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By: Philip Edwards

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Basic Facts

• U.S. vs. U.K.• 1812 to 1815• Coincided with war in Spain

against Napoleon• Took place in Great Lakes

Region, Ontario, Quebec,Lake Champlain, NovaScotia, and Bermuda

Napoleonsingle click speakerto hear audio clip >>>>>

Kidnappings, robberies, and a slew of other problems were enough to sendthe United States over the edge in 1812. The young and aggressive U.S. wastired of dealing with England and its tactics, so it declared war. The War of1812 was actually fought from 1812 to 1815 and pitted the U.S. against themore experienced and established England, along with its Native Americanallies. Fortunately for the U.S., most of England’s best soldiers and almost allof its powerful navy could not fight in the War of 1812 because England wasalready at war with Napoleon Bonaparte in Spain. The War of 1812 wasfought in the Great Lakes Region, Ontario, Quebec, Lake Champlain, NovaScotia, and Bermuda. Listen to this audio clip to learn more.

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Causes of War

• Impressments– Forcing sailors to

work– Used to fill depleted

ranks

The British kidnapped, or impressed, more than 6,000 U.S. sailors and forcedthem to work on British warships. Impressment is a politically correct way tosay “acceptable kidnappings for forced labor.” It’s like a military naval draft anda demanding big brother combined. The British needed impressmentsbecause most of their men were fighting in the war against Napoleon. Lowpay, poor living conditions, and threats of flogging also led to the shortage ofBritish sailors.Impressments were a legal way for “press gangs” to kidnap any Britishseafarer and add him to their crew. Even non-British subjects could beimpressed if they were born in England or one of her colonies. The law wasstretched to include sailors from ships breaking British trade embargoes. TheBritish started impressments in 1664.

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Causes of War, cont.

• Disruption of free trade– Britain embargoed all

trade to France– British seized many

U.S. cargos

– Thought illegalbecause U.S. wasneutral

The British stopped American ships from trading with France. They seizedAmerican ships on their way to France and stole the merchandise onboard.The U.S. believed that since it was then a neutral country, the British navy hadno right to seize ships and rob them. The trade embargo was another problemthat led to the War of 1812.

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Causes of War, cont.

• Native American land– Lands under pressure

from settlers– Starving tribes sold

land cheap– Tecumseh united

tribes against U.S.

Native Americans could not escape involvement in the War of 1812 becausemany of the battles took place in their own backyards, or in what used to betheir own backyards. Another cause of the war was that U.S. settlers keptpushing the Native American tribes westward. Some Eastern tribes—thePequot, Narragansett, Mahicans, and the Pokanoket—had severelydiminished and moved elsewhere. Tribes that fell on hard times often soldhuge tracts of land to settlers for next to nothing. Much to the settlers’ disdain,the British stepped in to help the Native Americans defend their land.Tecumseh, a very respected Native American leader, united tribes to fight thesettlers’ invasion and sided with the British during the war. The Cherokees,Oneidas, and other Native Americans fought on the American side.

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Prelude to War

• The Battle of Tippecanoe– Governor Harrison

vs. Tecumseh’sconfederation

– Motive for NativeAmericans to joinBritish

– Prophetstowndestroyed

– Victory for U.S.

The Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811 was the main reason manyNative Americans sided with the British. Tecumseh’s followers were stationedat Prophetstown, near the Tippecanoe River in the Indiana Territory. IndianaTerritory Governor William Henry Harrison was sent to Prophetstown to makepeace, but he had a strong contingent of militias who were looking for a fight.Nobody knows exactly how the hostilities started, but Harrison fared worse inthe casualty department, losing about 200 men. After the battle, U.S. forcesburned Prophetstown to the ground. As the village burned, so did Tecumseh’sdream of uniting tribes against the White settler invasion. The Battle ofTippecanoe was a victory for the U.S.

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The “War Hawks”

• Mainly Republicans• Led by Henry Clay

• Wished to punish British• First use of popular term

British support for the Native Americans was just another thorn in America’sside. A group of Republicans called the War Hawks decided it was time to stepup and make the British pay for their intimidating actions. The War Hawkswere mostly made up of representatives from Southern and Western statesand led by U.S. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky. Their goal wasto punish Britain for her actions and remove British influence from NorthAmerica once and for all, in order to eliminate any future threat to the U.S.Ironically, Clay was also known as “The Great Compromiser” for his ability tobring others to agreement.Note: This was the first use of the term “War Hawks,” and it was given to themen by prominent Virginia Congressman John Randolph of Roanoke, astaunch opponent of the war.

