business communication bcst 2011

8/3/2019 Business Communication BCST 2011

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Copyright Abusin, 2011 Page 1 of 29

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Introduction

As a professional in a technical field, you always think that the command of yourdiscipline is all what you need for success. This is clearly understood when you

applied for this Centre and chose to obtain a Masters Degree. Since then youseemed busy trying to master the subjects of your specialization.

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But the most important of all is good Communication. Because now and when youleave the Centre to resume your professional career, communicating about yourdiscipline to others in your field and outside it will become increasingly important.

What is the role of communication in the practice of scientific and technicalprofessions? Do people in technical fields read, write, speak and otherwise exchangeinformation in ways that differ from others?

Almost always communication is the most human of traits. It is crucial to the everydaypractice of science and technology. Communication as basic for all disciplinescannot be specialized.

This course has been designed to explore systematically the process ofcommunicating technical and professional i nformation.

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

Specialized communication about technical and scientific topics that usesprecise written, visual, and oral methods to reach various audiencesseeking specific information on those topics.

A definition of Technical Business Communication

Communication skills are very important. Whatever your field may be,you need to become a professional in a second field, communication.Technical Business communication is considered within three aspects:

1. Terminology

In this course we use the terms technical and scientific as though they

were synonyms; but they are not. Science involves asking basic questions;technology involves applications. This course discusses communication thatconveys information about and within a given field. The fundamentalcommunication principles and techniques are essentially the same fortechnical and scientific fields.

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In the past, theyre "technical writing", "Basic technical writing," but now"Basic technical communication". Hence, we use the words: communicationand message

2.

over the more specific writing.

Communication Forms

In Technical Business communication, several forms of communications areused, depending in part upon the positions (taken by the professionals)

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and in part upon the audiences one seeks to reach. The three basic f ormsof communication are:

(i) Print:

Memos, letters, proposals, progress and final reports, brochures,instructions, documentation, research articles, trade, journal,articles and books.

(ii) Oral: speeches, oral reports, meetings, and narration for slideshows, and films, and videotapes.

(iii) Visual: slides, transparencies, photographic prints, videotapes,and films.

Of course, these categories are not mutually exclusive. Technicalreports often contain photographs, line art, or other visual, andpresentations mix oral and visual forms. Today, well-equipped

professionals understand all forms.

3. Characteristics

Effective Technical Business communication is characterized by thefollowing three factors:

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(i) Solid content: The content must withstand the critical review of yourprofession. You should produce well thought out and properly executedcontent for your reports.

(ii) Understanding communication principles:

The basics of communication include planning, structuring, executing andevaluating your message.

(iii) Polished Appearance:

In today's sophisticated world, advertising, television, and all kinds ofprint media are extremely well produced. Audiences expect polished,professional looking reports, memos, slide presentations, and othercommunication products.

Don't judge a book by its cover may be good advice, but people dojudge appearances first. If your work does not confirm to acceptedstandards, correct grammar, spelling, style, form, your audience mayquestion your professional competence.

Example : in a recent Denver, Colorado election, the republican candidatemailed a campaign brochure to 32,000 voters. His democratic opponentobtained a copy and spotted spelling errors, bad grammar, and poorsyntax. The Democratic sent a corrected version, along with his owncampaign literature to the district's voters. The associated press (1982)

quoted the opponent as saying: "The real issue is not spelling orgrammar. Instead, this sloppiness reflects poorly on the republicanCandidate's overall competence and his ability to represent the district".


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In the end, the sloppy appeal for voter support detracted from therepublican's message, and he lost the election.

Admittedly, the three above points are more easily enumerated thanapplied. All are necessary to effective communication. By itself, no singlepoint ensures effective communication.

The process involves three stages:

THE WRITING PROCESS

1. Stage One

It is a stage of experimentation and rehearsal developing fromexperience and observation ideas, details, and suggestions: words andphrases that will become your final piece of writing. The prewritingtechniques will usually provide more than enough material for yourwriting.

:Prewriting

2. Stage Two

Once you have gathered enough material that you feel you havesomething to say, you are ready to enter the second stage of the processwriting (gathering on scraps of paper, in your mind, or on neat, linedpaper-it doesnt matter). In this stage you will complete your first draft,composing your ideas in sentences and paragraphs. That simply put yourthoughts on paper, to be rearranged and organized later.

: Writing

3. Stage Three

This includes writing all later drafts and the final piece. It may involveseveral additional drafts before you arrive at the final product. It alsoinvolves proofreading, the cleanup part of writing. Proofreading includesattention to such details as grammar, spelling and punctuation. It helps to

cleanup the mistakes than lessen the effectiveness of what you want tosay.

: Post writing

Conclusion

Its a mistake to think of the writing process as orderly and linear, or toassume that you have to know precisely what you are going to saybefore you ever put pencil to paper. Writing is a creative process inwhich you start writing things down from the very beginning-even beforeyour total meaning is clear to you. Then you allow your words graduallyto change and evolve. Only at the end will you discover exactly what tosay and how you want to say it.

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The way you present your ideas in scientific and technical writing is quitedifferent from literary writing:

STYLE IN SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS WRITING

1. No impressionistic detail as in literary writing.2. Language is obviously not emotive or suggestive. In technical

writing we reduce the emotional involvement of the readersresponse rather than to evoke it.

3. Elaborate prose is rare. Information is transmitted as objectivelyas possible. Language is full of ambiguity. It is technicallyimportant that we cut away at this ambiguity, using mathematicsand other symbols when possible, and the language of daily lifeas the last resort.


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4. Precision and consistency: Scientific and technical writing should beprecise and consistent. The language of science is distinguished bytranslatability (The linguist Leonard Bloomfield). This is becausethe meaning of many words has been sharply fixed by agreemente.g. absolute-critical fundamental- have precise meanings which donot vary from user to user as they do in popular language.

