bullet biology(2)

8/2/2019 Bullet Biology(2)

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BULLET BIOLOGYits more than a fleshwound sucka-foo; westwood couldn't even handlethis.

CHAPTER 4

-(Pi^e times)More hardcore than being on MTV scarred

Glycolysis

2atp in forms unstable 6C intermediateNad reduced4 atp out, forms two pyruvates.

link reaction:

pyruvate + coA and NADreduces NAD, releases CO2 decarboxylation, produces acetyl-coA

Krebs:

substrate level phosphorylation: acetylcoa(2c) onto 4c acceptor

reduces 2 nad, 1 fad, releases 2CO2

electron transfer chain:(oxidative phosphorylation)

hydrogen on NAD/FAD transferred from carrier to carrierby a series of redox reactionsreleases energy as electrons passed onATP from ADP+P with ATPase(protons into intermembrane space, pass back through ATPase)oxygen last acceptor to produce water

Electron transfer chain: aerobic respiration

redNAD oxidised to NAD, electron passed along ETC by series of redox reactionsoxygen final electron acceptor, with H ions, produces H2O(energy used to transport H-ions across to intermembrane space)(potential used by ATP synthase to phosphorylise ADP to ATP)ATP and water produced, redNAD oxidised to NAD (~34ATP, total so far = 38)


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Electron transfer chain:light dependent reaction:

Light energy hits chlorophyllA at photosystem2excites an electron to a higher energy levelpassed along electron transfer chainreduces NADP and produces ATP

(transports protons into thylakoid lumen, out of chloroplast stroma (the chlorplast'scytosol)(ATP uses the potential energy of the H-ions to phosphorylise ADP)note cyclic photophosphorylation where the electron cycles between the chain andPSIIphotolysis of water replaces the electrons used in the chain

Calvin cycle:light independent reaction

RuBP + CO2 (rubisco) --> reactive intermediategoes to 2 GP molecules (glycerate 3 phosphate)

+ ATP for each --> 1,3BPG or PGAP (1,3biphosphoglycerate)reduced NADP reduces that to TP (triose phosphate)5 TP reform the RuBP, one is used to make glucose (therefore two turns of cyclerequired)

Resting potential in Axon:

sodium ions actively transported out of neuronto higher conc outside

different permeability to k+ and na+causes charge potential = voltage

Acting potential

neurotransmitter causes activation of charge activated membrane channels,opening themsodium ions diffuse in rapidly causing depolarisationpotassium diffuses out to start recovery

Myelinated vs Not:

non-myelinated - next section of membrane depolarisedmyelinated next node depolarised (which is a whole schwann cell away) impulse jumps from node to node

muscle contraction:


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ca2+ binds to tromysinrevealing binding site on actin (which was obstructed by troponin)myosin with atp bound to it attaches to the actin filament in the strong stateADP and P released, causing power strokeZ bands pulled closer togetherATP binds causing the release of the actin filament

Rigor mortis = no atp = actin not released = rigid

Trichromatic vision

cones sensitive to different wavelengthsabsorb R, B, Gcombinations of stimulated cells interpreted to form colours

Eye muscles:

brain detects too much light/impulses on retinaradial muscles increase diameter via sympathetic systemantagonistic circular muscle decrease via parasympathetic

Rods and Cones:

both on lamellae, both bleach/break down in light with the formation of trans-retinal(from cis)rods = rhodopsin, highly sensitive to all wavelengths of light

cones = iodopsin, weakly sensitive to specific wavelengths (see above)

cones are one-to-one with bipolars and ganglionsrods are many-to-one, with an summation effect, where many activated rods signalgreater intensity.

Speciation:

(geographically) isolated populationsno interbreeding; no gene flowin any population there is variation due to mutation (+random assortment)

two populations experience different conditions = different selection pressuresnatural selection = differential mortality/survival, adapting to environmentdifferent features/adaptations selected for between populationschanges allele frequency = genetically different populationsleading to reproductive isolation = speciation, when they can't produce fertileoffspring

Variation from meiosis:


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Formation of chiasmata/crossing overexchanges alleles between homologous chromosomesnew combination of linked allelesrandom movement of homologous chromosomeseach gamete is different = random fertilisationindependent assortment

what causes a range of phenotypes in a species

phenotype depends on genotype and environment;different environments produce variationdue to different selection pressures = competition, predation, diseasewhich lead to differential survivalmutations produce new allelesmeiosis produces new combinations of alleles

random fusion of gametes + independent assortment

Insulin:

increase in blood sugar detected by Bcells in Islets of langerhansinsulin secreted, binds to specific receptors on liver/muscle cellsleads to more glucose entering, lowering blood glucose levelsglycogenesis in liver cells

ADH

if water potential of blood falls, detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus;leads to ADH released from pituitary gland;ADH makes cells of collecting duct/distal convoluted tubule permeable to water;water leaves filtrate by osmosis; smaller volume of urine produced;

Loop of Henle

Sodium ions diffuse into descending limb

water osmoses outsodium ions actively transported from ascending limbwhich is impermeable to waterhigh sodium concentration in tissue fluidwater leaves collecting duct/distal tubule by osmoses due to water potentialdifference


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temperature responses:

impulses to hypothalamus from skin+others/ detection of blood temperaturesends impulses to hypothalamus heat gain/loss centrecontraction/dilation of arterioles, divert blood away from/to skin (via shunt vessels)pili erector muscles trap air around hairs, sweat production altered, shivering

triggered by hypothalamus

nasty little brain questions:

touch etc:

impulses to brain

to sensory areas in cerebral hemispheresinterpreted by association areasvisual

cone/rod stimulated, (bp cell, ganglion)impulses to brain via optic nerve, cross overto visual cortex in cerebellumto visual association areasspeech

association area sends impulses to association area for speech (wernickes)

words from memorywhich sends impulses to motor area for speech (broccas)impulses to muscles of face and larynx

Definitions:

Allele: variant of a gene

sex linked gene: not present on Y, present only on X,

separate species: can't produce fertile offspring

codominance: several alleles expressed equally

polygenic traits: many genes control one factor, results in continuous distribution

epistasis: where one gene modifies the effect of another


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chiasmata: crossing over of chromosomesrefractory period: time between impulses

Binary fission: the way prokaryotes reproduce asexually (different from mitosis)

Bivalent: Pair of homologous chromosomes

recessive allele: only expressed if homozygous

mitochondrial crista: Infoldings of the inner membrane

fungi: chitin cell wall, hyphae, Mycelium

myosin: thick strand, heads for ATP binding and powerstroke (like oars)

actin: thin filament, binding sites, Z lines pulled together in powerstroke

Independent assortment: the lining up on the equator, random which of the

chromosomes end up on each side.

significant difference: a difference which has a less than 5% chance of happening(p


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respired by producers & their consumersdead matter + waste respired by detritovoreslost as heatfossilised remains combusted by filfy yumans

Any population graph, consider these points:

rise and fall/variation/cyclespeaks/troughs lag behind that of the prey speciesinclude a couple figuresslower rate/sudden rate of increase, decrease?plateau rather than sharp peak?

trophic levels:

heat loss from respiration, catching prey, digestive inefficiencyonly some of the biomass converted to predator biomass

after many trophic levels simply too much biomass/energy lost

Eutrophication:

nitrate is limiting factor for plant growthalgal bloom/rapid increase in plant growthas it is needed for protein synthesiscompetition for light with surface plants outcompeting deeper plantsplants die providing food for decomposersrespire aerobically using all the oxygen increasing BODinvertebrates/fish die which are also decomposed.

related to farming?

removing hedges etc increases soil erosionincreased runoff carries more fertilisers/more blown into lakeless absorbed by hedges = more in lake

Monoculture:

hedgerows lost as impractical for large machinesdeep rooted plants and wind exposure increase soil erosion

large number of same species grow closer togethersmaller variety of plants so smaller variety of nichesincreased disease spread due to proximityincreased need for fertilisers = eutrophication

succession (clearings - secondary succession)


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short lived plants, (foxgloves) change soil conditions allowing other plants tocoloniseshrubs/small trees move in and outcompete them for light/water etceventually large trees dominate again

succession (bare land - primary succession)

plants (like lichens and mosses) begin to grow, increasing organic matter aroundthemselveseventually results in soil, with moisture, colonised (by grasses)soil conditions change making them suitable for larger plants which outcompetethem for light/etc

succession (aquatic - primary/secondary)

build up of organic matter, small aquatic plants growstabilise the silt, hold in organic matter, more suitable for plants which breach the

surfacefurther stabilise the soil with large root systems, reeds with Vlarge roots create soilterrestrial plants colonise the rich soil making it appropriate for large trees like oaksclimax community