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U.S. Declares War

• Known as “Mr. Madison’s War”or “The Second AmericanRevolution”

• June 18, 1812• First Congressional declaration

of war• New England states opposed

war

Madison

The War of 1812 was also known as “Mr. Madison’s War” or “The SecondAmerican Revolution.” President James Madison signed the Declaration ofWar against Britain on June 18, 1812. This was the first of five times Congresshas actually declared war. Not everyone agreed with the war—the NewEngland states refused to provide soldiers or financial support and continuedto deal with the British throughout the war.Critical thinking question: What do you think would happen today if a staterefused to participate in a war?

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The Combatants

• Regulars– Professional soldiers

led by career officers

• Militias– The bulk of U.S.

forces

• Irregulars– Did the dirty work

Three types of soldiers fought in the War of 1812: regulars, militiamen, andirregulars. Regular troops were professional soldiers led by career officers.The British had the best army in the world, with up to 48,000 regulars. TheU.S. had more than 38,000 regulars, and many had fought in the French andIndian War, the Revolutionary War, and against Native American tribes. Eachside also had specialized troops like cavalry and batteries of horse-drawn fieldcannon. Well-trained regiments required 18 months of drilling.The U.S. had almost half a million militiamen, but most never even left theirhomes. Militiamen were part-time soldiers trained and commanded byindividual states. Militias were used mostly as a local reserve force and rarelydecided the fate of a battle.Irregulars (U.S. frontiersmen and Native Americans) attacked supply columns,shot officers and collaborators, did reconnaissance missions and generallytried to stir up as much trouble as possible behind enemy lines. They did thedirty work and were responsible for massacres. They also provided importantinformation to commanders, such as where, how many, and in what directionenemies were moving. In larger battles, irregulars kept to the edges, wherethey could pick off enemy officers and protect the army’s sides from enemyattacks.

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Restrictions on War

• Weather and sickness• Unwillingness of

many to fight• U.S. had almost

no navy

• Militias refusedto fight beyondstate borders

Bad weather, roads in poor condition, and lack of navigable river ways madewar especially challenging. Regulars had to obey orders on the pain ofdeath—they fought fierce warriors; attacked forts; and endured cold, sickness,and even frostbite. Disease and malnutrition thinned armies more surely thanbattles did. While Britain had the most powerful navy in the world, the U.S. hadalmost no navy. Desertions were common, especially among militias, whichgenerally refused to fight beyond their borders.

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Strategy

• British– Defend territories and

control seas– Blockade of major

U.S. ports• United States

– Invade Canada andremove British

– Recognition of U.S. rightto free trade

Strategy determines two things: (1) the overall goals of the campaign, and (2)where the crucial battles will be fought. Both the U.S. and the British had astrategy for winning the war. The British and their Native American allieselected to defend their frontiers and keep control over the seas. The British,with its most powerful navy in the world, used a closed blockade, whichstopped ships from leaving or entering the U.S. all along the EasternSeaboard. The Americans had an entirely different strategy. They decided toinvade Canada and remove the British from there. This, they hoped, wouldgive the U.S. free access to world markets without British interference.

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Hull’s Invasion of Canada

• July 12, 1812• U.S. thought Canada could be

easily overrun• Brigadier General William Hull

invaded Canada

• Capture of Hull’s letters informedBritish

• British prevailed Hull

Former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson dismissively referred to the conquestof Canada as a “matter of marching.” The basic feeling in the U.S. was thatCanada simply waited to be “freed” from British rule. The newly-formed U.S.talked tough, but it had little capacity to wage war. Brigadier General WilliamHull invaded Canada on July 12, 1812 from Detroit with an army mainlycomposed of militiamen. Things did not go according to plan. The Britishcaptured a small ship, the Cuyahoga Packet, which held all of Hull’scorrespondence, allowing them full access to his invasion plans. Britishregulars and highly motivated Canadian militia fighting on their own turf easilyturned back the invasion, with the help of Tecumseh’s Native Americans. Hullretreated to Detroit after the British victory.

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Fort Mackinac• July 17, 1812• Sneak attack• U.S. garrison under

Lt. Porter Hankssurrendered

• Avoided massacreby Native Americans

• Hanks and his menwere paroled

• Victory providedmore allied tribesfor British

It was Britain’s turn to attack. In a masterful operation, Captain CharlesRoberts attacked U.S. Fort Mackinac with a combined British and NativeAmerican force of 70 war canoes and ten bateaux. (A bateau is a long,narrow, wooden, canoe-like pole barge.) His large mixed force snuck up andsurrounded the fort, positioning their cannon to commence firing. The U.S.garrison of 60 men under Lieutenant Porter Hanks, who wasn’t even awarethe war had started, surrendered, wishing to avoid a massacre by NativeAmerican irregulars. Hanks and his men were paroled, and the islandinhabitants took an oath to the British empire. This British victory convincedeven more Native American tribes to join the British cause. Although the U.S.later tried to retake Fort Mackinac, the British held it for the rest of the war, andit was only returned by treaty.

