f>rain by Deborah A. Stevens-Smith

Physical educators have known for decades that movement

can greatly impact a child's ability to learn. What has been

missing is the research to support this belief. During the last

1 0 years, however, there has been an increase in brain

research that provides a link connecting movement with the

enhancement of learning <King, 1999; NASPE, 2002;

Hillman, Castelli, & Buck, 2005).

Support for increased movement and physical activity

has come from pediatricians, kinesiologists, and neuroscien­

tists. Hannaford (1995) and Jenson (2000> found evidence in

brain scans that shows children learn best when they are mov­

ing. Other studies show that physical fitness and physical

activity each have an effect on cognition and academic perfor­

mance (Sibley & Etnier, 2003; Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard, Lazarus,

& Dean, 2001; Etnier et al., 1997). Movement stimulates the

neurons and electrical wiring that facilitate a child's ability to

take in information and learn. Part of this important link was

established when researchers traced a pathway from the cer­

ebellum to parts of the brain involved in memory, attention,

and spatial perception Uenson, 2000>. Researchers found that

the part of the brain that processes movement is the same

part of the brain that processes learning.

Dennison and Dennison (1994) described brain func­

tioning in terms of three dimensions: (1) laterality-the ability

to coordinate the left and right side of the brain, which is

fundamental to a child's ability to read, write, listen, or speak;

(2) centering-the ability to coordinate the top and bottom

areas of the brain, which is related to feelings and the

expression of emotions, clear responses, and organization;

and (3) focus-the ability to coordinate the back and front

areas of the brain. Focus affects comprehension, which

includes the ability to blend details so that children have

meaning and the ability to understand new information in

terms of previous experience.

The eyes play a very important role in the development of the brain dimensions. How the eyes perceive the informa­

tion that is processed by the brain is fundamental to how the

July I August 2006

brain uses the information. Research shows that students

who work to strengthen eye muscles demonstrate more effi­

cient eye teaming. Eye teaming is a process whereby the

child is able to coordinate his or her eye movements

together as a team, which enhances tracking, focus, and

concentration during visual tasks <Aibalos & Dennison,

1995). People without the ability to focus are often labeled

with attention disorders and an inability to comprehend.

Normal brain function requires efficient communication

between the many functional centers located throughout

the brain. Learning disabilities occur when information does

not flow freely between these centers of the brain.

Physical educators and classroom teachers can use brain

games to aid children in developing the neural connections

that assist in learning. The neurons in a child's brain make

many connections as they grow toward adulthood and

absorb the environment in which they live. A study by Rhodes

and Courneya (2003) found that exercise activity increases

neuronal growth, which positively correlates with improved

learning. Children who are exposed to an environment that is

rich with various activities and learning opportunities at a

young age can experience greater stimulation and a greater

number of inte'rconnections in the brain. The process of

establishing these interconnections is greatest between the

ages of 2 and 11 . As a child approaches puberty, connections

that the brain finds useful become permanent, while those

that are not useful are eliminated. All neural stimulation takes

place in response to movement <Hannaford, 1995). One way

to enhance learning is to create more of these synaptic con­

nections in the brain. The more connections one has, the bet­

ter and faster he or she becomes at using the information,

solving problems, and thinking.

Another important aspect of learning involves crossing

the midline of the body, which is called bihemispheric later­

alization. The midline divides the body and the brain into two equal halves. Each hemisphere of the brain is respon­

sible for multiple functions, which control the opposite side

STRATEGIES 19

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

of the body (left side of the brain controls the right side of

the body and vice versa). By forcing an arm or leg across the

midline to the other side, the brain must use both sides in an

integrated fashion, therefore developing greater neural con­

nections for learning. Think of the brain as a two-way street,

where you are the lone driver on your side of the street. In

order to be safe, you must stay on your side of the street and

never cross over the line. In this situation you would never

have an accident or problem. As the driver, you can travel

and get on and off on the same side of the street only. How­

ever, a quandary develops when you need to go somewhere

that is on the other side of the street. You need to learn how

to cross the street.

