Business Research Business Research MethodsMethods

Adopted FromAdopted From Fourth EditionFourth Edition Uma SekaranUma Sekaran

Instructor: Ahmad Sohail Instructor: Ahmad Sohail LodhiLodhi

MBE, LLBMBE, LLB

Chapter 2Chapter 2

SCIENTIFIC SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONINVESTIGATION

After completing this chapter you After completing this chapter you would be able to understand:would be able to understand:

The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchThe Hallmarks of Scientific Research Some obstacles to conducting scientific Some obstacles to conducting scientific

research in the management arearesearch in the management area The building blocks of science in researchThe building blocks of science in research The hypothetico deductive methodThe hypothetico deductive method Other types of researchOther types of research

Definition of Scientific Definition of Scientific ResearchResearch

Scientific Research focusing on Scientific Research focusing on solving problems and pursues a solving problems and pursues a step by step logical, organized step by step logical, organized and rigorous method to identify and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, the problems, gather data, analyze them and draw valid analyze them and draw valid conclusions there from.conclusions there from.

Why Scientific Research?Why Scientific Research?

This research is not based on hunches, This research is not based on hunches, experience and intuition.experience and intuition.

It is purposive and rigorous.It is purposive and rigorous. Enables all those who are interested in Enables all those who are interested in

researching and knowing about the same or researching and knowing about the same or similar issues to come up with comparable similar issues to come up with comparable findings when data are analyzed.findings when data are analyzed.

Findings are accurate and confident. Findings are accurate and confident. Apply solutions to similar problems.Apply solutions to similar problems. It is more objective.It is more objective.

Cont.Cont.

Highlights the most critical factors at the work Highlights the most critical factors at the work place that need specific attention to solve or place that need specific attention to solve or minimize problems.minimize problems.

Scientific Investigation and Managerial Decision Scientific Investigation and Managerial Decision Making are integral part of effective problem Making are integral part of effective problem solving.solving.

It can be applied to both basic and applied It can be applied to both basic and applied research. research.

The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchThe Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness2.2. RigorRigor3.3. TestabilityTestability4.4. ReplicabilityReplicability5.5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence6.6. ObjectivityObjectivity7.7. GeneralizabilityGeneralizability8.8. ParsimonyParsimony

The hallmarks or main distinguishing The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:listed as follows:

Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchHallmarks of Scientific Research

1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness

It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.It has to start with a definite aim or purpose. The focus is on increasing employee The focus is on increasing employee

commitment.commitment. Increase employee commitment will translate Increase employee commitment will translate

into less turnover, less absenteeism and into less turnover, less absenteeism and increased performance levels.increased performance levels.

Thus it has a purposive focus.Thus it has a purposive focus.

2. 2. RigorRigor A good theoretical base and sound methodological design A good theoretical base and sound methodological design

would add rigor to the purposive study.would add rigor to the purposive study. Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of

exactitude in research.exactitude in research.

Example:Example:

A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:the following reasons:

1.1. Based on few employeesBased on few employees2.2. Bias and incorrectnessBias and incorrectness3.3. There might be other influences on commitment There might be other influences on commitment

which are ignored and are important for a researcher which are ignored and are important for a researcher to knowto know

Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology.thought out methodology.

These factors enable the researcher to collect the right These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.analysis of the data gathered.

This supports the other six too.This supports the other six too.

3.3. TestabilityTestability

The researcher might hypothesize that The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher decision making would have a higher level of commitment.level of commitment.

After random selection manager and researcher After random selection manager and researcher develops certain hypothesis on how manager develops certain hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be enhanced, then employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purposetests to the data collected for the purpose..

It means that it can be used again if similar It means that it can be used again if similar circumstances prevails.circumstances prevails.

Example:Example: The study concludes that participation in The study concludes that participation in

decision making is one of the most important decision making is one of the most important factors that influences the commitment, we factors that influences the commitment, we will place more faith and credence in these will place more faith and credence in these finding and apply in similar situations. To the finding and apply in similar situations. To the extent that this does happen, we will gain extent that this does happen, we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our confidence in the scientific nature of our research.research.

4. 4. ReplicabilityReplicability

PrecisionPrecision– Precision refers to the closeness of the findings Precision refers to the closeness of the findings

to “reality” based on a sample.to “reality” based on a sample.– It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude

of the results of the sample.of the results of the sample.Example: If a supervisor estimated the Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of production days lost during the number of production days lost during the year due to absenteeism at between 30 and year due to absenteeism at between 30 and 40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of 40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of my estimation more favorably than if he has my estimation more favorably than if he has indicated that the loss of production days was indicated that the loss of production days was somewhere between 20 and 50.somewhere between 20 and 50.

5. 5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence

ConfidenceConfidence– Confidence refers to the probability that our Confidence refers to the probability that our

estimations are correct. estimations are correct. – That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,

but it is also important that we can but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.chance of our being wrong.

– This is also known as confidence level.This is also known as confidence level.

6. Objectivity6. Objectivity

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values.or emotional values.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!employee participation would still help!