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The Fall of Fort Detroit

• August 15, 1812• Artillery barrage

did little damage• Tecumseh’s arrival

provoked fear• Hull surrendered• More Native Americans joined British

The British knew Brigadier General Hull was at Fort Detroit, so they continuedtheir conquests there. The British started an artillery barrage, but it didn’t domuch damage. Tecumseh arrived with 500 warriors, causing Hull to surrenderto General Isaac Brock. Hull’s officers did not want to surrender, but Hull wasafraid of Native Americans and wanted to avoid casualties. Still, the U.S. lost2,200 men, Fort Detroit, military equipment, plus control of the MichiganTerritory. More Native Americans joined the British side.

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Fort Dearborn Massacre

• August 15, 1812• Captain Nathan Heald led group

to Fort Wayne• Chief Blackbird, with 500

Potawatomi and Winnebago,ambushed Heald

• Miami tribesmen and half thesoldiers were killed

Killings of regulars, militiamen, and even children made the American publiccry for revenge after the Fort Dearborn Massacre. Captain Nathan Heald,Commander of Fort Dearborn, was leading his soldiers, militiamen, women,and children to safety at Fort Wayne when they were ambushed. ChiefBlackbird, with 500 Potawatomi and Winnebago, scared off the Miami warriorsaccompanying Heald’s group, wiped out the local militia, and killed half theU.S. soldiers. One bloodthirsty young warrior beheaded twelve children, whowere hiding in a covered wagon. Even more Native Americans joinedTecumseh after the British victory.

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Native American Fighters

• Most fearedwarriors

• Fought withmuskets andtraditional arms

• Silent in forestsand excelledin ambush

• Blood-curdlingyells often won battles

General Hull wasn’t the only one afraid of the Native Americans—they werethe most feared warriors of their time. They fought with a mix of modernweapons like the musket and traditional weapons like the tomahawk. Theirability to move almost unnoticed in the forest and to carry out ambushes wasunparalleled. They were extremely brave even in pitched battle, and theirblood-curdling yells often won battles without a shot being fired.

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Constitution vs. Guerriere

• August 19, 1812• British frigate opened

fire upon Constitution

• After hard battle, Guerriere was a dismasted hulk• “Old Ironsides”

Not all of the battles took place on land or ended with a British victory. Off thecoast of Nova Scotia, the British frigate HMS Guerriere opened fire on theAmerican ship the USS Constitution. Captain Hull of the Constitution held hisship’s fire until the two warships were a mere 25 yards apart. After threecollisions and much firing, the Guerriere was a sinking, dismasted hulk. Britishfire seemed to bounce harmlessly off the Constitution, giving her the nickname“Old Ironsides.” American sailors had surprisingly beaten British sailors.The Constitution has been re-commissioned and is one of only two active dutyships ever to sink an enemy. She can be seen afloat at her berth in Boston.

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Battle of Queenston Heights

• October 13, 1812• British General Isaac

Brock killed

• U.S. Colonel Winfield Scott captured by British• Captain Robert Runchey’s Colored Company helped defeat U.S.

The British lost their best commander, General Isaac Brock, in the Battle ofQueenston Heights, in Ontario. He was shot by American sharpshooters.Outnumbered 6,000 to 1,500, the Brits still won because they were bettertrained and led. They beat New York militia forces led by Major GeneralStephen Van Rensselaer, denying the U.S. a crossing along the NiagaraRiver. Colonel Winfield Scott got his start in this battle, but he was capturedalong with more than 900 others. Captain Robert Runchey’s ColoredCompany played a significant role in driving the Americans off QueenstonHeights.

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Battle of the Mississinewa

• December 17 to 18, 1812• U.S. force of 600 attacked

Miami village• Surprise attack captured 76

prisoners• Miami counterattacked and

succeeded in protectingvillage

Canada and Michigan were not the only battle sites—the Battle of theMississinewa occurred in the Indiana Territory. William Henry Harrisonordered attacks against Miami Indian villages in response to their attacks onFort Wayne and Fort Harrison. Lieutenant Colonel John Campbell’s force of600 mounted troops left Fort Greenville on December 14 and traveled 80 milesto reach the Miami village on December 17. Campbell’s surprise attacksucceeded at first and he captured 76 prisoners, but the Miamiscounterattacked the next day and drove him off. 300 of Campbell’s troopssuffered frostbite before returning to Fort Greenville.