When driving, it is essential to be able to get on and off

both sides of the street, just as it is essential to be able to use

both sides of the brain. The street was built through a pro­

cess of stages where first a path for the road was carved in

the dirt, the asphalt was laid, and lines and directions were

added. A similar process must occur in the development of a

child's brain. Crossing the midline of the body is similar to

crossing a two-way street. When crossing the midline of the

body, if the proper foundations have not been laid, learning

problems can occur. Crossing the midline is important

because the brain uses the same neural connections used in

reading, writing, and math <Hannaford, 1995). Children

may have trouble learning because both sides of the brain

are not working together. When a child can't use both sides

of the brain, this can become a roadblock to learning.

The following variety of brain games can assist children

in developing the necessary brain wiring involved in

bihemispheric lateralization. Physical educators can help

children gain an understanding of how the brain works in

the three different dimensions and can work to strengthen

the brain connections necessary to be successful with basic

motor skills and the academic skills of reading, writing, and

math. These games can be used as pre-instructional (instant>

activities or challenge activities by the physical educator and

as supplemental activities for the classroom teacher. The games can be used specifically to address students with

learning and/or behavior problems. The creator of each

activity is listed where appropriate. If an activity is listed with­

out an author, then the creator is not known.

How the brain works from left to right: (laterality)

(1} Face Touch <Mauger Miller, 1974). Touch the left

side of your face with your left index finger and raise your

right hand. Switch. This should be an easy activity because

you did not have to cross the midline of the body.

20 STRATEGIES

<2> Thumb and Index Finger <Dennison & Dennison,

1994). Point your index finger straight out and with your

other hand extend your thumb up. Switch. This is a little

more difficult because you are trying to manipulate different

body parts.

(3) Gotcha' <Dennison & Dennison, 1994): See figure 1.

Get the group into a circle, shoulder to shoulder <or get a

partner). Raise your right hand, place it palm up and flat in

front of the person to your right. Place your left index finger in

the palm of the person to your left. As the teacher says

"Gotcha"' try to grab your neighbor's index finger and with­

draw your left finger before getting caught. Switch and do the

same with the left hand flat. We still did not cross the midline

of the body, but this is more difficult because we had to think

about doing two different things at the same time.

Additional movement activities. Additional movement

can be incorporated with the above activities by using them

in aerobics routines ("Face touch," 'Thumb and Index Fin­

ger") or in instant activities where children are introducing or

greeting other children C'Gotcha"').

How the brain works from top to bottom: (centering)

<1) Circle/Name. Draw a circle with your foot on the floor

and at the same time try to write your name in the air with

your hand. The brain will cause the foot to follow the same

pattern as the hand.

Additional movement activities. As children begin to use

their body to make letters or numbers, the "Circle/Name"

activity can be included for additional movement, and it can

also be used in conjunction with integrated spelling lessons.

July/ August 2006

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

Joining Forces

Create a pathway for your students from the classroom to careers through certification

Classroom ......... Certification ......... Careers Joining Forces The NSCA Certification Commission and NASPE have joined together to create a partnership that will address proper training of certification specialists, best practices for coaches and strength and conditioning professionals, the promotion of quality services of the NSCA Certification Commission, and more.

The NSCA Certification Commission, the certifying agency for the National Strength and Conditioning Association, offers two credentials for fitness professionals - the Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) credential is for professionals who design and implement strength training and conditioning programs for athletes, and the NSCA-Certified Personal Trainer® (NSCA-CPT®) credential is for those who train active and sedentary clients in one­on-one situations. The CSCS and NSCA-CPT exams are specifically based on "real world" responsibilities of strength and conditioning and personal training professionals. Today, more than 25,000 CSCS and NSCA-CPT credentials are held by professionals in the United States and in 44 other countries.

Why is Certification Important?

92% of employers feel that CSCS certified individuals demonstrate the knowledge necessary to design safe and effective strength training and conditioning programs.*

93% of employers feel that hiring CSCS certified individuals provides a high level of competency.*

88% of employers agree that CSCS certified individuals are more likely to advance in their career.*

--------*Based on the results of a 2004 survey of more than 770 employers of CSCS and/or NSCA-CPT certified individuals.

Certification is important to the future of your students as they embark on a career that is relatively unregulated by national standards. It is important for your students to understand that in order to establish themselves as strength and conditioning and/or personal training professionals, they must find a way to document their knowledge base. So why should your students choose to become NSCA certified?