5. Less is better in scientific writing: more is in vain when less will serveNewton said in his Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy

Generally means correcting a manuscript before submitting it to anotherreader.

PROOFREADING

The process of proofreading is simple but it requires concentration. Whenyou proofread a composition, you examine each line carefully for errorsin grammar, spelling, punctuation and style. It is recommended using a

ruler to scan a work from the bottom to the top of the page and fromright to left.

Since proofreading is the final stage in the writing process, its your lastchance to make improvements in your manuscript. Here, there is achecklist of Edited Standard English (ESE), which will help you make fulluse of the proofreading process:

1. Sentence structure is accurate. There are no fragments or run-onsentences.

2. Participial phrases, prepositional phrases, and dependentclauses are clearly attached to the words they modify, to avoidmisunderstanding.

3. Verb tenses are correct, and verbs agree with their subjects.4. Pronouns are the correct subject or object forms and agree with

their antecedents. Singular pronouns such as each, anybody,everybody, or nobody are used with singular verbs.

5. Capitalization, punctuation, and spelling are correct. Slang andother inappropriate words are avoided.

The nature of the reader or listener is always crucial in writing. There arefive basic guidelines to handle the difficulties of audience backgroundand complex subject matter:

AUDIENCE

1. Consider your audience: (the people you address) what do they knowalready? How much more do you want them to know? You need tobridge differences in audience background by being specific andclear.

2. Consider your objective: why are you writing the report? List yourgoals and think about them before you write:

I am writing this for_________because I want__________


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3. Develop clear, usable, everyday prose

Despite the popular notion that Scientists arent good writers, theliterature tells another story. The tools of fine writing are precisionand brevity of explication.

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4. Be brief

No matter what you are writing brevity is a virtue.

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5. Expect to rewrite

The most skilled writers go through two or three drafts of acomposition. You cant expect to do much better.

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When preparing a memo, letter, report or presentation, your purpose willbe one or more of the following:

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1. To inform 2. To instruct.3. To persuade 4. To document or record.

Any message may serve several or all functions, but its dominant functionheavily influences its form. Form should follow function.

1. The Informational Function

A model of informative communication is the alphabetized format whichwe entirely take for granted. At its best, communication has severalcomponents. You want to draw attention to the information, have itaccepted, interpreted correctly, and stored for later use. Accomplishingthose objectives can be difficult.

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2. The Instructional Function

If you want the user to do something with the information you provide,your function is to instruct, so let that purpose influence your message'sform.

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Example

When you provide instructions, encourage your audience to practice anduse them.

: an IBM instruction sheet (1982) for unpacking and setting up anew typewriter contains 16 photographs and no words. The picturesprovide step-by-step procedures for opening the carton and operatingthe typewriter.

3. The Persuasive Function

Most communicators want to persuade. What increases communicator's

persuasiveness is:

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1. When they indicate that they have searched through the relevantliterature and know what others have done on the topic.

2. When they estimate the time and cost that will be required andprovide the tools and skills necessary for a new approach. As inthe law evidence persuades. The more evidence you have, thebetter its quality, and the better it is organized and presented,the more likely you are to persuade your audience. Evidence

usually persuades better than rhetoric.

4. The Documentary Function

Much business communication consists of documenting how somethingwas built, developed, or repaired. A laboratory journal recording howexperiments were conducted provides an excellent example ofdocumentation.

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A caution: in the professional field of business communication, thewords documentation and to document often refer to all the messages

that accompany a product, including manuals, specifications, andpromotional material.

Technical communication involves the transfer of specialized informationamong specialists. The question then is: What are the elements that makethat exchange possible? Understanding the communication process and itscomponents has strong practical value.

BASIC COMMUNICATION THEORY

The earliest and most significant thinking about what communication is

occurred in the late 1940s at Bell Telephone Laboratories. EngineerClaude Shannon and his colleague Warren Weaver developed amathematical model of communication (Shannon and Weaver 1949).

They were interested in what happens physically when a message istransmitted (as through a telephone wire). The model they came up withfor this process describes Human Communication as well. According tothem, the communication elements consist of:

1. Sender who originates the message,2. Message itself.3. Channel means chosen to transmit the message.4. Noise which interferes with the message,5. Receiver who accepts the message.6. Encoding/Decoding the processes of phrasing the message for

transmitting and receiving it in understandable form. Recentresearchers added two other elements:

7. Interpretation of the message by the receiver.8. Feedback reaction to the message, itself a new message.

By breaking the communication act into its various parts, we canexamine the factors that help or hinder understanding.


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Sender-Receiver Communication Model

Sender

If you know that you are not good at thinking on your feet, you may preparenotes on major points. You might make a note to yourself to smile once in a while.If you know that your are nervous in front of senior people, such as a panel of ITprofessors, you might rehearse your talk several times. Knowing things aboutyourself helps you to plan your communication.

: A sender always takes into account his own characteristics in writing apaper or preparing a speech. For example: You might realize that yourappearance can help or hurt your cause. Probably you would dress to coveyseriousness of purpose.

Message: Phrasing the message in the correct way occupies most people'sattention. How should the message be organized? How long should it be? Whatlevel of language should it use? What kinds of symbols will best convey meaning?Errors in formulating the message can easily lead the audience to draw unkindconclusions about the intellectual quality of the work. Unsuitable vocabulary,grammar, and style often confuse and embarrass understanding.

Channel: It is the means by which a message is transmitted, such as print,videotape, speech and others. Some channels convey certain types of informationbetter than others. Thus mathematicians and chemists use chalk and board orother written channels. Veterinarians usually describe surgical procedures with

slides and other visual channels.