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Constitution vs. Java• December 29, 1812• Constitution’s heavier guns, resistant construction

withstood Java

• Java was burned

The last action of 1812 brought another victory for “Old Ironsides.” The USSConstitution, with 44 guns, battered the HMS Java, a 38-gun frigate, intosubmission after a hard, two-hour battle. Java, originally captured from theFrench, had recently been refitted and carried extra guns (49 total) at the timeof the battle. Constitution’s heavier guns and resistant construction of live oakallowed her to withstand Java’s broadsides. After the battle, Java was toodamaged to capture intact and was burned.

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Campaign Summary, 1812

• British repulsed U.S. landinvasions

• British gained Native Americanallies from Hull’s defeat

• Secretary of War William Eustisresigned

• U.S fared better on water thanon land

Eustis

1812 was not a great year of combat for the U.S. The British, despite pinpricksto its huge and powerful navy, repulsed U.S. invasions on land all along theCanadian frontier. The British also gained Native American allies from Hull’sdefeat along the Canadian frontier. The poor performance of the U.S. militaryforced William Eustis, the secretary of war, to resign.Shockingly, the U.S. had fared better on water than on land. This was quite afeat, since the British personified sea power in the 1800s, with the largest,most powerful navy in the world. The U.S. Navy was almost non-existent atthis time with the exception of a few heavily built frigates like the Constitution.U.S. frigates could outrun more powerful ships and outfight similar-sizedBritish frigates.

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Battle of Frenchtown

• January 22, 1813• Also known as “River

Raisin Massacre”• Severe defeat for U.S.• Winchester was

captured by ChiefRoundhead

• Only 33 of 1,000 U.S.soldiers escaped

The Americans began 1813 by unsuccessfully trying to retake Detroit. GeneralWilliam Henry Harrison—the new commander to replace the cowardlyHull—divided his army into two supporting columns, but they got separated.General James Winchester disobeyed orders to stay close and led his columnahead to Frenchtown. A surprise British and Native American attack crumbledhis defensive positions there, and Chief Roundhead captured Winchester onhis way to the front lines. Only 33 of the 1,000 men in Winchester’s columnescaped capture or death. The Battle of Frenchtown in the Michigan Territory(also known as the “River Raisin Massacre”) was a severe defeat for theAmericans.

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British Blockade

• March 30, 1813• All maritime traffic

from Long Island toMississippi blockaded

• Southern statessuffered hugecommercial losses

• Blockade in effectfor duration of war

• New England exemptedfrom blockade

On March 30, 1813, British naval ships extended their blockade, stopping allmaritime traffic from Long Island to Mississippi. The Southern states sufferedhuge commercial losses when they were unable to send products to overseasmarkets. This blockade remained in effect for the duration of the war. The NewEngland states, since they did not participate in the war, were exempted fromthe blockade and continued to trade—even with the British. Leakage fromsmaller ports allowed U.S. privateers (mostly small ships) to roam the oceanand capture British ships.

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Battle of York

• April 27, 1813• U.S. defeated British and

Canadian militia• Arson by U.S. provides motive for

burning of Washington• Famous explorer Brigadier General

Zebulon Pike was killed

Land and water were a great combination for the Americans. General HenryDearborn and Commodore Isaac Chauncey led an American force of 1,600 to1,800 men, supported by a naval flotilla, to the area just west of the city ofYork (now Toronto) in Canada. British commander Major General Roger HaleSheaffe had about 700 British and Canadian militiamen and regulars to defendthe town and fort. Chauncey’s small fleet bombarded the city and knocked outthe defending batteries, allowing Dearborn’s land forces to surround York.Believing the battle was lost and unable to concentrate his forces, Sheafferetreated—this failure cost him his job and position as lieutenant governor ofUpper Canada.The American forces looted and committed arson, providing the motive for thelater sacking and burning of Washington D.C. Flying stones and debris from amagazine explosion set by the retreating British mortally injured the famousAmerican explorer Brigadier General Zebulon Pike.

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Siege of Fort Meigs

• April 28 to May 9, 1813• U.S. successfully defended fort

against Procter• Fort bombarded while relief

force arrived• British cannons captured and

recovered• Tecumseh decimated Clay’s

relief force• British withdrew May 9 Procter

The British bombarded Fort Meigs (located in Northwestern Ohio) from April28 to May 9, 1813. Major General William Henry Harrison, with 1,200 regularsand militiamen, successfully defended the fort against British BrigadierGeneral Henry Procter along with Native Americans under Chief Tecumseh.General Green Clay brought 800 men to help Harrison. Clay’s forces tookBritish cannons, but a British counterattack recovered them, and Tecumseh’swarriors attacked Clay’s forces. Still, the bombardment did not work, and theBritish withdrew on May 9. U.S. losses were 388 casualties and about 500prisoners; British and Native American losses came to fewer than 150.