• Earn the only strength training and conditioning certification to be nationally accredited* • Earn the only personal training certification to be nationally accredited since 1996* • Provide credibility for potential and current employers • Enhance career opportunities

*The CSCS and NSCA..CPT certifications offered by the NSCA Certification Commission are the only strength training and conditioning and personal training certifications to be nationally accredited since 1993 and 1996, respectively. NSCA accreditation provides assurances to consumers that the CSCS and NSCA-CPT certifications have met the highest test development standards available.

July/August 2006 Special Advertising Supplement STRATEGIES Sl

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

How the NSCA Certification Commission Can Help You 1. Provide exam preparation materials for designing courses in strength training and personal training .

./ Request desk copies for review

./ Receive quantity discounts on preparation materials for your students

./ Pass along a $50 exam registration fee discount to your students by having your curriculum program recognized by the NSCA's Education Recognition Program (see box below for more information)

2. Bring an exam to your area through the Exams on Request program (see box below for more information).

3. Provide a simple method for students to register for exams online or by mail or fax.

Setting the Course from the Classroom to Careers As the marketplace becomes increasingly more competitive, students need a solid foundation to advance in their careers. The NSCA Certification Commission offers educators the opportunity to create a pathway to certification for their students. The CSCS and NSCA-CPT certifications demonstrate a strong level of knowledge, skills, and abilities in strength training and conditioning and personal training, providing students a competitive edge in the workplace.

One of the many factors to consider as you select courses to develop is the impact that the course will potentially have on your students and their abilities to succeed professionally. By implementing a course that is designed to prepare them for success on the CSCS and/or NSCA-CPT certification exam(s), you are giving your students a head start on their careers.

Bring an Exam to Your School

The NSCA Certification Commission exams are scheduled through the Exams on Request program all over the world each year. Through the Exams on Request program, the NSCA Certification Commission is able to offer the CSCS and NSCA-CPT certification exams at educational sites that are convenient for your students.

Why should you provide these opportunities to your students?

Lower potential travel costs by bringing the exams to them

Help them become more marketable in the workforce

Create a level of credibility that is unmatched in the strength and conditioning and fitness professions

.../ Help them determine a successful and rewarding career path for themselves

To request a brochure describing the Exams on Request program, contact the NSCA Certification Commission or go to www.nsca-cc.org/resources/ host.html.

I ::t ·1 ~National Strength and Conditioning Association

l Education Recognition Program

The NSCA is continually contacted by individuals looking for a school with a strength and conditioning or personal training curriculum. Having your educational program recognized by the NSCA is a valuable marketing tool for your school. If you work in an educational institution offering a program in strength and conditioning and/or personal training, please contact the NSCA National Headquarters office at 800-815-6826 to request an application.

To become recognized, a school must be regionally accredited. The program must be a formalized area of study. The program needs to teach the required content areas and the school must have at least one full-time faculty member who is a CSCS or NSCA-CPT.

All students who have achieved senior status and are pursuing a degree through an ERP school will receive a $50 discount on the CSCS or NSCA-CPT exams .

Applications can be found online at www.nsca-lift.org/ ERP or by contacting the NSCA National Headquarters at 800-815-6826 or by sending an e-mail to kcinea@nsca-lift.org.

S2 STRATEGIES Special Advertising Supplement July I August 2006

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

The Importance of Strength Training in the Classroom and for Athletic Competition

All children need to participate regularly in physical activities that enhance and maintain cardiovascular and musculoskeletal health. While children have traditionally been encouraged to participate in aerobic activities such as swimming and bicycling, a compelling body of evidence indicates that strength training is a safe and effective method of conditioning for boys and girls, provided that appropriate training guidelines are followed. In addition to enhancing motor skills and sports performance, regular participation

in a youth strength training program has the potential to positively influence several measurable indices of health. It helps strengthen bone, facilitate weight control, enhance psychosocial well-being, and improve one's cardiovascular risk profile. Further, a stronger musculoskeletal system will enable children to perform life's daily activities with more energy and vigor, and may increase a young athlete's resistance to sports-related injuries.*

•Excerpt from "Youth Strength Training: Facts, Fallacies & Program Design Considerations" presentation by Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD, Flr!M CS::S, •o [);part IBt of 1-b:Jth md Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey.

Teachers and Coaches As you determine how to incorporate strength training principles into your classrooms and sports programs, be sure to consider the knowledge, skills, and abilities that you and your colleagues need to have in order to implement a safe and effective plan. You may have the equipment, the program plan, and the responsibility. But are you truly qualified? If you are, what have you done to demonstrate your qualifications to your administrators, parents, students, and athletes? If you do not feel you are qualified, what can you do about it?