Noise

But much more difficult to recognize and deal with is semantic noise.Communication scholars John C. Merrill and Ralph L. Lowenstein (1979) havesuggested the following examples:

: It includes mechanical and semantic barriers to a message. Mechanicalnoise includes static on a radio or telephone line, music and voices in a crowdedrestaurant, a messily written report, and the missing paragraphs that make amemo impossible to follow.

1. Divergent backgrounds of the participants.2. Differences in interests in the message.3. Differences in language.

Receiver

(Decoder)ChannelMessageSender

(Encoder)

Noise

Feedback

Feedback


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4. Differences in education5. Differences in sex.6. Differences in intelligence7. Differences in class.8. Differences in age9. Differences in race10 . Lack of skill by sender or receiver.11 . Mental or physical stress at the time of communication.12 . Lack of mutual respect.

Many more kinds of semantic noise exist, and all hinder or preventunderstanding.

Receiver

Understanding your audience (as mentioned earlier) is the most important step in

the communication process. All the careful polishing of messages is a waste oftime if you don't know your audience. Consider your audience above all else,design your communication for that audience, and you greatly increase yourchance of success.

: A message may be perfectly clear to you, but unless you have studiedand acted on receiver characteristics, the message may be meaningless to yourreader.

Encoding/Decoding: We use symbols-letters, numbers, words, pictures and othersin formulating and translating messages. If we don't use symbols that havemeaning for the receiver, communication cant occur. Communicators mustprecisely define terms and possibly even include a glossary.

Interpretation: When people communicate technical information, they usually

want to send one particular meaning. Most scientific communication strives for oneinterpretation. Some messages have more complex interpretations and multiplemeanings. Great art fiction, poetry, painting, music, drama, or sculpture, hasmany different levels of meaning.

Feedback

The principles of communication theory can help you to formulate,transmit, and diagnose where and why your communication has gonewrong- or hit the mark.

: Since it is a response from the receiver, feedback providesclues to whether your first message got through and was correctlyinterpreted. Feedback may come in the form of a puzzled look, vigorousagreement or disagreement, modified Behaviour, radio signals or otherresponses. Feedback tells you if communication has occurred.

The four major sections (or parts) of a business letter are:

LETTER WRITING

1. The Heading

The three lines of the heading contain the following information:

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1. The writer's street address and apartment number.2. The writer's city, state and P.O. box or other code.3. The date on which the letter is written.


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16902 Brushwood Avenue, Apt. 203.St. Paul MN 55110June 5, 1995

In almost all business letters, the Heading consists of a printed letterhead anda typewritten date line.

Letterhead: Almost every company uses stationery with a printed letterheadthat includes the firms name, address and telephone number. Sometimes theletterhead contains the addresses of branch offices, the company's slogan andother useful information.

Dateline

The month must be written in full, not abbreviated or represented in figures.Both of the following styles are acceptable, but most writers prefer the"business style".

: It consists of the month, day and year.

Business style: December 12, 2008

Military style

2.

: 12 December 2008.

The Opening

A. The Inside Address: consists of the name and the title of the person towhom you are writing or the company name, street address, city, state andpost office box or other code.

: The opening section normally consists of an inside addressand a salutation. However, it sometimes includes a personal or confidentialnotation and an attention line.

Mr. John ChinDirector, Summer ProgramsAmerican Youth Hostels, Inc.132 Spring StreetNew York NY 10012

When writing to a person, use either a courtesy title (Miss, Mrs, Ms, or Mr.) ora professional title (Dr. or Prof.).

B. The Salutation (or greeting): It comes on the second below the inside

address. Its always followed by a colon. If you are writing to a person, thesalutation you select will depend upon the relationship between you and theaddressee and the general circumstance under which you are writing.

Letter to person

Dear Mr. James: Dear Sir:

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Dear Dr. Paul: Dear Professor Eltayeb:Dear Madam: Dear Miss Mahasin:

In recent years the abbreviation Ms. has become acceptable in

addressing a woman when you do not know whether she is married orsingle: Dear Ms. Sanhoori:

Letter to company:


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Ladies and Gentlemen:Gentlemen: (if a firm is composed of men only)Ladies: (if a firm is composed of women only)

When you do not know the name of the person who will be reading yourletter, you may repeat the title used in the inside address: Dear CreditManager

C. Personal or Confidential Notation: If the message is of a personal orconfidential nature, type Personal or Confidential in all-capital letters or inunderscored (underlined) capital and small letters on the second line belowthe date-starting at the left margin.

D. Attention Line: When writing to a company, you may direct your letter tospecified person (by name or by title) or department by typing an attentionline on the second line below the inside address. Instead of using an attentionline, many writers now include the appropriate information in the insideaddress:

ATTENTION: Sales ManagerATTENTION: Miss WILMA STONEAttention of the Sales Manager

3.

Attention Personnel Department

The Body: It begins two spaces below the salutation. Its the basic part of abusiness letter, and therefore its sometimes referred to as the message ortext

A. Subject line: If you wish to give the reader advance notice of what the

letter is about, type a subject line on the second line below the salutation.

. It consists of two parts:

Subject: Account No. 577-17-176SUBJECT: PRICE CHANGESSubject: Changes in Discount Policy

B. Message: The text of the letter begins on the second line below thesalutation (or if used the subject line). Arrange the message in at least twoparagraphs and use single spacing with one blank line between paragraphs.

If the message is very short, use double spacing for all parts of the letter. But

if the letter is too long to fit on one page, continue the message on a secondsheet of plain paper of the same quality and colour. Type the name of theaddressee, the page number and the date:

Either:Dr. J. R. Bennett 2 July 15, 1990Or

Page2

: Mrs. Maureen Hanley

September 20, 1990

N. B.

Paragraphing: you begin a new paragraph when you begin a new topic orthought. In block form all paragraphs begin at the left-hand margin. In semiblock form, however paragraphs are indented five spaces (or ten).