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Invasion on Sackets Harbor

• May 28 to 29, 1813• Harbor attacked to

destroy new U.S. frigateGeneral Pike

• Successful defense afterBritish hesitated

• General Pike burned but laterrebuilt

• Considered a U.S. victory

New York City shipbuilder Henry Eckford was building a great ship called theGeneral Pike. On May 28, 1813, the ship, named after Zebulon Pike, laidalmost completed in Sackets Harbor. That’s when the British tried to destroy it.British leaders Sir George Prevost and Sir James Yeo attacked the harborwhile its U.S. defenders were busy attacking somewhere else. The Britishhesitated because they weren’t familiar with the local waters, so U.S. GeneralJacob Brown was able to successfully defend the harbor. The General Pikewas partially burned, but it was later rebuilt because its timbers were stillgreen. The successful defense of the base counted as a victory for U.S.forces.

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Battle of Lake Erie

• September 10, 1813• First entire British

fleet ever to becaptured

• Dramatic four-hourbattle at Put-in-Bay

• British withdrew from bases on Lake Erie

“We have met the enemy and they are ours,” U.S. Master Commandant OliverHazard Perry wrote.The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Put-in-Bay,(located off the coast of Ohio), represented the first time in history that anentire British fleet was completely defeated and captured. Here’s how ithappened: Without control of Lake Erie, British supplies at Fort Amherstburgwere running low. For British Army Commander Henry Procter and his navalcommander Robert Barclay, the situation was desperate. The British squadronhad no choice but to risk a battle for control of Lake Erie, even though theywere outnumbered. Barclay sailed out of Amherstburg to meet Perry’ssquadron at Put-in-Bay. After almost four hours of intense cannon fire andmany deaths, the British surrendered. Only 20 percent of the men on Perry’sflagship escaped unscathed. Having lost control of Lake Erie, Procterabandoned Amherstburg and withdrew up the Thames Valley.

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Battle of Moraviantown

• October 5, 1813• Also called the Battle of

the Thames• High point in U.S.

campaign• British lost control west

of Lake Ontario• Tecumseh slain• Native Alliance collapsed

with death of Tecumseh

The great Native American Tecumseh was killed in hand-to-hand combat atthe Battle of Moraviantown. This battle, also called the Battle of the Thames,was the high point in the U.S. campaign to conquer Canada. British MajorGeneral Henry Procter lost control west of Lake Ontario, and the NativeAlliance collapsed with the death of Tecumseh.

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Tecumseh’s Quotations

“How can we have confidence in thewhite people? When Jesus Christcame upon the earth, you killed him,the son of your own God, you nailedhim up! You thought he was dead,but you were mistaken. And onlyafter you thought you killed him didyou worship him, and start killingthose who would not worship him.What kind of a people is this for us totrust?”— Tecumseh

“When the legends die, the dreamsend; there is no more greatness.”

— Tecumseh

single click speakers to hear audio clips >>>>>

Tecumseh was more than just a leader and astute warrior. Although normallyassociated with the Shawnee, he had many followers from other tribesbecause he believed that a tribal union was the best way to stop Whiteadvancement. His quotations are as valid today as they were 200 years agoand raise interesting questions. Listen to these two clips of Tecumseh’squotations. Then read the other two quotations printed on the slide.

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Battle of Chrysler’s Farm

• November 11, 1813• Part of 7,000-man

U.S. army engaged

• British caused U.S.forces to retreat

• British creditedwith lopsided victory

U.S. confidence was up, and Montreal was next. Major General JamesWilkinson left Sackets Harbor with an army of more than 7,000 to sail downthe St. Lawrence River and attack Montreal. To lighten the boats and clear thebank of enemies, Wilkinson portaged his army near Chrysler’s farm. (Portagemeans to carry a boat over land to avoid an obstacle in the water.) AtChrysler’s Farm he found two regiments of British regulars (800 men) and afew Canadian militias. U.S. attacks failed to dislodge the well-trained Britishregulars led by Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison. Eventually, theAmerican soldiers retreated, and Wilkinson’s campaign to capture Montreal fellapart.