GET CERTIFIED. Earning the cscs or NSCA-CPT certification can help you to establish the credibility and support needed to implement and maintain a successful strength training program in the classroom as well as in sports programs.

Ste s to Becomin Certified

1. Choose which certification you need: CSCS or NSCA-CPT

2. Register for an exam in your area at www.nsca-cc.org

3. Prepare for the exam (study material descriptions are available at www.nsca-cc.org)

4. Go to the testing location and sit for the exam

5. Earn the internationally recognized, nationally accredited CSCS or NSCA-CPT credential

Why Choose an NSCA Certification Commission Credential? Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) The CSCS certification is a specialized program that identifies individuals who have demonstrated proficiency in the areas of proper strength training and conditioning practices. NSCA certified professionals, including strength coaches, athletic trainers, physical therapists, personal trainers, physicians, chiropractors, researchers, and educators have diverse academic and professional backgrounds. CSCS professionals apply scientific knowledge to train athletes for the primary goal of improving athletic performance while reducing the likelihood of injuries. They conduct sport-specific testing sessions, design and implement safe and effective strength training and conditioning programs, and provide guidance regarding nutrition and injury prevention. Recognizing that their area of expertise is separate and distinct, CSCSs consult with and refer athletes to other professionals when appropriate.

NSCA-Certified Personal Trainer (NSCA-CPT) The NSCA-CPT certification was developed for personal trainers who work with both active and sedentary clients in one-on-one situations in a variety of settings. They assess, motivate, educate, and train clients regarding their health and fitness needs. They also design safe and effective exercise programs, provide the guidance to help clients achieve their personal health/fitness goals, and respond appropriately in emergency situations. Recognizing their own area of expertise, personal trainers refer clients to other professionals when appropriate.

NSCA CERTIFICATION COMMISSION" The Certifying Agency for the National Strength and Conditioning Association

Web site: www.nsca-cc.org • E-mail: commission@nsca-cc.org

July I August 2006 Special Advertising Supplement STRATEGIES S3

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

Exam Preparation Materials Available

Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, Second Edition textbook Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning Multimedia Symposium COs Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning Symposium workbook and audio COs CSCS Exam Content Description booklet Free Weight and Machine Exercise Techniques video Exercise Technique Checklist Manual CSCS Practice Exam booklet and video (three volumes available)

NSCA-Certified Personal Trainer NSCA's Essentials of Personal Training textbook Essentials of Personal Training Multimedia Symposium COs Essentials of Personal Training Symposium workbook and audio COs NSCA-CPT Exam Content Description booklet Free Weight and Machine Exercise Techniques video Exercise Technique Checklist Manual NSCA-CPT Practice Exam booklet and video (three volumes available)

ESSE!\-Ilc\1 .'\ n f SrRI''I;CIII lUAI!\I...:t; .md I :O'I;IliTIO:-; t 'l;l.

NATIONAL STRENGTH and CONOITIONL'iG ASSOCIATlOIJ Thool!MA8.>edllo Rq< W. £.v1c

See www.nsca-cc.org for complete product descriptions and to download the Study Suggestions documents.

Order Information The NSCA Certification Commission offers the following ways to order review materials: online at www.nsca-cc.org, by phone, mail or fax, using a purchase order or placing a request through your college/university bookstore.

Contact the NSCA Certification Commission office at 888-746-2378 for information regarding multiple copy purchase discounts and desk copy requests.

S4

For more information Please contact the NSCA Certification Commission for more information on the CSCS

and/ or NSCA-CPT and how it can benefit you and your students.

NSCA CERTIFICATION COMMISSION® The Certifying Agency for the National Strength and Conditioning Association

3333 Landmark Circle • Lincoln, NE 68504 • Phone: 402-476-6669 • Toll-free: 888-746-2378 Fax: 402-476-7141 • Web site: www.nsca-cc.org • E-mail: commission@nsca-cc.org

STRATEGIES Special Advertising Supplement July/ August 2006

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

How the brain works from front to back: (focus) (1) Pencil Top. Choose a partner and hold a pencil between

yourself and your partner. Move the pencil toward your

partner's nose at eye level. Your partner needs to focus on the

end of the pencil, as you begin to slowly move the pencil

toward your partner's face until it is almost touching his or her

nose. Slowly move the pencil backwards. Watch to see the

response of the eyes as the pencil moves closer to the face.