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4. The closing

A. The complimentary closing: On the second line below the message, type acomplimentary closing that is appropriate to the general tone of the message.

: This section consists of the following:

For example

Very truly yours, Yours very sincerely,

:

Respectfully yours, Very cordially yours,Yours truly, Yours sincerely,Sincerely yours, Cordially yours,Cordially, Sincerely,Yours very truly,

The closing is followed by a comma and that only the first word is capitalized.The closing is always aligned with the heading.

N.B.

B. Writer's Identification: It usually consists of the name and title of thewriter; however, it sometimes includes the name of a department or division ofthe company. This information usually appears on the fourth line below thecomplimentary closing. If the writer is a woman who prefers a particularcourtesy title, she should include that title with her typed name or (inparentheses) with her signature:

C. Enclosure Notation: If a cheque, contract or other item is to beenclosed with the letter, type an enclosure notation on the line belowthe writer's identification:

Enclosure Enc.Enc. 2 Enclosures (2)Enclosures: Cheque

Contract

Cordially yours,

David SampsonGeneral Manager

Yours very truly,

Ms. Sara M. KennedySenior Vice President

Sincerely yours,

D.L. Hale, Manager,Accounting Department


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D. Carbon Copy (CC) Notation: If you wish the addressee to know thatyou are sending a copy of the letter to someone else, type a ccnotation on the line below the writer's identification or, if used, theenclosure notation:

cc: Miss Thelma Ashfordcc: Dr. BarkerCC: Mrs. SwansonMr. Gorbea

E. Postscript (PS): If an addition is made to the message of the letter,type a postscript starting on the second line below whatever notation youused last. If two additions are made, use PS: or PS. for the first one andPPS: or PPS. for the second one. If you indent the paragraphs in themessage, indent the first line of the postscript; otherwise, begin it at theleft margin.

SUGGESTION

PS: Remember - this special introducto ry rate expires April I!

: Reserve the use of the postscripts for information that you

wish to highlight not to overcome faulty planning of the content of themessage itself:

PS: Effective February 1, our address will be 810 Broadway-no changein Post office Box.

Addressing the Envelope

1. Your first and last name but no title.

: Begin by writing the return address in theupper left-hand corner of the envelope. Write three lines:

2. Your street address (place of residence) and house number.3. Your city, state and postal code (if any).Just below the middle of the envelope and slightly to the right, write thename, title, company name, address, city, state, and postal code of theperson (or department) you are writing to. Always use a title (Miss, Mrs.,Ms., Mr., Dr.) before the name of the person you are addressing:

Alice Mor ikame562 A rroyo Dr iveAm arillo , TXMrs . Grace Winover Credi tM anage r , Depa r tment ConnorsDepartm ent Store 428 Old po intAvenue Hampton , VA 23669


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The content and tone of a business letter are very different from those ofa friendly letter or an essay. Keep your writing clear, simple and to thepoint. The content has three features:

The Content of a Business Letter

1. Purpose2.

: What do you want the reader to do? (What is the purposeof your letter?)

Information

3.

: What does the reader have to know in order to do this?(What information do you need to include in your letterso the reader can respond?).

Presentation

When writing any kind of a business letter, three rules govern the

content:

: How can you get the reader to do this? (What is thebest way of wording what you want to say?)

1. Be complete

2.

: Include all of the information the person reading yourletter need to know such as: dates, places, sizes, prices, accountnumbers and so on. You may want to include photocopied bills orother documents that pertain to the business of your letter, Neversend the original of any important document-you may need it later.

Be clear and concise

3.

: Say everything that you need to say as clearlyand briefly as you can. Don't confuse the reader with unnecessaryinformation,

Be courteous: You should always create a pleasant tone in yourbusiness letter if you want to get results from the letter. Put yourselfin the place of the reader.

Before you mail a business letter, proofread it carefully to be certainthat it is complete, follows standard form, and is free from errors. Usethe following as a guide in proofreading:

PROOFREADING A BUSINESS LETTER

Form and appearance

1. The letter is neatly written in ink or typed with no smudges orobvious corrections.

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2. The letter is centered on the page, with each part having thecorrect amount of spacing above and below.

3. The margins are even.4. Your signature is legible and written in ink.

Punctuation

1. In the Heading and Inside Address, a comma comes between thecity and state. There is no comma between the state and postalcode.

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2. A comma comes between the day of the month and the year in theheading.

3. A colon follows the salutation.4. A comma follows the closing.

Capitalization

1. The name of streets, cities and states in the Heading and InsideAddress are capitalized.

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2. The name of the month in the Heading is capitalized.3. The title of the person to whom you are writing and the names

of the department and company listed in the inside address (or theclosing) are capitalized.

4. The word Dear and all nouns in the salutation are capitalized.5. Only the first word of the closing is capitalized.

An application letter-the letter you write to apply for a job-probablywill be the most important kind of letter you will ever write. Mostemployers look upon an application letter as an excellent indicator of anapplicant's writing and other communication skills. It is usuallyaccompanied by a C.V.(a resume).

THE APPLICATION LETTER

The main purpose of an application letter is to get you an in-personinterview with the prospective employer. If the letter is weak yourchances of getting an interview are likely to be nil. However, if the letteris a good one, you can be reasonably certain that you will be grantedan interview.

Organisation of the letter

An application letter consists of three sections:

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1. The Opening Section

Please consider me an applicant for the position of an administrativeassistant that you have advertised in today's ALWIFAG. I have just

completed a two-year business administration program at Jubacommunity College and feel that I am fully qualified for this position withyour company.

