B"uildingAnd MaintainingThe Truly Affordable Golf CourseThe do's and don'ts of affordable golf. by JIM MOORE

With good planning and common sense, "affordable golf" can be more than a catchy phrase.

EKETHE ECONOMY, and at leastpartially because of it, golf hasenjoyed tremendous growth in

recent years. More people than ever aretaking up the game and are shelling outmore money than ever before to play it.Golfers all over the country are paying$50, $60, $70, and more to playa roundof golf. At least they are now, in aneconomy that has flourished. Whatwill happen if/when we have less dis-posable income to spend on recrea-tion? Also, golf has been marketedhard to socioeconomic groups thathistorically did not have access to thegame. If golf is not truly affordable,where will these new golfers play?

With average golf course construc-tion costs typically ranging from $1.6to $4.5 million (American Society of .Golf Course Architects web page atwww.golfdesign.org. Figures do notinclude the cost of land, clubhouse,entry road and parking lots, mainte-nance facility, architect fees, etc.) andthe total cost of putting a new course online frequently exceeding $10 million,just getting the course opened is ex-tremely expensive. After opening, thefacility obviously must be maintained.

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Annual maintenance budgets have in-creased steadily for many years, reflect-ing golfers' desires for high qualitycourse conditioning. The 1998 18-holeaverage maintenance budget for privatecourses is $635,930, it is $576,423 forresort courses, and it is $383,819 formunicipal courses (Golf Course Super-intendents Association of America).Looking at it another way, assuming30,000 rounds of golf per year on theprivate course, more than $20 in main-tenance is expended for every round.Given these costs, it is no surprise thatthe phrase affordable golf is on thehopeful lips of everyone in the golfindustry these days.

There are many courses across thecountry that already offer golf at veryaffordable prices. Although they don'tmake the cover of anyone's magazineand they often have playing condi-tions that are far from perfect, theydo offer millions of golfers a placeto play and enjoy the game at areasonable cost. What makes thesecourses so affordable to build andmaintain? They have employed someor all of the following principles andpractices.

When Preparing to Build theCourse, Select a Site that Requiresas Little Earth-Moving as Possible

Site selection has the greatest singleimpact on the eventual cost of buildinga new golf course since heavy earth-moving tasks are the most labor andequipment intensive. These tasks in-clude general clearing, stockpiling andpurchase of topsoil, excavation of thesubgrade, rock removal, rough shaping,and fine grading. Although there are afew notable exceptions, the majority ofsites selected for the construction ofnew golf courses are less than ideal interms of contouring. As a result, it isnow common to move tremendousamounts of soil in the form of cuts andfills. At one time, moving more than200,000 cubic yards of earth was con-sidered unusual if not excessive. Today,it is not uncommon to move over1,000,000 cubic yards to build andshape the new course. As a result, thecost of the heavy earth-moving tasksalone can easily exceed $1,000,000.Obviously, hole routings that result inlarge cuts and fills add greatly to thecost of construction, as do design fea-

Heavy earth moving is expensive. This operator is making a cut of at least five feet.

tures such as excessive bunkers, hol-lows, and mounds.

Selecting an appropriate site anddeveloping a good design that requiresas little earth-moving as possible willgo a long way toward making thecourse truly affordable. Agriculturallands usually are excellent choices forsuch courses. They typically haveplentiful topsoil, good surface drainage,and a minimum of trees and brush.When combined with a design thatrequires only limited earth-moving,such courses may be unremarkable intheir overall appearance. They also arefar less expensive to build and main-tain, and therefore less expensive toplay.

During Construction, KeepSteep Slopes to a Minimum

Steep slopes created during con-struction are not just costly to build -they are also expensive to maintain.Slopes in excess of 3:1 (for every 3linear feet the elevation changes by 1foot) almost always require specializedmowing equipment or must be mowedby hand using line trimmers or hover-type mowers. They also are more diffi-cult to water and fertilize, adding fur-ther to the cost of maintenance. Whilesofter slopes offer less dramatic visualaccents to the course, they can bemowed with large riding equipment.Since labor is the most expensiveaspect of golf course maintenance,layouts that can be maintained properlywith smaller crews result in long-termsavings that can be passed on to thegolfer.

Select a Design thatRequires Less TrimWork

Trim work is the most labor-intensiveaspect of golf course maintenance. Thisis particularly true in the southern por-tions of the country, where bermuda-grass is the predominant turfgrass usedon courses. Perimeters of lakes, creeks,bunker edges, sidewalks, and cartpaths, and around the bases of trees,signs, and ballwashers, all require near-constant trimming. On highly main-tained courses it is not unusual to find6 to 8 crew members devoted solely totrim work throughout the entire grow-ing season. Bunkers and water featuresare particularly labor intensive, so themore they can be kept to a minimumduring the original design of the course,the greater the labor savings will be.each year thereafter.