(2) Star and Octopus: See figure 2. Hold one hand out in

front of you so that you can look through your fingers at the

wall. Look at the palm of the extended hand and pretend

that there is a starfish in the palm of that hand. When the

teacher says "octopus," look through your fingers at the wall

beyond the hand. Wait a few seconds and then look at the

starfish again. In both of these exercises you can quickly feel

the pull on the eye muscles that results. Focusing on the star

and the pencil top is the same focus that is necessary to

focus on letters and words on a page. Teachers can begin to

understand the strain that occurs when a child is asked to

July/ August 2006

look at a paper on his or her desk and then up at the board.

Eyestrain is very prevalent if children are required to switch

views for an extended period of time.

Additional movement activities. "Pencil Top" and "Star

and Octopus" can be used when students are working on

eye-hand coordination or eye strengthening activities (can

also use a small ball or manipulative, like the end of a wand

or bat>.

Cross Lateralization Adivities: (bihemispheric lateralization) (1) Nose and Ear Touch <Promislow, 1998): See figure 3. Hold your nose, reach over or under with your other arm,

and grab your ear. Switch. This activity is difficult because

the students are required to cross the midline of the body.

Students will learn that with a little practice they can do the

switch without any difficulty. Once the neural pathways are

developed, the brain can process across both sides.

(2) Finger Touch <Blaydes, 2000>: See figures 4a-4d. Get a partner. To get into the proper hand position for this

STRATEGIES 21

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

game, partner 4f1 should pretend to clap his or her hands, but

miss bringing the hands together (hands go past each other,

so that arms are now crossed), then point thumbs downward.

Connect your fingers and pretend to scoop up some ice

cream. Turn to your partner and have him or her point to dif­

ferent fingers for you to move. Partner 4f1 should try to move

the fingers pointed out by partner #2. This is a difficult activity

because the midline must be crossed. The brain thinks the fin­

gers being pointed at are on the other side, but they are not,

so deciding which fingers to move is difficult.

(3} Gotcha' ... Again <Dennison 8. Dennison, 1994): See

figure S. In this activity you can almost feel the brain switch

from the right to the left hemisphere. This activity helps you

to see whose brain is working fastest. Do the activity as

directed previously ("Gotcha"'), but this time cross your right

hand over the top of your left arm. When you cross the mid­

line you have to concentrate harder. This helps your brain

perform faster and enhances problem-solving techniques.

(4} Slap Count <Dennison 8. Dennison, 1994}: See fig­

ures 6a-6c. This is an integrated game that can be used to

enhance skills in math and spelling. The activity involves

cross lateralization and attention and helps us see why

people cannot talk and listen at the same time. The brain

prioritizes what it gives attention to. It can think of only one

thing at a time when there is competition for attention.

Step #1. Find a partner; face your partner with your hands

extended and your palms up. Partner 4f1 slaps his or her

right hand into the right hand of partner 4f2 and then the

left hand into the left hand of partner #2. Partner 4f2 repeats

the same pattern as they both count out loud to 25. So, part­

ner 4f1 slaps his or her right hand to partner 4f2's right hand

and counts "one;" slaps his or her left hand to partner 4f2's

left hand and counts "two." Then, partner 4f2 slaps his or her

right hand to partner 4f1 's right hand and counts "three;"

slaps his or her left hand to partner 4f1 's left hand and

counts "four." The partners continue until they reach 25.

Step #2. Now skip count using the same right-left pattern,

counting by 3's, to 27 <e.g., 3, 6, 9).

Step #3. Slap count the letters of the alphabet into your

partner's hands. Partner 4f1 will begin with clapping the letter

"A" by reaching across to partner 4f2's opposite hand, clap­

ping, and saying the letter "A." The same person will reach

across with the other hand and say the letter "B." Partner 4f2

does the same while reaching across and saying the letters

"C" and "D." Continue until the entire alphabet is completed.

22 STRATEGIES

Mauger M iller (1974) documented that 100 percent of

the students who are struggling to read cannot do this activ­

ity. They do not have the alphabet embedded in memory

and cannot move and say the letters at the same time. The

key to this activity is its repetitive nature, which embeds the

alphabet using the right and left sides of the body and brain

by using a rhythmical pattern.