: In this section you state the particular job or thespecific type of work you are applying for. You may also feature yourmost outstanding qualification for the job:

2. The Middle Section

Here, you elaborate on your opening paragraph and emphasize thehighlights of your education and of your experience. Relate thediscussion to the requirements of the job. Refer the reader to theenclosed C.V. for additional information. If you wish, indicate why youwould like to work for the reader's company in particular.

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3. The Closing Section

In the closing paragraph, you request a personal interview. Make it easyfor the reader to grant your request by enclosing a self- addressedpostcard or by stating the telephone number where you can be reachedduring business hours.

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If the employer is some distance away, you might use a closingparagraph similar to the one that follows:

I am planning to be in Khartoum on May 20th and 21st. Would it be possible for you to grant me a personal interview on either of those days? Your

notifying me by returning the enclosed postcard would be very much appreciated.

Note

How to Complete a Job Application

: If you have little or no work experience, stress your educationalqualifications, mention any special scholastic achievements or honours;describe courses you have taken to prepare yourself for the particular kindof job; list extracurricular activities and hobbies. If you have part-time workexperience, be sure to mention it-even if it is not directly related to the jobfor which you are applying.

When you apply for a job you are typically asked to complete an employmentapplication. You may be asked to complete a job application even if you havealready submitted a resume and cover letter. That way, the employer has a recordof your personal and employment history, verified and signed by the applicant.

It's important for your job applications to be complete, correct (no errors) andaccurate. Here is the information you will need to complete an application foremployment and tips and suggestions for writing applications that make a greatimpression.

Job Application Form Details:

Personal Information:

Name Address City, State, Zip Code Phone Number Eligibility to Work for the company Felony convictions If under age, working paper certificate

Education:

Schools/Colleges Attended Major Degree/Diploma Graduation Dates(s)


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Position Applied For Information:

Title of the job you are applying for Hours/days available to work When you can start work

Employment Information:

Names, addresses, phone numbers of previous employers Supervisor's name Dates of employment Salary Reason for Leaving

References

List of three references - names, job title or relationship, addresses, phonenumbers

Resume (if you have one)

Tips for Completing Job Applications:

1. Complete all requested information. Don't leave anything blank. If you don'tknow the details, bring the application home and return it when it'scompleted.

2. Write clearly and neatly, using black or blue ink.3. Check for spelling and grammatical errors. Proofread your job application

form before turning it in.

4. List your most recent job first when completing employment information.5. List your most recent education first. Include vocational schools and trainingprograms as well as college and high school.

6. References don't necessarily have to be professional. If you have volunteeredyou can use members of the organizations that you have helped or if you area student use your teachers. In all cases, ask for permission prior to using theperson for a reference.

7. Don't forget to sign your application!

A Resume is written a ccording two styles:

CURRICULUM VITAE (C.V.)

1. British Style

Name: Ahmed Omer HashimAddress: Arkweet district Sq. 67, House No. 140.Telephone: 83238750.

: CURRICULUM VITAE

Personal: Born: May 17, 1967, in Dongla, North StateMarital Status: Single.Health: Excellent

Height: 5'8" Weight: 160 poundsIdentity Card number: 256894


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Education: Senior at Dongla High School, College preparatorycourse Grade point average: 3.5 (B+)

Member lab program of Cuyahoga Extra MuralStudies for two years.

Attended two-week program for gifted sciencestudents, summer 1982.

Extracurricular: President, Science Club

Activities Member, National Honour Society. Member, DebatingTeam Captain, swimming Team

Skills: Can handle laboratory animals; can compile andanalyze results of laboratory experiments; can operatecentrifuge and other lab equipment; can programcomputer.

Work Experience: Khartoum Teaching Hospital, Khartoum Lab assistant instudy of lung diseases, using animals for researchsummer 1982, after school 1982 Corner Bookshop,down town, Khartoum. Clerk on Fridays from 1983 todate.

References: Mr. Hassan Ali Kamil, Lab Director, KhartoumTeaching Hospital, Khartoum, 783491.

Mrs. Hala Bushra Karamalla, Owner, Corner Book

Shop, Down Town, Khartoum, 7761240.

Mr. Mohammed Tajelsir Siddig Director, Extra MuralStudies Center, Khartoum, 772944.

2. American Style

Mustafa Ahmed Elkhidir

: RESUME

Married No ChildrenElamarat, Street 27

P. O. Box 6794

Tel: 83427650Email: [email protected]

Objective To obtain a position of a Technical Manager with afirm in Khartoum.

Education

2002 2004 Master of Business Administration, Centre forEngineering and Technological Studies, AlazhariUniversity.

1996 2001 Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, KhartoumUniversity.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Experience

2002- Present Electrical Engineer, National Electricit y Corporation (NEC).

Languages Fluent Arabic and English.

Personal Interests include: swimming, cooking and entertainingfriends.

Reference Dr Sami Sharif, Head Department of ElectricalEngineering, Khartoum University, P. O. Box 321

Mr. Azam Ahmed Omer, Operation Manager,National Electricity Corporation.

There are many different kinds of forms: applications for jobs, colleges,loans, licenses, insurance, visas and so on.

FILLING OUT FORMS

Objectives:

1. To be able to give personal information about yourself.2. To be able to fill out forms with the appropriate personal information.

Before beginning to fill out any form:

1. Read the directions carefully.2. Follow the directions exactly.3. Be sure to fill out the form completely.4. Don't leave any spaces blank except those designed for office use.5. Print neatly in ink or use a typewriter so that the information you

write is legible.