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Campaign Summary, 1813

• U.S. won control of LakeErie and Lake Ontario

• Smaller British forcesrebuffed U.S. invasions

• Tecumseh’s deathweakened First Nationalliance

• U.S. militias poorly trained,motivated and led

• Native Americans lost OhioValley to settlers

1813 was a banner year for the U.S. Navy, but ground forces had little tocheer about. With the exception of the Battle of York, British forces inflictedsharp defeats on the U.S. The death of Tecumseh weakened Native Americanaims, but they continued to fight on the British side. U.S. militias and theircommanders learned the hard way that an invasion of Canada would bedifficult, and many were losing their appetite for further battle. However, theNative Americans lost the Ohio Valley to settlers.

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Second Battle of La Colle Mill

• March 30, 1814• 4,000 U.S. stymied by 80

British inside blockhouse• British fired first Congreve

rockets• Casualties:

U.S., 160;British, 60

How could 80 soldiers fend off 4,000? Blockhouses were one way. Thesesingle-building forts were often multi-storied and made of heavy timbers thatonly a large cannon could damage. Small slits cut into the wall (calledloopholes) permitted soldiers to fire at enemy troops in relative safety.Blockhouses were used to block roads, bridges and river crossings.At the Second Battle of La Colle Mill, 4,000 U.S. troops used cannon andmortars to attack, but British sharpshooters in a blockhouse drove the U.S.and Major General James Wilkinson away. The British fired the newlyintroduced Congreve rockets, which did little damage but provoked confusionand fear. British forces received relief from the Canadian Fencibles (troopsdesigned to defend Canada from foreign hostilities) and the royal navy, givingthem a total of 500, with which they drove back the attackers. U.S. casualtieswere 160, the British only had 60.La Colle Mill was the site of two battles. The first battle was only a smallskirmish in 1812.

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Congreve Rockets

• Inspired “And the rockets’ redglare, the bombs bursting in air”in “The Star-Spangled Banner”

• Resembled a large pop-bottlerocket

• Invented by Sir WilliamCongreve in 1804

• Hard to aim, difficult to control,short range

Do you know where the line “And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting inair” in “The Star-Spangled Banner” comes from? The line is a reference toCongreve rockets the British used. Sir William Congreve created the rocketsafter hearing how effective rockets had been against British troops in India. ACongreve rocket looked like a large pop-bottle rocket. It was a steel tube witha conical cap mounted on a long pole used to guide it in flight. Fired from asimple A-frame device, it was designed to fly a short distance and explodeamidst the enemy like a large firework. Unfortunately, it often explodedprematurely. It could, however, do considerable damage when it did manageto hit something.

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Niagara Campaign of 1814

• U.S. plan to divide Canada bycapturing Kingston or Montrealfailed

• U.S. desired British territory tobargain in peace negotiations

• British won war againstNapoleon, freeing reservesfor North American war

• U.S. fleet arrived on LakeOntario to conduct newoffensive

After two years of war, the U.S. forces had little to show for their efforts. Theoriginal plan to divide Canada by occupying either Kingston or Montreal hadfailed miserably. Adding to U.S. woes were newly available British reservescoming from the European Theater, where Napoleon Bonaparte had recentlybeen defeated. President Madison increased pressure to win some Britishterritory in order to have a better bargaining position for the coming peacenegotiations. Secretary of War John Armstrong directed Major General JacobBrown and Isaac Chauncey’s fleet on Lake Ontario to conduct a newoffensive. This began the Niagara Campaign of 1814.

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Battle of Chippewa

• July 5, 1814• U.S. regulars turned back

larger British force• Scott’s troops mistaken for

U.S. militia

Scott

An important U.S. victory took place at the Battle of Chippewa, whereBrigadier General Winfield Scott turned back a larger force under British MajorGeneral Phineas Riall. Riall saw Scott’s troops clad in grey—the color of militiauniforms—and thought he would easily defeat the poorly trained troops.Scott’s troops were actually well-trained regulars who had spent the last 18months honing their skills. The British lost 500 men and were forced to retreat.The U.S. forces suffered about 300 casualties.

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Battle of Lundy’s Lane

• July 25, 1814• Bloody,

indecisivebattle

• Scott badly wounded• Both sides suffered about 900 casualties

A very bloody and indecisive battle occurred a few days later and a few milesnorth of Chippewa. The Battle of Lundy’s Lane proved that the Americanswere a force to be reckoned with, but victory came at a price. This timeBrigadier General Winfield Scott, with 1,000 regulars, came up against BritishLieutenant General Gordon Drummond with 2,800 regulars. The Britishdefended well against the U.S. attack, but they spent days trying to recapturelost artillery. Scott was badly wounded and both sides suffered about 900casualties.

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Battle of Lundy’s Lane Map

single click screento view map

This map illustrates the Battle of Lundy’s Lane.