Bioaccumulation:

pesticide not broken downstored in tissues/fat

bioaccumulation occursbecause animals higher up eat many organisms lower down

Carbon cycle:

leaves + dead matter digested by secretion of extracellular enzymesby decomposers = fungi + bacteria (or animals which then die and aredecomposed)absorb soluble products to produce proteins and carbohydrates ie chitin, murein,

proteaserespire to release CO2absorbed by plants for photosynthesis, glucose used to make cell walls etc

Random sampling:

grid up area, use random numbers to choose (transects can be appropriate)


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place large numbers of transects ( >10)count number of X, divide by area

Nitrogen:

Secretion by animals:

proteins digested to aminos, deamminated to ureaexcreted from kidneys in urine.

Nitrogen cycle:

nitrogen fixing bacteria convert N2 to NH3

urea converted to NH3 in ammonificationNH3 converted to NO2 then NO3 by nitrifying bacteriaNO3 taken up by plants by active transportconverted to aminos to proteinsdecomposed/eaten and excreted/eaten and decomposedreleasing NH3 or urea again.denitrifying bacteria turn nitrates to N2 again in anaerobic conditions.

piss of your teacher by writing two lines:

decomposers break down proteins to amino acids, ammonified to ammonia which is

converted by nitrifying bacteria to nitrites to nitrates which is absorbed actively byplants using ATP against concentration gradient

(9 marks)

5:

population: all the members of a species in one area

standard deviation: spread of the results about the mean

succession: an area is colonised by plants, one type after another, generallyincreasing stability.

climax community: when succession is done = stable, many niches, large variety ofplants=more food sources


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Chapter 7: microbes and disease

Only 50 marks about these tiny little time-wasters; do it LIKE A BOSS!

Immune system:

macrophages ingest bacteria, process them, attach to them by antigensdisplay bacterial peptides (from their antigens) on the MHC proteinsmoves in blood and binds to a (helper)T-lymphocyteactivates it and causes it to produce cytokines, which increases complementproduction + attracts more macrophages.

Helper-T binds to a matching B lymphocyte causing it to undergo clonal expansionwhich produces antibodies, which increases complement binding (opsenisation),and agglutination

Immunological memory:

some activated T/(B)lymphocytes remain in the lymph nodes after infectiononce activated by binding with the original antigen type, they undergo clonalexpansionproducing millions of antibodiesfaster because it doesn't need t-helpers = direct activation

Stages of microbial growth:

LAG phase: active, no increase in numbers. Cells are respiring and producingenzymes and ribosomes.GROWTH phase: binary fission occurring rapidly. No intraspecific competition forresources, no limiting factors. Maximum rate of reproductionSTATIONARY phase: carrying capacity reached. Intraspecific competition, rate ofreproduction falls and death rate increases, so the turbidity may remain roughlyconstant. Viable count falls.DEATH phase: nutrients exhausted, toxicity due to metabolic products/ secondarymetabolites increases, number of viable cells falls to zero. Turbidity drops due tocell lysis

Viral replication:


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virus binds using antigens that are complimentary in shape to specific receptors onthe cell surface.Inserts its genome into the cell or joins into the cell membrane to release itsgenomeDNA genomes can incorporate into the host genome and be exhibited later or formmRNA immediately

RNA genomes are typically converted by reverse transcriptase that was present inthe virus itselfat some point mRNA is produced which codes for the production of the virus'sgenome, surface proteins and capsids.Cell lysis releases the viruses. Sometimes the virus genome includes a gene for celllysis that is activated after the production of many virusessome viruses use the host cell membrane for themselves, in which case they haveself antigens aswell so will most likely be undetected by the host immune system.= enveloped

Viral damage:

The virus can digest host genetic material, disrupt genes by inserting its genomeinto themuse up all the host cells amino acids and ATP for viral protein synthesislyse the cell, sometimes releasing toxins or causing the cells to produce them.