Cultural Note:

In Europe & the United States the first name and middle name are names whichparents choose for children at birth. The last name is the family name and is usuallythe same as the father's last name. When a woman marries she usually replaces herown last name with that of her husband. In recent years many women choose to keep

their own last name and just add their husband's name onto the end, for example:Mary Anderson-Smith.

A sample form is given. It is similar to many college application formsand applications for financial aid. Use the information on the form toanswer the questions that follow:

1. Which section of the form may you choose to fill out or to leaveblank?

2. Which tests are required or suggested for application andacceptance to these colleges?

3. Information about education should begin at what grade?


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4. Which years of extracurricular activities are the collegesinterested in? Write your extracurricular and personal activities ona separate sheet of paper.

5. How would you fill out the section entitled "Work Experience"?6. Is writing in blue ink acceptable?7. If you are applying for financial aid, where on the form do you

indicate this? What do you have to do if you are applying for

financial aid?ULOGIC AND WRITING

Bertrand Russell is supposed to have said People would rather die than think andmost do. We are not sure whether his generalizations are true, but we agree withthe cautionary note implicit in his remark. Each one of us uses logic daily, sometimesin trivial and sometimes in momentous matters.

Logicians ask what would be true if we were to assume a certain set of facts orbeliefs. They ask what follows from a given set of views or beliefs. Whereas we ask

these things about the particular facts and beliefs that are the circumstances of ourown lives, they ask these questions more abstractly.

As we learn what logic is all about, the relevance of logic to the concerns of our ownlives will grow clearer. It will become more and more obvious that the ability to thinklogically and to analyse arguments logically is of tremendous practical importance.

U

Key Words :

What is that to be a really logical person? Is that different from being a reasonableperson? How about being sharp? How do all these differ from being an emotional

person or, again, from being persuasive?

There are answers to these questions. They may not be hard and fast, definiteanswers, but they are good answers. There are answers because each of the keyterms: logical, sharp, reasonable, emotional, persuasive, has a slightly differentmeaning in our language.

U

The DifferencesU

:

Being logicalfocuses on following the consequences of an idea. It is logical toask: If we accept your assumption, what would then be true? When we want

to test a hypothesis, we must first be logical enough to see what thehypothesis implies. A logical person recognizes which ideas contradict certainothers, which are consistent with others, and which guarantee the implicationthat the others are true.

Being sharp relates to being discerning, discovering solutions, and creatingstrategies to accomplish goals.

Being reasonable relates to knowledge and preliminary assessment of theoverall wisdom of certain beliefs or courses of action. It also relates toknowing ones options and being able to tell the absurd ones from the moreor less plausible ones.

Being emotionalrelates to using ones own emotions or eliciting the emotionsof other people in order to accomplish goals. It also relates to situations,especially stressful ones, with emotion.

Beingpersuasive is being able to get others to believe you. Emotion and logicare both tools used by persuasive people.


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Being logical can be contrasted with each of the characteristics we have beendiscussing. Being logical means being able to infer the consequences of variousviews, beliefs, ideas and assumptions. A logical person is one who uses his or herintellectual powers to think through situations, to try to predict the likely outcome ofvarious alternative courses of actions, to anticipate the necessary and probableconsequences of believing certain things or acting certain ways. A person can haveany of the characteristics we discussed, or a person can fail to have any one of them.

Since they are different, a person can have any combination of them. So, forexample, one person can be logical, sharp and emotional while another is persuasiveand reasonable and still another is logical, unemotional and unreasonable.

In the Space to the left of each question, identify the concern raised by thatquestion? Select your answer from:

Exercise

A. The concern is with being logicalB. The concern is with being reasonable or sharpC. The concern is with persuasion through appeals to emotionD. The concern is none of the above

_____ 1. Yes, Senator, but I ask you, what do you take to be the consequence of thismass of evidence?

_____ 2. Doctor, please tell me what you do in my situation?

_____ 3. Im very sorry but I just havent finished the job. As considerate as you are,Im sure youll give me an extension.

_____ 4. When do we eat?

Logic is concerned with arguments

Deduction and induction

:

One argument is that there are two kinds of scientific knowledge:

Knowledge that something happens: observations of the world Knowledge why something happens: explanations of reasons

Inductive logic is explanations that are derived from observations. Deductive logic isreasoning by proof. Conclusions are obtained by logical arguments, starting withassumptions.

Deductive Logic

Statements may be a premise or a conclusion.

Premise 1 Tokyo Tower is in Japan. Premise 2 I am at Tokyo Tower. Conclusion Therefore, I am in Japan.

The conclusion is valid; however it is true only if the premises are also true. Premisesare not necessarily true statements.


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P: Everyone who studies IT at the school of Maths is intelligent.P: Eman studies IT at the school of Math.C: Eman is intelligent.

Logic is concerned with the relationship that exists between the premises and theconclusions of arguments. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.

Logic studies relationships

Logic studies the relationship between the stated premises and their conclusion. If thepremises entail, imply, strongly warrant, strongly support the conclusion, we say thatthe argument is logically correct. But if the premises neither entail, nor imply, norstrongly support, nor strongly warrant the conclusion we say that the argument is notlogically correct

:

P: Any act performed voluntarily should be subject to either praise or blame.P: Ali voluntarily entered into a contract to redecorate the Family Park.C: So Alis act of entering into the contract should be subject to praise or blame.

P: We want to become parents by becoming biological parents or adoptive parents.P: We should not adopt a child unless we both really want to do that.P: We do not both really want to do that at this time in our marriage.C: So we should try to become biological parents rather than adoptive parents at

this time.

Examples of arguments that are not logically correct

P: I took one course in economics and the Prof was a real bore.

:

C: So all economics Profs must be terrible teachers.