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Siege of Fort Erie

• August 4 toSeptember 21, 1814

• U.S. successfullydefended Fort Erie

• Magazine explosion kills200 British

• Casualties: British,1,000; U.S., around 600

• Last important battle inNiagara Campaign

American troops withdrew to Fort Erie. The British troops followed, intending todrive them out of Canada, but Brigadier General Edmund P. Gainessuccessfully defended Fort Erie against British General Gordon Drummond. ABritish attack almost took Fort Erie and captured several cannons, but amagazine explosion killed 200 British who managed to break in. U.S.counterattacks stopped the siege. The British suffered about 1,000 casualties;the U.S. suffered around 600, mostly resulting from the counterattack againstthe retreating British regulars. This was the last important battle in the NiagaraCampaign.

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The Washington Campaign

• August to September 1814• Series of British raids in

Chesapeake Bay usedto create diversion

• Washington virtuallyunprotected

The British turned to their navy. They used a series of raids in the ChesapeakeBay region to create a diversion from the Niagara and Great Lakescampaigns. The British controlled the seas and moved at will along the wholeof the Eastern Seaboard. Washington was virtually unprotected, and Baltimorewas an important military target since it was an active port.

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Battle of Bladensburg

• August 24, 1814• Prelude to burning of

Washington D.C.• British easily defeated

inept U.S. militia

• Way cleared to enterWashington D.C.

At the Battle of Bladensburg, U.S. General William H. Winder and almost7,000 poorly trained militiamen failed to stop General Robert Ross and 4,500regulars on the way to Washington D.C. When the British troops reached thecapital, 400 U.S. sailors and Marines with cutlasses and pikes put up a bravedefense, but government officials were forced to flee the city.

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The Burning of Washington

• August 24, 1814• British burned

public buildingsbut sparedresidentialbuildings

• Capitol Buildingset ablaze

• Americansburned NavyYard and frigateColumbia

• First Lady Dolly Madison saved Washington’s portrait• British occupied Washington for 26 hours

Washington D.C. was ablaze. Forces under Admiral George Cockburn andGeneral Robert Ross burned the Senate, House of Representatives andLibrary of Congress, which were all housed in the Capitol Building at the time.The Americans burned the Navy Yard and the unfinished 44-gun frigate,Columbia, to prevent the British from using them. First Lady Dolly Madisonmanaged to save George Washington’s portrait from the White House.Residential buildings were spared. Cockburn ordered that all the newspaperprinters be destroyed and specifically all the letters “C” burnt so that the presswould stop printing nasty articles about him. Cockburn was going to burn theoffices of the newspaper for the National Intelligence, but local womenpleaded with him not to for fear that the fire would spread to their homes. Hespared that building but still destroyed the letter “C” on the presses. The Britishoccupied Washington for only 26 hours.

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Battle of Plattsburgh

• September 6 toSeptember 11, 1814

• Decisive U.S.victory defendingPlattsburgh Bay

• Attack turned backby Vermont militia

• Naval defeat forcedBritish to retreat

Captain Thomas Macdonough and General Alexander Macomb successfullydefended Plattsburgh Bay in a crucial win for American forces. Macdonough’sanchored fleet forced British Captain Downie’s squadron to surrender after abloody two-hour cannonade. Downie was killed. The Vermont militiaambushed British General Prevost and his troops, who were trying to attackthe city of Plattsburgh. With the navy defeated in the bay, Prevost called offthe attack and returned to base. This battle was important because it endedthe British campaign in the Northern area and brought Vermont into the war.

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British Attack on Baltimore

• September 12, 1814• British lost

commander tosniper

• Bombardment bycannon and rocketsfailed

• Inspired FrancisScott Key’s poem“The Star-SpangledBanner”

• British defeated incrucial battle

Still fired up from their attack on Washington D.C., the British sought Baltimoreas their next victim. British Admiral Alexander Cochrane tried to reduce part ofBaltimore’s defenses at Fort McHenry. The British lost General Robert Ross toa sniper during a small skirmish near the fort. Bombardment by cannon androckets failed to subdue Fort McHenry and inspired Francis Scott Key’s poem“The Star-Spangled Banner.” Had the British been able to bring in their largeand powerful navy, the outcome of their attack on Baltimore might have beendifferent. Fortunately for the U.S., the water was too shallow to permit largerships from closing on the fort. This was one of the turning points in the war.

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“The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light,What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s

last gleaming,Whose broad stripes and bright stars,

through the perilous fightO’er the ramparts we watched, were so

gallantly streaming?And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs

bursting in airGave proof through the night that our flag

was still there;O say, does that star-spangled banner yet

waveO’er the land of the free and the home of the

bravesingle click speakerto hear audio clip >>>>>

Did you know that a 35-year-old lawyer wrote the U.S. national anthem? Thelyrics of “The Star-Spangled Banner” were written in 1814 by Francis ScottKey, who was also an amateur poet. He wrote the lyrics as a poem afterseeing the British navy’s bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore,Maryland. Listen to this clip of LeAnn Rimes singing the national anthem.