Build Fewer Sand Bunkers -and More Grassy Hollows

Although sand bunkers are notoverly expensive to build, they aresecond only to greens in terms of thelabor required to maintain them to thestandards today's golfers have come toexpect. Unfortunately, the trend in golfcourse design over the past couple ofdecades has been to increase the num-ber of sand bunkers placed on thecourse. Today, it is not uncommon tofind 50 or more bunkers on a course,where in the past 20 to 30 would havebeen considered sufficient. Each ofthese bunkers requires labor-intensivetasks such as edge trimming, periodicaddition and replacement of sand,frequent raking (both mechanical andby hand), and the shoveling of sandback onto the bunker faces followingheavy rains. The affordable courseshould keep sand bunkers to a mini-mum. Twenty well-placed sand bun-kers can provide plenty of challengewithout overwhelming the mainte-nance staff.

The style of the sand bunkers alsoaffects the amount of maintenancerequired to keep them in good shape.Steep, flashed faces are attractive butinvariably result in the washing of sandfrom the faces during heavy rains.Grass-faced bunkers with relatively flatsand surfaces are far less intensive tomaintain, and the sand will last longerbecause there is much less chance forsoil to mix with the sand .

Softly contoured grassy hollows canprovide plenty of challenge to theplayer. In fact, the flop shot requiredfrom a closely mown grassy hollow toan adjacent elevated green can be evenmore difficult than a shot from a sandbunker. Unlike bunkers, grassy hollowsrequire virtually the same maintenanceas the other turf areas around thegreens or fairways and therefore requireno additional cost to maintain properly.The combination of challenge, beauty,and low maintenance requirementsmake grassy hollows an ideal choice forthe facility striving to provide affordablegolf.

Build Agronomically Sound,Sensible Greens

Like irrigation systems and drainage,the construction of greens is not anarea in which corners should be cutin the effort to save money. Well-builtgreens are much less expensive tomaintain throughout the remainder oftheir lives than those that are builtpoorly. Recently, there has been some-thing of a trend to reduce the cost ofbuilding greens by leaving out suchcritical components as drainage tile, thegravel drainage blanket, and organicmatter from the root zone itself. Yes,greens can be built for less moneywithout these components, but at whatcost ultimately? For nearly 40 yearsgreens have been constructed to theadmittedly stringent USGA guidelines.Since greens are expected to last aminimum of 20 years and in most cases

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much longer, and since greens areeasily the most critical physical com-ponent of every golf course, the extraeffort and expense to stay with thesetime-tested and scientifically soundconstruction techniques is well justi-fied. The fact is, well-built greens arenot expensive in the long run. A goodanalogy can be made to building ahouse. There are houses that look greatwhen they are new, but they are con-structed using substandard plumbing,wiring, and foundation materials. Suchhouses soon become maintenancenightmares for the owners. Then thereare houses that are solid as rock fromthe bottom up and are simple yetfunctional in their design. These housesprovide years of trouble-free living andare unquestionably the better long-terminvestment. Likewise, greens that areconstructed utilizing proven agronomicprinciples are better investments.

This is not to say that money cannotbe saved during the construction of

USGA greens. Most communities havemultiple sources for sand and gravel. Inmany cases, it is possible to identify(through laboratory testing) lower-costmaterials that meet USGA guidelines.In 1993 the USGA modified the guide-lines to provide the option for leavingout the intermediate layer. By selectingproperly sized gravel and sand, theintermediate layer can be omitted,resulting in significant savings.

A new and potentially promisingaspect of green construction is theutilization of inorganic amendmentsin the root zone mixture as a substituteor complement to traditional sand/peatmixtures. However, these amendmentsare extraordinarily expensive. Forexample, a typical 19-9reen construc-tion project requires approximately7,000 cubic yards of root zone mixture.Assuming the 12-inch-deep root zonemixture will be composed of 85% sandand 15% either peat moss or one ofthe inorganic amendments, the cost of

that mixture varies dramatically. Thecost of the peat would be approxi-mately $32,000, whereas the cost ofeither of two of the most popular in-organic amendments easily exceeds$200,000 (both figures include the costof shipping to Dallas, Texas). Incorpo-rating the amendments in the upperfew inches of the root zone instead ofthrough the entire profile can reducetheir cost. However, this results in rootzone layering that is inconsistent withthe USGA's guidelines. In addition,there is little research available on thelong-term stability of the inorganicamendments and their impact on theroot zone. For these reasons, theUSGA does not currently recommendthe use of inorganic amendments in theconstruction of new greens.