Here the premise asserts that only economics Professor is boring, so you can see thatthere is no basis supplied for the conclusion that all are boring.

P: Everyone who goes to the school of Maths is intelligent.P: Adil does not go to the school of Maths.C: Therefore Adil cannot be intelligent.

Here the first premise asserts the intelligence of all those who do go to the school ofMaths. But no premise says anything about the intelligence of those who dont attend.Thus, the fact that Adil doesnt go, allows us no conclusion about his intelligence.

P: means that the statement that follows is a premise.

N.B.

C: means that the statement that follows is a conclusion.

Syllogism: If A=B, and B=C it follows (from you say) that A=C.

Premises and Conclusions

Finding the Premises

What sentences has the author supplied as the basis from which the conclusion issupposed to be derived?

:


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Or what assertive sentences are presented as the support or justification for theconclusion?

PREMISE INDICATORS

Since Suppose.After all .. Assume ..Given that .. Lets take it that Whereas . Here are the facts ..But .. Lets begin with Although . This is the evidence ..And . We all know that ..Because For On the ground(s) that .. This follows from ..Inasmuch as This may be derived fromThis may be inferred from .. .. This is shown by ..This may be deduced from . The reason is (that) ..This is indicated by

Finding the Conclusion

What did the author of the argument claim to prove? That statement is thearguments conclusion.

:

Here is a list of the words that tell on the presence of the conclusion:

CONCLUSION INDICATORS

Thus .. This evidence warrants that ..Therefore This supports the view that .

So . As a consequence .Hence .. So it seems that .It follows that . And so probably ..Lets conclude . We can deduce that ..This means that . We can justifiably infer that .This implies that .. Lets infer that .These facts indicate This supports believing that .We can now infer , then .Consequently .. In sum As a result .. We may infer that .Accordingly This proves that .

I (we) conclude (that) .. From .

Categorical Syllogisms

A categorical syllogism (i.e. deductive logic) is an argument consisting of threecategorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear atotal of three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice.

The Structure of Syllogism

One of those terms must be used as the subject term of the conclusion of thesyllogism, and we call it the minor term of the syllogism as a whole. The major termof the syllogism is whatever is employed as the predicate term of its conclusion. The


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third term in the syllogism doesn't occur in the conclusion at all, but must be employedin somewhere in each of its premises; hence, we call it the middle term.

Since one of the premises of the syllogism must be a categorical proposition thataffirms some relation between its middle and major terms, we call that the majorpremise of the syllogism. The other premise, which links the middle and minor terms,we call the minor premise. Consider, for example, the categorical syllogism:

No geese are felines.Some birds are geese

Therefore, Some birds are not felines.

Clearly, "Some birds are not felines" is the conclusion of this syllogism. The majorterm of the syllogism is "felines" (the predicate term of its conclusion), so "No geeseare felines" (the premise in which "felines" appears) is its major premise. Similarly,the minor term of the syllogism is "birds," and "Some birds are geese" is its minorpremise. "geese" is the middle term of the syllogism.

A categorical syllogism in standard form always begins with the premises, major firstand then minor, and then finishes with the conclusion. Thus, the example above isalready in standard form. Although arguments in ordinary language may be offeredin a different arrangement, it is never difficult to restate them in standard form.Once we've identified the conclusion which is to be placed in the final position,whichever premise contains its predicate term must be the major premise that shouldbe stated first.

Standard Form

This method of differentiating syllogisms is significant because the validity of acategorical syllogism depends solely upon its logical form. Remember our earlierdefinition: an argument is valid when, if its premises were true, then its conclusionwould also have to be true. The application of this definition in no way dependsupon the content of a specific categorical syllogism; it makes no difference whetherthe categorical terms it employs are "mammals," "terriers," and "dogs" or "sheep,""commuters," and "sandwiches." If a syllogism is valid, it is impossible for its premisesto be true while its conclusion is false, and that can be the case only if there issomething faulty in its general form.

Form and Validity

This suggests a fairly straightforward method of demonstrating the invalidity of anysyllogism by "logical analogy." If we can think of another syllogism which has thesame mood and figure but whose terms obviously make both premises true and theconclusion false, then it is evident that all syllogisms of this form, including the onewith which we began, must be invalid.

The modern interpretation offers a more efficient method of evaluating the validityof categorical syllogisms. By combining the drawings of individual propositions, wecan use Venn diagrams to assess the validity of categorical syllogisms by following asimple three-step procedure:

Diagramming Syllogisms


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1. First draw three overlapping circles and label them to represent the major,minor, and middle terms of the syllogism.

2. Next, on this framework, draw the diagrams of both of the syllogism'spremises.

o Always begin with a universal proposition, no matter whether it is themajor or the minor premise.

o Remember that in each case you will be using only two of the circlesin each case; ignore the third circle by making sure that your drawing(shading or ) straddles it.

3. Finally, without drawing anything else, look for the drawing of the conclusion.If the syllogism is valid, then that drawing will already be done.

Consider now how this could be applied, step by step, to an evaluation of a thefollowing syllogism:

No M are P.Some M are S.

Therefore, Some S are not P.

First

: we draw and label the three overlapping circles needed to represent all threeterms included in the categorical syllogism:

Second

: we diagram each of the premises:

Since the major premise is a universal proposition, we may begin with it. Thediagram for "No M are P" must shade in the entire area in which the M and P circlesoverlap. (Notice that we ignore the S circle by shading on both sides of it.)

Now we add the minor premise to our drawing. The diagram for "Some M are S"puts an inside the area where the M and S circles overlap. But part of that area(the portion also inside the P circle) has already been shaded, so our must be

placed in the remaining portion.


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Third

Remember, that drawing would be like the one below, in which there is an in thearea inside the S circle but outside the P circle. Does that already appear in thediagram above? Yes, if the premises have been drawn, then the conclusion isalready drawn.