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Anti-war Movement

• Based in New Englandstates

• Anti-war movement mayhave saved U.S.

• Some states consideredsecession

Just like in today’s world, not every American in the 1800s thought thatAmerica should have been involved in the war. The War of 1812 can beconsidered the birth of serious anti-war movements in the U.S. New England,with the brief exception of Vermont's participation against the British on LakeChamplain in 1814, did not play any part in the war and even consideredsecession as a form of protest. Ironically, the anti-war movement helped forcethe Treaty of Ghent and may have saved the U.S. from eventual defeat by theBritish, who were much stronger militarily. In fact, the British people hardlynoticed the war since Napoleon Bonaparte represented a much more pressingthreat. The outcome might have been different had the British directed all theirmight against the U.S.

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The Treaty of Ghent

• Signed December 24, 1814 in Ghent, Belgium• Ended War of 1812• Neither side gained advantage

• Confirmed U.S. independence

The War of 1812 ended in a stalemate and was finalized with the Treaty ofGhent in 1814. Treaty terms specified status quo ante bellum meaning “thesame as before the war,” so neither side gained any real territorial advantage.The treaty restored pre-war boundaries and released all prisoners. Weakguarantees regarding Native American treatment were ignored, and Britishproposals to create a Native American buffer zone in Ohio and Michigancollapsed after the Indian coalition fell apart.

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Campaign Summary, 1814

• Defeats for invading forceson all fronts

• Failure to capture Baltimorenot compensated by burningof Washington

• Battle of New Orleans due topoor communication

• Neither side gained advantage

In today’s world of lightning-fast news and the Internet, it is difficult to imaginethat a peace treaty could be signed in France but not heard about in the U.S.for weeks. In 1814, the British continued their campaign in the South aroundNew Orleans because they didn’t know the war was over. At the end of 1814,the score was pretty much the same. Invading forces—U.S. and Britishalike—suffered serious defeats on all fronts. Although a blow to the youngnation’s pride, the burning and sacking of Washington D.C. did not alter thestrategic balance of power. Neither side was able to make territorial gains thatcould influence the Treaty of Ghent.

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Battle of New Orleans

• January 8, 1815• British decisively

defeated• U.S. gunboats

eliminated• Last battle of the war• Jackson became a hero, Pakenham killed

Unaware that peace had been declared in 1814, Major General AndrewJackson decisively defeated a large British army intent on seizing NewOrleans—the gateway to the Mississippi. Future U.S. president Jacksonbecame a hero in this last battle of the war.British naval units under command of Admiral Cochrane eliminated U.S.gunboats guarding the Lake Borgne entrance to New Orleans. This allowedthe British to land more than 10,000 seasoned regulars with cannon. BritishGeneral Edward Pakenham hesitated to attack, allowing Jackson to form the“Line Jackson”—4,000 U.S. troops well-dug in and protected by a dozencannon. Even with support form the British navy, Pakenham could not take theU.S. position and died in the attempt. Although this U.S. win at New Orleansdid not change treaty terms, it helped reinforce U.S. rights.Critical thinking question: If Jackson had had a cell phone, do you think hewould have become president?

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Battle of New Orleans Map

single click screento view map

This map illustrates the Battle of New Orleans.

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The Aftermath of the War

• Greatest losers Native Americantribes around Great Lakes

• Both sides accepted status quoante bellum

• Impressments and blockades byBritish stopped by the end ofthe war

The war was over. The Native American tribes south and west of the GreatLakes lost their British allies, which ended the dream of a new NativeAmerican nation. Both sides accepted status quo ante bellum—the way thingswere before the war. Impressments and blockades by the British, bothprincipal reasons for starting the conflict, ended before the war did.

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Conclusion

• “Forgotten War” because itchanged little

• Disaster for War Hawks’careers

• Reaffirmed U.S. sovereignstatus

• Beginning of U.S. anti-warmovement

• Showed difficulty ofconquering other nations Clay

single click speakerto hear audio clip >>>>>

Because it came at a great cost of lives but accomplished little, The War of1812 is often known as the “Forgotten War.” However, it did reaffirm that theU.S. was a sovereign nation that would protect its people and commercialinterests. The U.S. anti-war movement got its start in this war and continues tothis day to be a political force. The war also showed just how hard it is for onecountry to conquer another country. Listen to this clip for more about thesignificance of the War of 1812.

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