Antibiotics prevent bacterial growth by:

inhibiting protein/ribosome productioncreating pores in the cell membrane/wall/capsuleprevent cell wall synthesisprevent binary fission by preventing DNA replication

Antibodies:

Y shaped: 2 light chain pairs which are variable and specific in shape to the unique

antigen presented

Heavy chain, which may be bound to other heavy chains depending on theimmunoglobulin typewhen multiple cells with that antigen are bound to the light chains they agglutinateand can be removed from the blood more easily by macrophages or othermechanisms.


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Ways to immobilise enzymes:

entrapment trapped on a mesh or fabricadsorbtion stuck to the surface of something, like a beadencapsulation in alginate balls (time for reactants to diffuse in, only surfaceenzymes are rapid)

Cross-linking with glucuraldehyde bonds (which damages some, but the rest arevery effective)

Sterile procedure hints:

Keep a bunsen burner nearby to create air currents to carry bacteria awaysterilise things!: flame in a bunsen as appropriate, use an autoclaveminimise time that tubes, petris and bottles are open + exposed

Definitions:

Total count: number of live and dead cells measured by turbidity/haemocytometry

Viable count: number of live cells measured by dilution plating.


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mesosome: Infoldings of the bacterial cell membrane for increased surface area.

Capsid: Viral protein, monomer of its protein shell. Shell is an icosahedron, orhelical, possibly with additions, like bacteriophages with their legs, or envelopes.

Immunological type: single means that only one kind of surface protein exists, only

one strain of it.

Highly infectious: number of virus/bacteria required to cause infection is very low.

Invasiveness: how much and how fast the pathogen spreads through the body, ieby blood and to internal organs is very invasive.

Spectrum antibiotics: narrow affects only a few specific bacteria, broad affects allbacteria of a type.

Extras

Abiotic factors list:

NOT: "amount of sunlight" or anything wishywashy like this whole stupid subject

light intensity, nitrate concentration, soil moisture content, soil/air temperature, soilpH,

other mineral concentrations,

tests: temp:electronic thermometer

soil moisture: dry until it achieves constant mass, measure difference

ion concentration: use chemical test strip

fussy little locations:

light dependent: thylakoid membranes

independent: stroma

glycolysis: cytosol

krebs: matrix

ETC; mitochondrial inner membrane


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speech left brain!

niggly little figures

5/6ths or 83.3% of TP --> RBP

38 ATP produced in respiration (profit)

more than 10 samples in any scientific test (or say large number)

less than 0.05 critical p value for significant results

King = kingdom

Phillip = phylum

Came = class

Out =order

For =Family

Gay =Group

Sex =species

Oldschool Funk:

Mutation:

Change in the base sequence of DNA:Alteration(point mutation)- or insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides,whichmay cause a frame shift resulting in the complete malfunction of the gene, unlessmultiples of 3 added/removed (codons)may result in different mRNA being transcribed, resulting in different aminosincorporated


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can affect the active site, making it fit poorly (lowering rate). Can result in theability to break down poisons if the active site now fits those.

DNA replication:

semi-conservative as both strands used

DNA helicas breaks H-bonds to separate strands

complimentary nucleotides align and H-bond A-T, C-GDNA polymerase joins phosphodiester backbone.

Genetic manipulation

gene removed from genome using restriction endonuclease or formed from mRNAsequence using reverse transcriptasePCR used to replicate itPlasmid cut using the same endonuclease to create complimentary sticky endsthe two are mixed and DNA ligase rejoins the Sections to form a recombinant

plasmid

Introduced to a harmless bacteria for culturing, using heat shock or CaCl solutionetc.

Protein production:

DNA unzipped by DNA Helicase breaking the H-Bonds between strandsComplimentary RNA nucleotides bind to H-bonds, CG, A-->U, T-->ARNA polymerase joins phosphodiester backbone (up till now = transcription)mRNA migrates to ribosome, read in codons (3 bases). tRNA with complimentaryanticodon binds to sequence and is bound to appropriate Amino acid

amino acids joined with condensation bonds,

Haemoglobin

has a high affinity for oxygen + acts as an oxygen storeO2 + Hb => oxyhaemoglobinreleases at low ppO2maintains diffusion gradient between blood and water

Standard enzymes:

low rate at low templess energy = fewer collisions, less activation energydenatured at high tempbreaking Hbons/ionic bondscauses changes to tertiary structure, changing active site


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