: we stop drawing and merely look at our result. Ignoring the M circle entirely,we need only ask whether the drawing of the conclusion "Some S are not P" hasalready been drawn.

Now consider the following statements and conclusion:

(1) Statement 1: All men are animalsStatement 2: Some animals are aggressiveConclusion: Some men are aggressive

This seems to be a reasonable conclusion, but then consider the following:

(2) Statement 1: All men are animalsStatement 2: Some animals are femaleConclusion: Some men are female

Now the conclusion appears to be ridiculous and false - yet the reasoning is exactlythe same as in the first example. The first example thus has a false conclusion. Theanimals who are aggressive are not necessarilymen.

What is happening here is that we are using what we know to be true as asubstitute for the logic of the statement. In less certain situations, we use the sameunspoken assumptions and beliefs to less acceptable ends.


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The diagram below is a valid drawing that explains the first two statements in theexample.

Using Venn diagrams

The conclusion of the example falls into the traps of making the assumption that the'aggressive animals' and 'men' subsets necessarily overlap, whereas there is no

necessity for this in statements one and two. Although the conclusion couldbe true itdoes not have to be true.

Beware of making linked assertions that seem reasonable but in fact are logicallyincorrect.

So what?

You can, of course, make such assertions deliberately, using logic that seems valid topersuade. If you do this, of course, you run the risk of the other person exposingyour false logic.

A word that cannot be reduced to a simpler form is called a primitive word;as, true, sun,

DERIVATION OF WORDS

A word formed by means of a prefix or a suffix is called a derivative word;as, untrue, sunny,

A syllable added to the beginning of a word, to vary its meaning, is called aprefix; as, unkind, not kind.

A syllable added to the end of a word, to vary its meaning, is called asuffix; as fearless, without fear.

When a word is made up of two or more elements, the principal element iscalled the base of the word; as, kind, in unkind.

The base of a derivative word is not always a word. It may be a significantelement called a stem; as, flect, in reflect,

A word formed by uniting two or more simple words is called a compoundword; as, rainbow, steamboat.

1.Using prefixes

look at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below with

one of the prefixes in this list.

co co-chairman co-worker


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mid midnight midair midweekover overact overpaid overdoneunder undercharged underpaidre rebuild reappear redoneself self-help self-containedsub subnormal subwayun untie undo

Afternoon arrange button charge control done driver excitedfold marry morning screw service standard way winterwrap

2.

Look at these examples and fill each gap with more examples, using the root wordsbelow with one of the negative prefixes in this list.

Using negative prefixes

un unkind untidy

in indirect indecentil illegal illegible illiterateir irregular irrelevantim immature impossible immoraldis disagree dissatisfiedmis misunderstand misbehave

accurate approve comfortable convenient expected familiar knownlike lucky obey patient personal popular probable pronounce spelltolerant visible

3.

Look at these examples and fill the gaps with more examples, using the root wordsbelow + one of the suffixes in this list.

Using suffixes: Adjectives

- al regional national -------------------------------------- ical biological geographical ----------------------------- able acceptable reliable ------------------------------------- ful careful fearful -------------------------------------- less painless thoughtless --------------------------------- ish childish whitish -------------------------------------

- y hairy woolly ---------------------------------------

alphabet break bump care colour comfort draught enjoy fear foolgrammar grey hope mathematics music noise obtain old pain professionrain rest sleep small smell success sun tall thought tradition use washyoung. Remember that these words end in ( ible) not (- able):

(in) credible (in) edible (in) flexible (im) possible (ir) responsible(in) visible eligible horrible indelible negligible terrible

4.

Look at these examples of verbs. Add more of your own, using the root wordsbelow with one of the suffixes in this list.

Using suffixes: Actions and people


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-ise / -ize modernise sterilise centralise individualisesummarise symbolize

-en widen strengthen harden lengthen flatern lessenloosen sharpen soften tighten

-ify classify clarify.

Central flat individual less loose pure sharp simple softsummary symbol tight

Notice that these verbs dont have a suffix: raise lift lower dropheat warm melt cool chill freezecure heal

These are examples of personal nouns:

Employer, employee, etc. add more examples, using the root words below.

- er employer (= someone who employs)- ee employee (= someone who is employed)- or inventor conductor- ant participant immigrant servant- ist chemist biologist motoristart assist broadcast clean cycle direct inhabit inspect instructmanage science sing ski teach type visit

Notice that these words all end in ( ent):absent ancient efficient correspondent confident convenientevident independent frequent resident patient studentviolent

5.

i.Using suffixes: Abstract nouns

Nouns from verbs

Add more examples, using the root words below with these suffixes:- ation pronunciation qualification ------- ------- -------- ion prediction description depression -------- ------- ment arrangement replacement ------- --------- al arrival refusal -------- --------- ---------- ance performance appearance ---------- ---------

accept approve assist associate astonish connect demonstratedisappear embarrass encourage improve object propose reflectremove starve survive translate


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ii. Nouns from adjectives and nounsLook at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below withone of these suffixes. Use a dictionary to check your spelling, if necessary:

- ness kindness friendliness -------- --------- --------- ----- ity ability possibility --------- --------- --------- ------- y honesty frequency --------- --------- --------- ----- ship friendship relationship --------- --------- ---------- hood childhood fatherhood --------- --------- --------- ---

accurate available blind careless cheerful confident efficientfluent intelligent leader member mother owner parent patientphotograph probable real sad selfish shy silent sportsmansuitable

Notice the following associated adjectives and nouns:Anxious anxiety strong strength delighted delight wise wisdom

bored boredom proud pride hungry hunger thirsty thirst

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