7. Generalizability7. GeneralizabilityIt refers to the scope of applicability of the research It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organization setting to other settings.findings in one organization setting to other settings.

Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in decision making enhances organizational decision making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and service organizations, manufacturing, industrial and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied and not merely in the particular organization studied by the researcher, then the generalizability of the by the researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other organizational settings in enhanced. findings to other organizational settings in enhanced. The more generalizable the research, the greater its The more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value.usefulness and value.

8. Parsimony8. ParsimonySimplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex research frameworks that always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors. consider an unmanageable number of factors.

For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are identified, which when changed would raise the identified, which when changed would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful be more useful and valuable to the would be more useful be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it were recommended that he should manager than if it were recommended that he should change 10 different variables to increase organizational change 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%. commitment by 48%.

The Building Blocks of Science in The Building Blocks of Science in ResearchResearch

Deduction and InductionsDeduction and InductionsAnswers to issues can be found Answers to issues can be found either by the process of either by the process of induction or the process of induction or the process of induction, or by a combination induction, or by a combination of the two.of the two.

DeductionDeduction Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a

reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. known fact.

Example: we know that all high performers are highly Example: we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs. proficient in their jobs. If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his jobis highly proficient in his job

InductionInduction Induction is a process where we observe certain Induction is a process where we observe certain

phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

In other words, in induction we logically In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on establish a general proposition based on observed facts.observed facts.

To define or describe the To define or describe the figure.figure.

Figure is a five-sided figure Figure is a five-sided figure enclosing two dots. enclosing two dots.

The Hypothetico-Deductive MethodThe Hypothetico-Deductive Method

ObservationObservation

– Observation is the first stage, in which Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are one senses that certain changes are occurring or that some new behaviors, occurring or that some new behaviors, attitudes and feelings are surfacing in attitudes and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the work one’s environment (i.e., the work place).place).

– How does one observe phenomena and How does one observe phenomena and changes in the environment?changes in the environment?

Preliminary Information Gathering:Preliminary Information Gathering:

– It involves the seeking of information in depth, of It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed.what is observed.

– This could be done by talking informally to several This could be done by talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients or to other people in the work setting or to clients or to other relevant sources, thereby gathering information on relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and why. (Unstructured what is happening and why. (Unstructured interviews) interviews)

– Then it is followed by structured interviews.Then it is followed by structured interviews.– Additionally by doing library research or obtaining Additionally by doing library research or obtaining

information through other sources, the investigator information through other sources, the investigator would identify how such issues have been tackled would identify how such issues have been tackled in other situations.in other situations.

Theory FormulationTheory Formulation

– It is an attempt to integrate all the information It is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manners, so that the factors in a logical manners, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be on responsible for the problem can be on conceptualized and tested.conceptualized and tested.

– The theoretical framework formulated is often The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition.guided by experience and intuition.

– In this step the critical variables are identified In this step the critical variables are identified and examined as to their contribution or and examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved. occurs and how it can be solved.

Hypothesizing Hypothesizing – It is the next logical step after theory formulation.It is the next logical step after theory formulation.– From the theorized network of associations among From the theorized network of associations among

the variables, certain testable hypotheses or the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated.educated conjectures can be generated.

– Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally formulated do get generated through the process of formulated do get generated through the process of induction. induction.

Further Specific Data CollectionFurther Specific Data Collection

–After the development of the After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the to each variable in the hypotheses need to be hypotheses need to be obtained.obtained.

–Further data are collected to Further data are collected to test the hypotheses that are test the hypotheses that are generated in the study.generated in the study.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

– Data gathered are statistically analyzed Data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported.generated have been supported.

– Co relational method will be used to Co relational method will be used to analyze and determine the relation ship analyze and determine the relation ship of two or more factors in the of two or more factors in the hypotheses for example: stock hypotheses for example: stock availability and customer satisfactionavailability and customer satisfaction..

DeductionDeduction–Deduction is the process of Deduction is the process of

arriving at conclusions by arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of interpreting the meaning of results of the data analysis.results of the data analysis.

Other Types of ResearchOther Types of Research

Case studies and action research Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.certain types of issues.

1.1. Case StudiesCase Studies

2.2. Action ResearchAction Research

Case StudiesCase Studies

Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in the other organizations, where similar situations in the other organizations, where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.the same as experienced in the current situation.

Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not often undertaken in organizations because such often undertaken in organizations because such studies dealing with problems similar to the one studies dealing with problems similar to the one experienced by a particular organization of a experienced by a particular organization of a particular size and in a particular type of setting are particular size and in a particular type of setting are difficult to come by.difficult to come by.

Action ResearchAction Research

The researcher begins with a problem that is already The researcher begins with a problem that is already identified and gathers relevant data to provide a identified and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution.tentative problem solution.

This solution is then implemented, with the This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may be unintended knowledge that there may be unintended consequences following such implementation. consequences following such implementation.

The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed and the research continues on an ongoing basis until and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.the problem is fully resolved.