Step #4. Repeat the same with names and spelling words.

Partner 4f1 slaps his or her name (two letters at a time) into

the palms of partner #2. For example, partner 4f1 takes his

or her right hand to partner 4f2's right hand arid says "B;"

slaps his or her left hand to partner 4f2's left hand and says

"1." Then, partner 4f2 slaps his or her right hand to partner

4f1 's right hand and says "P;" slaps his or her left hand to

partner 4f1 's left hand and says "E." The partners continue

until they spell out their names <Bill and Pete). Repeat with

spelling words for the week. Children will notice how much

harder the brain works to spell out their name <or a spelling

word) and not think about what their partner is spelling.

This activity will be a real challenge for your students

because it trains the brain to think longer and harder.

(6} Shoe Tie (Blaydes, 2000}: See figures 7a and 7b.

This is a cooperative activity that strengthens communica­

tion and fine motor skills. Sit next to your partner and untie

one shoe that is between you. Partner 4f1 uses his or her

inside right hand while partner 4f2 uses his or her inside

left hand to tie the shoe into a bow. Repeat using the other

hand (non-dominant hand). This activity forces blood into

both sides of the brain causing better concentration and

longer attention.

Additional movement activities. All of the cross lateraliza­

tion activities can be incorporated into instant activities to

J uly/ August 2006

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016

start a lesson, aerobic or fitness routines, rhythmic activities,

and integrated spelling and math lessons.

Conclusion

Movement experiences help children connect learning with

academic concepts. Brain games can be used to help chil­

dren understand how the brain works and to enhance the

development of neural connections across the brain. Cur­

rent brain research continues to support the importance and

impact that movement activities can have on developing

learning skills. Jean~rod <1997> emphasizes the importance

of using movement to enhance learning when he states that

" . .. intelligence is not merely a mental phenomenon" and that

"the mind cannot be educated without the participation of

the body."

References Albalos, M ., &. Dennison, G. (1995). EduKinesthetics In-depth,

the seven dimensions of intelligence. Ventura, CA: Educational Kine­

siology Foundation.

Blaydes, J. (2000). How to make learning a moving experience.

Action Based Learning, Virginia Department of Education Video.

Dennison, P., &. Dennison, G. (1994). Brain gym: Teachers

edition. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics.

Dwyer, T., Sallis, J. F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R., 8. Dean, K.

{2001>. Relation of academic performance to physical activity and

July I August 2006

fitness in children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 13(3), 225-23 7.

Etnier, J. L., Salazar, W., Landers, D. M ., Petruzzello, S. J., Han,

M ., &. Nowell, P. (1997). The influence of physical fitness and exer­

cise upon cognitive functioning : A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport &

Exercise Psychology, 19(3), 249-277.

Hannaford, C. (1995). Smart moves: Why learning is not all in

your head Arlington, VA: Great Ocean Publishers.

Hillman, C., H., Castelli, D. M ., &. Buck, S. (2005). Physical fitness

and cognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Presented at

the American Alliance for the Health, Physical Education, Recreation

and Dance Annual Convention and Exposition, Chicago, IL.

Jeannerod, M . (1997). The cognitive neuroscience of action.

Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Jenson, E. (2000). Brain based learning. San Diego, CA: The

Brain Store.

King, D. (1999). Exercise seen boosting children's brain function.

Retrieved July 2, 2004, from http://www.pelinks4u.org/news/

bgbrain.htm.

Mauger Miller, S. (1974). The relationship of perceptual-motor

abilities to selected class performance. Unpublished Master's Thesis,

Wake Forest University.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2002).

New study supports physically fit kids perform better academically.

Reston, VA: Author.

Promislow, S. (1998). Making the brain-body connection. West

Vancouver, B.C., Canada: Kinetic Publish ing.

Rhodes, R. E., &. Courneya, K. S. (2003). Investigating multiple

components of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control:

An examination of the theory of planned behavior in the exercise

domain. British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 129-146.

Sibley, B. A, &. Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between

physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric

Exercise Science, 15(30), 243-256.

Deborah Stevens-Smith (stevens@clemson.edu) is on ossod­

ate professor in the Eugene T. Moore School of Education at

Clemson University, Clemson, SC

ST RATEGIES 23

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tho

mas

Law

son]

at 0

7:55

24

Mar

ch 2

016