Avoiding extreme contouring of thegreen site itself also can significantlyreduce the cost of building greens. Inaddition to the large quantities of fillmaterial and topsoil necessary to con-

Although obviously beautiful, the natural areas require minimal trimwork.

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Without question, bunkers such as these are beautiful assets to any golf course.However, they are far more expensive to build and maintain than a grassy hollow.

struct such sites, the steep contoursoften preclude the use of riding equip-ment for greens mowing. This perma-nently increases the labor requirementsfor green maintenance. And, althoughsuch green sites are dramatic, theycontribute nothing to the developmentof a top quality putting surface.

Reducing the total square footageof the putting surface also reduces thecost of construction and maintenance.There has been a trend toward verylarge greens over the past 15to 20 years.At one time, a 5,000-square-foot greenwas considered large. Today, greens arefrequently in excess of 7,000square feet.Obviously, greens must be large enoughto endure the traffic they receive. How-ever, a small green that is located in anarea with good growing conditions(particularly adequate light and airmovement), has plenty of entrance andexit points, and has contours that allowa wide selection of hole locations, willoutperform a large green that does nothave such attributes.

Plant the Right GrassesThroughout the Course

Perhaps no aspect of the potential foraffordable golf has been more over-looked than the choice of grasses forthe course. Thanks to the efforts ofturfgrass breeders and scientists, andthe support of many of these programsby the USGA, the industry has a greaterselection of grasses for golf course usethan ever before. Many of these grasseshave very low maintenance require-ments. However, since they seldomprovide the level of perfection today'sgolfer has come to expect, they areunderutilized. For example, improve-ments in buffalograss have yieldedvarieties that are perfectly suited to golfcourse roughs, typically the largestacreage of the course. Once estab-lished, buffalograss requires minisculeamounts of water, fertilizer, and pesti-cides. It seldom needs mowing andprovides a turf canopy that fairlypenalizes the errant shot without mak-ing it difficult to locate the ball. If therewas ever a grass that personified theconcept of affordable golf, it is buffalo-grass. So why is it not extensively usedon today's new courses? First, it isslow to establish (two to three yearsfrom seed) - a trait not well receivedin to day's instant-everything society.Second, when properly maintained,buffalograss does not provide the lushgreen color desired by so many golfers.Buffalograss turns brown when underdrought stress and, depending on the

variety, develops seedheads that somefind unattractive. In other words, inspite of the fact that the grass providesexcellent playing quality for the roughat a very low price, many golfers find ittoo unattractive for widespread use.

An even more glaring example ofhow choosing the wrong grass canimpact affordable golf is the trend all

across the southern portion of thecountry to establish bentgrass insteadof bermudagrass greens. Maintenancecosts (particularly for pesticide, water,and labor) increase dramatically whenbentgrass (a cool-season plant) isplanted in a climate that is far bettersuited to bermudagrass (a warm-seasonplant). At one time, it was difficult for

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Mounds such as these are dramatic in appearance and appeal to some. However, they areexpensive due to the large degree of hand work necessary to build and maintain them.

the bermudagrass golf course super-intendent to provide a putting surfacecomparable to his bentgrass brethren.However, thanks to the development ofbetter equipment, improved bermuda-grass varieties, and the expertise oftoday's highly trained superintendents,bermudagrass greens can and do offeroutstanding putting quality.

Establish Reasonable MaintenanceStandards Throughout the Course

To put it bluntly, today's golfer isspoiled when it comes to course con-ditioning. Expectations of the dailyplayer have risen with each televisedtournament displaying hand-mowngreens, tees, and even fairways. Per-fectly manicured £lowerbeds are timedfor the ultimate tournament-week dis-play. Fairway and tee divots are filled byhand with sand dyed to match theundamaged adjacent turf. Every lake,creek, bunker, and path is perfectlytrimmed. There are no weeds anywhereand few plants of any type grow withanything less than perfect symmetry.Even bunkers are expected to providea level of consistency that suggests we

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should reevaluate their classificationhas hazards according to the Rules ofGolf.

Such perfection on the golf course isperhaps justified for those with largemaintenance budgets. For those whoseek to keep golf affordable, there aremany options to reduce the cost ofmaintenance. For example, instead ofhand-raking bunkers four to five timesper week, labor hours can be greatlyreduced by machine raking twice perweek. Of course, this assumes thatgolfers will actually smooth the bunkerafter their shots and that they will onceagain recognize the fact that bunkersare indeed hazards. Another labor-saver is to reduce the mowing fre-quency of roughs that seldom comeinto play. On most courses, there aremany acres of such areas. Granted,although there probably are few placeson any course that sooner or later willnot be hit by someone, the saving infuel, labor, and equipment justifies theeffort. As stressed earlier, keeping trim-ming to a minimum can also signifi-cantly reduce labor hours. Althoughfrequent trimming of bunker edges is

important to define the boundaries ofthis hazard, lakes and creeks need notbe so manicured. By staking andpainting the water hazard boundarywell away from the edge of the lakeor creek, the player is able to quicklydetermine whether or not the ball is inthe hazard. To speed up the search forlost balls and still reduce labor hours,trim only the portion of the hazardthat frequently comes into play.

