#ISTING REFERENCE

POINTS OR AD&OINING STRUCTURES.

'. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY E#ISTING STRUCTURE" TREES" AND OTHER ELEMENTSTHAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.

. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS"

CONSTRUCTION OFFICE" BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLSAND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.

. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY.ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND

EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THETIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.

*. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.

+. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE

FORM,

• CENTER TO CENTER

•

OUTER TO CENTER

• OUTER TO OUTER

• INSIDE TO INSIDE

. FI# THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVELINSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.


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. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING"TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THEAID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE E#CAVATED.

EXCAVATION

E#CAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWOTYPES, THE MINOR AND MA&OR E#CAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATUREOF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. E#CAVATION FOR A SMALL CONSTRUCTION

WITH INDEPENDENT WALL" OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR E#CAVATION" WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL E#TRACTION OF

THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MA&OR CONSTRUCTION.

MINOR EXCAVATION

E#CAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVINGINDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF

THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING E#TEND TO A DEPTH FROM $.// TO $./ METER AND ABOUTHALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

MAJOR EXCAVATION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE E#CAVATION OR TOTAL

E#TRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPONTHE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONSTRUCTION

SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES"STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE E#CAVATED SOIL.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH AD&ACENTE#ISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED AMONG THE

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSISOF THE RIGHT APPROACH.

PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

$. THE MANNER OF THE E#CAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR

DAMAGED THE AD&OINING STRUCTURE.

%. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND E#TRACTING THEGROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE

EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

'. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE E#TRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVEMANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULINGWITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.

. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER

PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY

ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.

. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR UNDERSPINNING

TO PROTECT THE AD&OINING STRUCTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADSFROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.

ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME E#TENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATHTHEM AD&UST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.

UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING"BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:

• SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING.

• SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.

• FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER

ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.

' TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES,

• SLAB ON FILL

• CRAWLSPACE

• BASEMENT

BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:


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• SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT

THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.

• DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE

SUBSTRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.

FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH

DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK" FOOTINGIS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE

FOOTING.

PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFTFOOTING" THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TOTRANSFER THE E#CESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.

PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITHREASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.

PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER

THAN DRILED 0 POURED.

PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAININGFROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER &OINED AT THE TOP BY A

REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.

PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG

THE PILES.

CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD

FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.

• FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS

THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.

• GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W1C SUPPORTS THE

E#TERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMNFOOTING.

• RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED" THAT BEARS AGAINST AN

EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.

• CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST

OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.

• GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY

VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.

• BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.

A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO /.% TO /.'2 OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE E#CEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.

COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES,

$. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THESIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE" IN THE FORM OF,

• SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING

• SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING

• SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

%. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED

CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELYMERGE. IT’S EITHER ,

• RECTANGULAR

• TRAPEZOIDAL

'. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICHSUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER,


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• INVERTED SLAB FOOTING

• INVERTED TEE FOOTING

. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THESTRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.

• UNIFORM SLAB

• THICKENED SLAB

• BEAM 0 GIRDER

CONCRETE

CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MI#TURE OFCEMENT" SAND" GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN

CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED

REINFORCED CONCRETE!

• SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY

MI#ED CONCRETE.

• DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MI#TURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.

• /.* 34. OF WATER 1 34. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF

DEVELOPING %"// PSI IN % DAYS.

• LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.

• MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

• ADMI#TURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

• SIZES OF MEASURING BO# FOR ,

• / 56. CEMENT – '//77 # '//77 # '//77

• / 56. CEMENT - '%/77 # '%/77 # ''/77

• CONCRETE MIXTURE:

CLASS MI#TURE /56. /56. SAND GRAVEL

AA! $,$$1%, ' $% . /.

89.7. $./ 89.7.

A! $,%, +/. $./

B! $,%$1%, +. *

/. $./

C! $,',* *

/. $./

• MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MI#TURE /56. /56. SAND

A! $,% $ $. $./89.7.

B! $,' $% . $./

C! $, + $./

D! $, +. * $./

POST AND COLUMN

POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL" SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.


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COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OFSTONE" CONCRETE" STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSICIFICATION

• SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN

TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

• LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE

SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

TYPES OF COLUMNS

• TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR

LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED

LATERAL TIES.

• SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN

ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICALREINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELDFIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.

• COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO

THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.

• COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT

LEAST + 87. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT ADISTANCE OF ' 87. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.

• LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL

BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER" GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE ISSOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.

METAL REINFORCEMENT

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:

$. COMPRESSION STRESS

%. TENSION STRESS

'. SHEAR STRESS

. TORSION STRESS

• REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THESTRUCTURE.

• REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.

• CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN

RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

• STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION.

• BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE &UST

ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.

• INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING

MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.

• NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT" AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT

REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTSE#TENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.

• BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT

AND ARE E#TENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THEAD&ACENT SPAN.

• 4"#. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF

THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

• ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS" ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

• BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE" THAT THE

CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .// TIMESTHE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.

• USED LATERAL TIES –


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$/77 :;


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. THE SI%ING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS – DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOADAT A CERTAIN SPACING.

. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN

THE POSTS" COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.

THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING

TYPES:

A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE

B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM

C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE,

• GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM E#TENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING

SUPPORTING THE FLOOR &OISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.

• SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE

FOUNDATION.

• FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE

GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.

•

HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE &OISTS THAT SUPPORTTHE END OF THE CUT-OFF &OIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING&OIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.

• FLOORING & THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T 0 G

IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING!

• TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM" &OIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS

SUPPORTED BY A HEADER &OIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.

• LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE BEAM"

FORMING A SEAT FOR THE &OISTS.

• DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE

&OISTS.

• SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN

A STUD PARTITION.

• SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER" AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF AWOOD

STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.

• TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN

ASTUD PARTITION.

• CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME" A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS SHORTER

THAN USUAL" AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.

• BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FI#ED VERTICALLY

BETWEEN FLOOR &OISTS TO STIFFEN THE &OISTS.

• CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS" BETWEEN AD&ACENT FLOOR &OISTS TO PREVENT THE &OISTS FROM TWISTING.

• HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT" ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND

SUPPORT A &OIST.

• BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF

SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR &OISTS.

• WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR E#TENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF

THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOADWHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.

GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE

SMALLER BEAM.

BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS ,

A) SIMPLE BEAM


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B) CONTINUOUS BEAM

C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED ATITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED

AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.

CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORETHAN TWO SUPPORTS.

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR

WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO E#TREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TOHOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS

NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORTBUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION

ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAINREINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN TIMES THEDIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING

OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWINGTYPES,

$. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.

%. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.

'. RIBBED FLOORS.

. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATIONDEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS,

$. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.

%. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED

'. LENGTH OF THE SPAN

. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION

ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCEDCONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE

DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT ISCOMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT

SPANS RANGING FROM %.// TO './ METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTSARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THEMAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS!. USUALLY NO. '

STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES INTEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A

LARGER AREA.

TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THEFLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWODIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.

THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN INCHES OR $/ CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY $/. THESPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN ' TIMES THE SLAB

THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTIONBUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.

A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL AD&ACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE

OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES" GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL

FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY '/ # / CM. WITH DEPTH OF $/ TO /CM. O.C.PLACED = CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS $/ CM. WIDE.

THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM TO *. CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWOBARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER

REMAINED STRAIGHT" OR SOMETIMES" STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP ANDBOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. % BARS OR * MM. OR WIRE

MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.

FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNSWITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR


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PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMNREINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREADIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER

HAND" A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.

WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS" A STRAIGHTFLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM" WHICH ISCALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION!

THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR.

• CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A &OINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF

CONCRETE MEET.

• CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A &OINT BETWEEN AD&ACENT PARTS

OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.

• CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING

MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.

• BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION" A SPACE WHERE

CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.

• COLD JOINT – A &OINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN BEFORE THE

NE#T BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.

• CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

• CAMBER – CONVE# CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE,

$. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER.

ORDINARILY" THE RISE PER STEP IS $+ TO $ CM AND THE MINIMUM TREADWIDTH IS % CM.

%. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .$+ OR .$ TO DETERMINE THE

NUMBER OF STEPS.

'. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .% OR .'/7.

. IF THE RESULT" FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND INSTEP TWO" THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE E#TENDED.

. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE

FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO" AD&UST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUALPROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT" BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THERISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN $ CM OR LESS THAN $+ CM OTHERWISE" THE

STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFOREMAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO

AVOID AD&USTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.

TYPE OF STRINGERS

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEMETHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.

$. CUT

%. CLEATED

'. BUILT-UP

. RABBETED (HOUSE)

• BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN CIRCULAR

IN SECTION" USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.

• BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL" VERTICALMEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

• BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT" HAVING ONE OR BOTH

ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PRO&ECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THESTAIR STRING1S.

• BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

• RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.


10/43

• KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES

THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH,

SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOFCONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.

GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM

OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING ATTHE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES

TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIESWHERE E#TRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A VERTICAL SIDE.

DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEYROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVINGSTRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING TERMINATING ATTHE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN

INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOFFORM HOWEVER" HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.

PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR

STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.

GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDEHAVING TWO SLOPES.

BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE

CENTER OF THE BUILDING.

MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACHSIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE

MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.

DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ONOBNSERVATORIES.

CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THATTAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE,

$. RAFTERS TYPE

%. TRUSS TYPE

'. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE,

• COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS E#TENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATEOR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.

• HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR

GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

• VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT

THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE E#TENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.

• OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE

AT THE CENTRAL APE# OR RIDGE POLE.

•

JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT E#TEND FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

&ACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO,

$. HIT &ACKS

%. VALLEY &ACKS

'. CRIPLE &ACKS


11/43

&ACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS! THEFRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS"WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED

CRIPPLE JACKS!

TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF

UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF ASERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD" STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE ANDFLE#IBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE,

LIGHT TRUSSES:

PITCHED HOWE

SCISSORS RAISED CHORD

SAWTOOTH $ > STORY FRAME

FLAT UTILITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:

HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN

FINK PRATT

SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK

WARREN FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OFA TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.

PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING,

SPAN, %.// SIZE, /77 # +77

'.// /77 # $//77

'./ /77 # $/77

./ /77 # %//77

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THATSERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.

ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED,

• FIBER

• WOOD

• METAL

• SLATE

• TILES

• REINFORCED CONCRETE

• PLASTICS

• FIBERGLASS

METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION"

THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS,

• GALVANIZED IRON


12/43

• ALUMINUM

• TIN

• TITANIUM COPPER ZINC

• COPPER

• STAINLESS STEEL

• LEAD

AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED" GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THEMOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.

GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE

THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF GAUGE! FROM 6


13/43

• PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS.

• PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.

• IT OFFERS FITTED &OINTS" ELIMINATE DRESSING" PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH

IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.

• THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER

AND FREE FROM WARPING.

• PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT" HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.

• PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO

PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF

THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS AREE#TENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADEOUT OF G.I. SHEET" OR BLACK IRON SHEET" SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS

DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP" BOLTS AND NUTS.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS

CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT %"%// TO %"// 56.189.7. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDEDAGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OFPOURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBSDEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS

SMALL" MEDIUM AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.

• SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS" COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR

ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN *77. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILYUSED SUPPORTED BY /77 # /77 WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

• MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS" BEAMS" AND

CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF % TO ' STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN *77 OR

$%77 THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY /77 # /77 OR /77 #+77 WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

• MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS

THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM *77 TO $77 THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY /77# /77 TO /77 # $//77 WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

• LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE

• PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE

TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

• SQUARE

• RECTANGULAR

• CIRCULAR

BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.

TYPES OF WALL FORMS,

• CONTINUOUS

• FULL UNIT

• LAYER UNIT

GREASING OF FORMS

THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF"THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLINGAND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE

WOOD.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN.

SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM


14/43

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT

ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOSTINDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITELABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.

THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WEREBROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION

OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HASRAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.

THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL" CONCRETE" GLASS-

FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.

THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVEMA#IMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.

CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY /// PSI" WHILE %+/"/// PSI FOR

STRENGTH OF STEEL.

PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USEOF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN %HOURS.

FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE $% METERSTO E#TEND %/ METERS IN LENGTH.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS DESIGNS

DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES

PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS HAVING AWIDTH UP TO %./ 7. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS ANDBEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE,

$. FLAT TYPE

%. DOUBLE TEE TYPE

'. RIBBED TYPE

. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL" FOAM GLASS" GLASS

FIBER OR E#PANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT

CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONEUNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF

THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE" HENCE" CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREATIMPORTANCE.

PRECAST COLUMN

PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .'/ @ .'/7. .*/ @ .*/7. IN A MULTI-STOREY

CONSTRUCTION" THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREINCORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMESUSED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF

INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING.THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE,

• RECTANGULAR BEAM

• INVERTED TEE BEAM

• L &SHAPED BEAM


15/43

• AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY

AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

• SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM /.*/M. TO %.M.

• HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM /.*/M. TO %.M.

• DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM %. TO './M.

• SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM %. TO './M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT $1/ OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH

TYPICALLY RANGE FROM /-%//77.

• AN %//77 PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPRO#IMATELY +.*/M." %/77

SLAB APPRO#. ./M." AND A '//77 SLAB APPRO#. $%./M. SPAN.

• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT $1% OF THEIR

SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE '//"'/"//"/"$/"*$/"AND$77.

• A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE %77 DEEP SPANS APPRO#IMATELY %*./M. AND

$$%77 TEE FOR '%./M. SPAN.

• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT $1$* OF

THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND $1$% OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS.

THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR" INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS.THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT > ITS DEPTH. THE

PRO&ECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY$/77 WIDE AND '//77 DEEP.

• TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE TOTAL

ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A %/77. COLUMN CAN

SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT $ .7. OF AREA. A '//77. COLUMN FOR %/ .7. AREA. A//77. COLUMN FOR '+/ .7. AREA. A //77. COLUMN FOR */ .7. AREA. A*//MM. COLUMN FOR +/ .7. AREA.

JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING" WELDING" AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESECONNECTIONS. E#POSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING AREUSUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING &OINED" TO PROTECT THEM

FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.

THE SIMPLEST &OINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSETHAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER" AS IS DONE

WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM" OR WHERE A BEAM RESTSON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THECONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE

CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOWFOR E#PANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE

SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITHHIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS" PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE

THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCETO A CONCRETE BEAM,

• PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING &ACKS REACTING AGAINST

ABUTMENT.

• SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE &ACK BASE

TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM.

USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUITEMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED ANDFORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED

PRESTRESS FORCE" THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE"REMOVING THE &ACK EQUIPMENT.

• BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN

MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS.

AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH" THE &ACKS ARE THENRELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BONDAND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.

THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN

GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESEMETHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG

OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTHOUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.


16/43

• THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC

POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE

BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGHRESTRAINED CONTRACTION.

THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE,

$. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE

%. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE

'. CREEP OF CONCRETE

. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

. RELA#ATION OF STEEL STRESS

*. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN THE

TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSEDSTRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN ("/// *"/// ;) %/-%% 56187% BECAUSE OF THEFOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.

A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OFELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.

B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETEMEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OFPOST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED

FROM THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLYBEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND

PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.

D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECASTCONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY,

$. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

%. EITHER BY CHECKING &ACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

• POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE

HAS CURED.

BUILDING MATERIALS

WOOD MATERIALS

WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKSFROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESSVARIETY OF PURPOSES.

TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:

• SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

• HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING,

FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

• HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE

UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

• FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

• STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.


17/43

• DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:

• DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.

• CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE

ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.

• KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS

SMOOTH CURVE.

• PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS

CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

• WANE – IS THE LACK OF W OOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:

• CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS

CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.

• BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS

CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.

• TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS

RAISED.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

• STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN ” WIDE.

• BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST ” WIDE.

• DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN !”

IN ANY DIMENSION.

• TIMBER – PIECES "” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

• LOG – PIECES #2” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

• YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND

FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING,TRIM AND MOULDING.

• SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLSMAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.

• STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY

CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD$BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTOTIMBERS OF LARGER SI%E.

WOOD GRAIN:

• EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE

FACE.

•

FLAT GRAIN

– WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLELTO THE SURFACE.

• ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT "! DEG. TO

THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:

• AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP$PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID

FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECEWHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.

• KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR

MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIEDTO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN ! TO #& PERCENT. THISIS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BYSTEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THECORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.

MANUFACTURE BOARDS:

MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BECLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY$PRODUCT IN THE


18/43

MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILI%ATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO ANEXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.

TYPES OF BOARDS:

• PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED

TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACHOTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CANBE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD'

• SOFT PLYWOOD $ THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE

• HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND

FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.

• EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL

USE.

• HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED

INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THEWOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR

ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONGIN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHTTO DARK BROWN.

• PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS,

FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLEBOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSSSECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY

MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN$MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED ANDHARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:

• COURSE – IS A HORI%ONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.

• BED JOINT – IS THE HORI%ONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

• HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.

• STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS

LONG DIMENSION HORI%ONTAL.

• HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.

• WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.

• SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.

• ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL

FACE.

STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:

• RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.

• COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE

• ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.

• FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED (OINT CONCAVE (OINT VEE (OINT

FLUCH (OINT RAKED (OINTSTRIPPED (OINT

STRUCK (OINT

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHESOF BRICK !& –#&&)) APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND


19/43

FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, ANDWATER

BRICK BOUNDS

• THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME

DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERNBOND.

• THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE

ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES ISKNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.

• THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT

USED IN CON(UNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS'

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON$BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGESFROM #! CM. TO 2& CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWNWEIGHT. NON$BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH AREINTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWNWEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM *.! CM. TO #& CM.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

CONCRETE

CEMENTS

PORTLAND CEMENT

MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OFLIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONEPART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERI%ED.PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF "& + !& KILOS WEIGHT ORIN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.

SPECIAL CEMENTS

• WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT

IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE APURE WHITE, NON$STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR

ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS,DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE ORCOLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.

• MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO

PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENTOR WITH A LIME$CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY ANDWORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.

• WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A

SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENTCLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BYBINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF

CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE. AGGREGATESUSED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG,BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND $ FOUND IN RIVERBEDS,FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.

FINE AGGREGATE $ ” AND SMALLERDIAMETER STONES.

COARSE AGGREGATE $ BIGGER THAN ” DIAMETER

STONES.

CONCRETE MI#ES

CLASS -AA” $ #' # ' $ CONCRETE UNDER WATER,RETAINING

WALLS

CLASS A $ #'2'" $ FOOTINGS, COLUMNSBEAMS, R.C.


20/43

SLABS

CLASS B $ #' 2 #/ 2'!$ SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS

CLASS C $ #' ' 0 $ CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST$ WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THESPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS#2 INCHES HIGH 1&.& AND INCHES 1O.2& IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND "INCHES 1O.#& ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED ORRODDED 2! TIMES WITH A STANDARD !/” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE HASBEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMPIS MEASURED.

ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION 3X4

BEAMS AND COLUMNS *.! 5). 1.&*! ”

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS !.& 5). 1.!& 2”

TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET + CURBS !.& 5). 1.!& 2”

SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING #&.& 5). 1.#& "”

CANAL LINING *.! 5). 1.&*!”

HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION !.& 5). 1.!& 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST$ COMMON QUALITY$CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE,BASED ON * AND 2 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICALWITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SI%E IS #2 INCH. HIGH

AND 0 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUTTAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 2" HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION

TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOMECOMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,&&& 678, 2,!&& 678, ,&&& 678.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

• ISLAND CEMENT

• CONTINENTAL CEMENT

• HI$ CEMENT

• UNION CEMENT

•

RI%AL CEMENT

• FILIPINAS CEMENT

• PACIFIC CEMENT

• FORTUNE CEMENT

• REPUBLIC CEMENT

• NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

• PRIME WHITE CEMENT

• KEENE

• TRINITY

• SNOWCRETE


21/43

• MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND + WATER.

• GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.

• CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL + WATER.

• TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER

ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.

• EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE

ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR AD(ACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTUREMOVE THROUGH IT.

• ADIABATIC CURING $ THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR

LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.

• WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR (OINTS FOR WALLS.

• ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF

VARYING SI%ES.

• ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE

ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.

• RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR

MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OFHARDENING.

• STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT

AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.

• QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN

EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.

• %OCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET$TYPE HOUSE.

• FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.

• SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.

• CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.

• MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS &.! ).

• PLASTERING THICKNESS IS &. ).

• MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL &.&! X &.&*! X &.2& 9 &.&&&*! 5:.).

FOR " CELL/BLOCK 9 &.&&&*! X " 9 &.&& 5:.). FOR "” CHB.

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

FERROUS$ METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.

NONFERROUS$ CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.

FERROUS METAL:

STEEL$ A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING ANDREFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBONCONTENT.

PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS" IRON ORE" AND LIMESTONE. FIVEPARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL" WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE

WASTE" ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OFCLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER" A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGEMATERIAL.

FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE INMOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEYINCLUDED'

• COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED 1GIVEN A %INC COATING. PIG IRON IS

USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOWIN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVERSINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS,ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPESTO SOME EXTENT.

• WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO

REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILYWORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT4S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE ANDMETAL ORNAMENTS.


22/43

• STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL

AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FORDOORS EXPANSION (OINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS.

• COPPER$ BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED

FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS

• ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES

• SHEET PILING$ SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN

SEVERAL SHAPE.

• STEEL PIPE$ SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY

WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.

• REINFORCING STEEL$ MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED

RAILWAY$ CAR AXLES OR RAILS.

REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARSWHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TOPROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.

SI%ES$START WITH NO.2 OR 8;. 1DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY TO GET THEEQUIVALENT IN 8;5< DIAMETER

N=. 29 - 9 0 )).

N=. 9 /” 9 #& )).

N=. "9 ” 9 #2)).

N=. !9 !/” 9 #0)).

N=. 09 >” 9 2&)).

N=. *9 */” 9 22)).

N=. 9 #” 9 2!)).