Trim work can further be reduced byutilizing herbicides instead of labor-intensive line trimmers around treesand alongside boundary fences. Byusing a combination of non-selectiveand pre-emergence herbicides, the in-terval between sprayings can be greatlyextended. Since line trimmers do pro-vide a more manicured look, considertheir use only around the highly visibleareas of the course such as near theclubhouse.

Regardless of the choice of grass forthe greens, placing less emphasis onspeed can save money. In many partsof the country, those interested inaffordable golf must recognize thatthe quest for lightning-fast greens is

counter-productive. Quite simply, it ismuch more expensive to maintainextremely fast greens than those of amore moderate pace. Greens rolling 7to 8 feet on the Stimpmeter can providevery enjoyable playing conditions togolfers of all levels. Such speeds can beproduced at higher cutting heights,which invariably result in an overallhealthier turfgrass plant. Healthiergreens require less intensive care andare far less prone to failure of all types.

Irrigation System DesignLike the greens, the irrigation system

should not be compromised in terms ofquality. Irrigation systems are criticalto the success of most courses in thiscountry. Like almost every aspect ofgolf course construction, the cost ofpurchasing and installing an irrigationsystem has risen dramatically in recentyears. With today's heavily computer-ized systems and the trend to wall-to-wall coverage (where virtually everyarea of the course is irrigated), it is notuncommon for the cost of the irrigationsystem to exceed $1 million.

Again, as when building greens, thekey to saving money on the irrigationsystem is to reduce quantity, not quality.Component quality (including theheads, controllers, pipe, and pumpstation) should be nothing less thanfirst-rate. However, great savings can berealized by reducing the total acreageirrigated. In some areas, very low-costmanual heads can be employed inroughs that require a minimum ofsupplemental watering to survive dryperiods. This is particularly true whenthe roughs are planted to water-efficient

turfgrasses. Most courses have manyacres that seldom come into play andtherefore need little if any supplementalirrigation. If future expansion of thesystem is anticipated, the pipe sizingand pump station can be designedaccordingly.

The degree of control of individualirrigation heads also affects the cost ofthe system. Hilly courses with a varietyof turfgrass species being employedrequire a greater degree of individualhead control and result in higher instal-lation costs. In contrast, courses thatcan utilize block designs (multipleheads controlled by a single valve) inlarge turf areas such as fairways and keyroughs can realize significant savings.In areas of the country where the costof water is high, computerized controlsystems often result in tremendoussavings. However, in parts of thecountry where water is more plentiful,the control package can be less sophis-ticated and significantly less costly.

Design and Build CoursesThat Can Be Easily Walked

Another means of making golf moreaffordable is to design courses that canbe easily walked. Unfortunately, manyof today's courses are designed underthe assumption that virtually all theplayers will utilize riding carts. Vastdistances often separate the green andthe following tee, taking the enjoy-ment out of walking the course. Somecourses even prohibit walkers alto-gether in order to generate greater cartrevenue. Obviously, revenue is impor-tant and it is a fact that many playersprefer riding to walking. However, on

courses that are conducive to walking,players can save $10, $15, or even $20per round simply by hoofing it. Assum-ing the goal is affordable golf, thissimple step has a tremendous impacton the player's pocketbook.

ConclusionAll of these suggestions will result in

significant savings in the constructionand maintenance of the golf course. Ifthese savings are passed on to the golferin the form of reduced green fees, morepeople will be able to enjoy the game -even during less favorable economicclimates. However, it is very importantto stress that many of the suggestionswill result in a reduction in the overallappearance of the facility. While a highlevel of playing quality can be main-tained, the course that is designed,constructed, and maintained in aneconomical manner will seldom com-pare favorably in terms of appearanceto those facilities with deeper pockets.As a result, one of the most importantaspects of achieving the goal of afford-able golf is the willingness of the golferto accept significantly less than perfec-tion in terms of course conditioning.Fortunately, this does not mean thegame itself must be any less fun orchallenging - just less expensive.

JIM MOORE is Director of the USGAGreen Section's Construction EducationProgram. Based in his office in Waco,Texas, he scours the country for newtechnologies and maintenance practicesthat can help to make golf moreaffordable.

Without question, it is more expensive initially to build a green properly, but well-built greens are good investments that willprovide years of reliable service. This benefit more than justifies their initial expense.

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