N=. ?9 # #/ 9 &)).

• WELDED WIRE FABRIC$ ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT

CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSEWIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

• STEEL WIRE – OVER #!&,&&& USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES,

NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.

• BOLTS AND NUTS – 1EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD$FORMED FROM WIRE

OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER. FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT$MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS,POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.

• STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH$TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER

OF SI%ES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROMBULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. ATIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.

• OPEN WEB STEEL (OISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN$TYPE TRUSSES MADE

IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.

• SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANI%ED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE

CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.

• STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND

DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND (OINTS STAYCLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION.

AVAILABLE IN # !/, 2 AND !/ INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS ANDELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL$FRAMEWALL.

• PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE$WAY AND

TWO$WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

NONFERROUS METALS:


23/43

ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES #& KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OFMETAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATEDIN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY$WHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA,CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS ANDCEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.

COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE@HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMALCONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES@ WIDELY USED FORDOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.

COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRON%ES WHICH CONTAINPRIMARILY %INC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.

BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE APPLICTIONS. BRON%ES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL@ HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND AHIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK,ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING,FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOWMELTING POINT@ RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR@ USED FOR MAKING

ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDINGCONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS'

#. SQUARE BARS 0. I$BEAM

2. ROUND BARS *. TEEBEAM

. PLATE BARS . H$COLUMN

". ANGLE BARS ?.WIDE FLANGES

!. CHANNELS #&. %EE

STANDARD CHANNEL

THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCECONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL

SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS AREGENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT$UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE

ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE CHANNELSECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C #! 2& WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTHOF 2& 5). AND WEIGHTS #! . PER METER LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE

WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W #2 2" WHICH MEANS THATTHE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 2" 5). AND IT WEIGHS #2 . PER METER LENGTH. ALLWIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPTTHOSE WITH ! SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY.COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I

BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

STANDARD I-BEAM

THE USE OF I$BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRLOR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROIDPARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I$BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES

H$BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEPEXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I$BEAM FOR COLUMNS.

%EE SECTIONS

THE %EE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER % WHICH ISNOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION OFSTEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.

• WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE, VALUED

FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.

• CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON WHICH

HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.


24/43

• WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO (OINT THAT THERE

IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.

• EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT

CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BYMEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.

• RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.

• LAP SEAM – A (OINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET OR

PLATES AND (OINING THEM BY RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE (OINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREEFASTENING TECHNIQUES.

• RIVETS

A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND AFORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES INTHE MEMBERS TO BE (OINED, AND HOT$WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TOPRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.

PROCESS OF RIVETING'

A A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWOMEMBERS TO BE (OINED,

B ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP$SHAPEDDEPRESSION,

C WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,

D THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLYTOGETHER.

• BOLTS

THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTOTWO GENERAL CATEGORIES'

# CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THEORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED INHARDWARE STORES.

2 HIGH$STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURINGMANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT ISUSUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACTWRENCH.

A MA(OR PROBLEM IN HIGH$STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION$TYPECONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN

ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING'

• TURN$OF$NUT METHOD

• LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

• TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT'

A THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,

B WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS OFFIN THE WRENCH,

C A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO ACONTAINER.

• WELDING

WELDING CAN (OIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE AMONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS THEY (OIN INRESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.

TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION'

• FILLET WELD


25/43

• DOUBLE FILLET WELD

• DOUBLE$BEVEL GROOVE WELD

• SINGLE$BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

• V$GROOVE WELD

• V$GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

• PUDDLE WELD

• PARTIAL$PENETRATION SINGLE$BEVEL GROOVE WELD

THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE'

BACK FILLET PLUG OR

SLOT

GROOVE OR BUTT

SQUARE V BEVEL U ( FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW

THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIESTHE DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TOTHE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE ASFOLLOWS,

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF THE

&OINT OPPOSITE THE

ARROW

SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCELINE

REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE(OINT AS

AS THE ARROW

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR4S SHOP.


26/43

WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE (OINING PIECES.

BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE

FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE (OINT OPPOSITETHE ARROW.

SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE PIECSTO BE (OINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.

A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD ISPOINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR ($GROOVED (OINT

GLASS

THE MA(OR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND 1SILICON DIOXIDE. A HARDBRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT@PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILI%ER@ WHILEMOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OFSHAPES.

DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED,COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED$IN THERMALSTRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.

THICKNESSES OF GLASS

GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSESRANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.!)), THROUGH )), IS CALLED SINGLE$STRENGTH, OR 0)) TO 22)), IS CALLED DOUBLE$STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIALORDER, 2!)) IS AVAILABLE.

TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS

#. TEMPERED GLASS

TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TOTHE REQUIRED SI%ES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY #2&&DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH ABLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES

AS STRONG IN BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS ANDIMPACT.

2. HEAT$STRENGTHENED GLASS

THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING,BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE$THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OFBENDING AND STRENGTH.

. LAMINATED GLASS

ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEENSHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDERHEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THESHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUTOF THE FRAME.

". PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACEPATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BEOBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.

!. SPANDREL GLASS

SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL AREA 1THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS IN GLASSCURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT$STRENGTHENED TO RESISTTHE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR

HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.

0. WIRED GLASS

SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THEPROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THERESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETYGLA%ING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THESHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.

TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS


27/43

SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES OFBUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OFTHE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR HEAT GAIN.

# TINTED GLASS

TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTEDCHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THEDESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRON%ES, BLUES,GREEN, AND GOLDS.

2 REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON ABRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH L IGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR ASDARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.

INSULATING GLASS

A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACEBETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDSOF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE ANDORGANIC SEALANT.

GLASS PRODUCTS

I. GLASS BLOCKS

COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDEDFEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATEHALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT$SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNITWITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THEEDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR

BOND.

TWO TYPES:

#. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSESTHEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.

THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS'

A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARDTHE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.

B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLYTHROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.

C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK

2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF

STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOSTUNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS ANDFACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER PANELING.

PAINT FINISHES

THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLYENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUD PLASTICLAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OFFABRIC WALL COVERING.

PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM$FORMING MATERIALTHAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL AND THOSEELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE. THE

PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATUREVARIATIONS, WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS ANDPHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO MAKE SURFACES MORE SANITARY,IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT ANDSAFETY.

WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR ANDSURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATINGWHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SI%E OF FORM

AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USEDFOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATIONEVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY ALSOPROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON$ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.

MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY$MIXED FOR APPLICATIONEXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERSRECOMMENDATIONS IN THE APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHERPROTECTIVE COATING.

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO '

MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED


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• WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,

SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE

• GLOSS, SEMI$GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,+ VARNISH.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE'

SURFACE PREPARATION

- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO

ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE!

TYPE OF PAINT

- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.

- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND

MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.

METHOD

- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.

DRYING

- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE CHECKED.

FILM THICKNESS

- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS 1DFT IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OFCOATS.

- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE THICKCOAT.

- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE ! MIL DFT.

COVERAGE

- A PAINT4S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUMESOLIDS'

- 8. PAINT WITH #&& VOLUME SOLIDS'

1NO THINNER

# GAL COVERS

#0&& SF 1#"? )2 # MIL DFT

&& SF 1 *" )2 2 MIL DFT

"&& SF 1 * )2 " MIL DFT

$PAINT WITH !& VOLUME SOLIDS

1!& THINNER

# GAL COVERS

&& SF 1*" )2 # MIL DFT

"&& SF 1* )2 2 MIL DFT

PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF'

PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS COVERINGS

OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.

VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSIONDURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.

• BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE

SURFACE BEING PAINTED.

• BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND

DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.


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• SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.

• DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN BY

OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

COLOR

• DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.

EXPOSURE

• EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

CHARACTERISTICS'

PIGMENTED COATING

• LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS

CLEAR COATINGS

• VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS

RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS

• %INC$PIGMENTED COATINGS

• %INC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS

• ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON$PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST

WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TOWATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.

CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS

• MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF

MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL

PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS

• COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER'

ALKYDS & USED FOR E#TERIOR PAINTS.

• OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.

• THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE

• FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND

IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TORESIST BLISTERING.

• HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR

EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.

ASPHALT & USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.

• COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS ARE

USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING.

• HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.

• ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN4S RAYS.

• ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMI%ES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMI%ES THE

CHEMICAL$RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.

CHLORINATED RUBBER & USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.

• USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND

WATER

• MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS


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• HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE

• USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.

• TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR ENAMEL

AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.

• MIXED (UST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED -POT LIFE”

• PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED

ENAMEL.

• HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION,

TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS

• HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN RESISTANCE.

• HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.

HARDWARE

HARDWARE $ METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS, HINGES,LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS'

FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES,ETC. THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USEDWITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THEDECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING.

ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TOBE CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METALFITTINGS.

SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS'

#. SARGENT *. RABBIT

2. STANLEY . UNIVERSAL

. YALE ?.EAGLE

". CORBIN #&. MASTER

!. SCHLAGE ##. ALPHA

0. KWIKSET #2. YETI

DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:

• FLUSH – A SMOOTH$SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE WHICH

CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT ISOF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.

• PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS, WHICH

FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.

KINDS OF DOORS:

• SWINGING DOOR

• OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH OPENS

AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

• OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES A

HORI%ONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES.

• ROLL-UP DOOR 1SOLID OR SEE$THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS A DOOR MADE

UP OF SMALL HORI%ONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE GUIDED IN ATRACK' THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM WHICH ISHOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR $ DRIVEN.

• ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS

WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THEFACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR IS


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CLOSED, THE EDGES OF AD(ACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST 1OR INTERLOCKEACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID BARRIER.

• BI-FOLDING DOOR $ ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED

TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.

• REVOLVING DOOR $ AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES 1AT ?&&TO EACH OTHER WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN ACYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIRTHROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.

• SLIDING DOOR $ A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORI%ONTAL

DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.

• BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR $ A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A FIXED

DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.

• SLIDING POCKET DOOR $ A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE WALL.

• DUTCH DOOR $ A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART

CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.

• FRENCH DOOR

FINISHING HARDWARES:

A! TO HUNG A DOOR

HINGE$ A MOVABLE (OINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES (OINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICHSUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING OPEN

OR CLOSED.

TYPES OF HINGES:

1. BUTT HINGE $ CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE (OINEDWITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.

• FAST PIN HINGE $ A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY IN

PLACE.

• FULL SURFACE HINGE $ A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE

SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND (AMB WITHOUT MORTISING.

• LOOSE JOINT HINGE $ A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF

WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THEOTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BEREMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.

• LOOSE PIN HINGE $ A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS ITS

TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.

• PAUMELLE HINGED $ A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE (OINT OF

THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.

• OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE $ A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING AN

OVAL SHAPE.

. SPRING HINGES $ A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR ISOPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN

ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.

• DOUBLE ACTION $ EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS,

KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY (UST PUSHING IT WITH THE SHOULDER ORFEET.

• SINGLE ACTION

!. PIVOT HINGE $ THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES.

• VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE$ A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH

IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENEDTO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD W ITH PIVOTS.

B. TO FIX ONE SASH

TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:

• CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT

• DOOR OR BARREL BOLT

• FLUSH BOLT


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• CHAIN DOOR FASTENER

C. TO LOCK THE DOOR

LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC.

• BUTTON – A SMALL RE(ECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF A

DOOR OR WINDOW.

• KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A

LOCK.

• ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A

DOOR.

• PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.

• STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOOR(AMB AND ISEITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A LOCK,FIXED ON DOOR.

• LIP STRIKE – THE PRO(ECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH

THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED@ PRO(ECTSOUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE FRAME.

USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM'

• ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH

WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR.

• BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER

IN DESIGN.

• TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO

LOCK INSIDE.

KIND OF LOCKSET'

• INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN

THE KNOB.

• CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE

INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.

LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD BOLTCONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.

NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.

LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF APIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR (AMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THEPIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR.

RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THERABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR (AMB.

ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSIONINSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE,HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.

SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREENDOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH

A DEAD BOLT.

HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTEDHINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.

KEY$PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.

MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THECORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.

HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN BE

OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.

BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A DOOR.

CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.

DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION ISOPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.


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TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER'

• PNEUMATIC TYPE

• SEMI$CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE

• CONCEALED TYPE

• OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR'

• FLUSH

• OVERLAPPING

• OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES'

• BUTT HINGES

• COMMON BUTT

• LOOSE PIN

• T$HINGE

• PIANO HINGE

• DECORATIVE HINGE

• OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING

DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI$CONCEALED AND SURFACE$MOUNTEDSTYLES.

• PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.

• INVISIBLE HINGES – DON4T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE.

THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR.

• FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE

LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAYFLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEYDON4T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSOREQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO HOLD THE DOOR4S WEIGHTWHEN IT4S OPEN.

CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE

KINDS OF CATCHES'

• FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS

HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.

• MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO

HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.

• BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY

MEANS OF A PRO(ECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH ISDEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.

TYPES OF KNOBS'

• SCREW$IN KNOB

• BOLT$ON KNOB

• FLUSH KNOB

• FLUSH RING

• PULL

OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES'


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• GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH MAY

BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.

• SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PRO(ECTING FROM A

WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.

• METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.

• SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO

AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.

• DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM

HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.

ROUGH HARDWARES:

NAILS

• COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.

• FINISHING NAIL�

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