by suren manvelyan, //hays/compvision2017/lectures/19.pdf · sampling strategies 61 k. grauman, b....

By Suren Manvelyan, http://www.surenmanvelyan.com/gallery/7116

Image Categorization

Training Labels

Training

Images

Classifier Training

Training

Image Features

Image Features

Testing

Test Image

Trained Classifier

Trained Classifier Outdoor

Prediction

History of ideas in recognition

• 1960s – early 1990s: the geometric era

• 1990s: appearance-based models

• Mid-1990s: sliding window approaches

• Late 1990s: local features

• Early 2000s: parts-and-shape models

• Mid-2000s: bags of features

Svetlana Lazebnik

Bag-of-features models

Svetlana Lazebnik

ObjectBag of

‘words’

Bag-of-features models

Svetlana Lazebnik

Objects as texture

• All of these are treated as being the same

• No distinction between foreground and background: scene recognition?

Svetlana Lazebnik

Origin 1: Texture recognition

• Texture is characterized by the repetition of basic elements

or textons

• For stochastic textures, it is the identity of the textons, not

their spatial arrangement, that matters

Julesz, 1981; Cula & Dana, 2001; Leung & Malik 2001; Mori, Belongie & Malik, 2001;

Schmid 2001; Varma & Zisserman, 2002, 2003; Lazebnik, Schmid & Ponce, 2003

Origin 1: Texture recognition

Universal texton dictionary

histogram

Julesz, 1981; Cula & Dana, 2001; Leung & Malik 2001; Mori, Belongie & Malik, 2001;

Schmid 2001; Varma & Zisserman, 2002, 2003; Lazebnik, Schmid & Ponce, 2003

Origin 2: Bag-of-words models

• Orderless document representation: frequencies of words

from a dictionary Salton & McGill (1983)

Origin 2: Bag-of-words models

US Presidential Speeches Tag Cloudhttp://chir.ag/phernalia/preztags/

• Orderless document representation: frequencies of words

from a dictionary Salton & McGill (1983)

1. Extract features

2. Learn “visual vocabulary”

3. Quantize features using visual vocabulary

4. Represent images by frequencies of “visual words”

Bag-of-features steps

1. Feature extraction

• Regular grid or interest regions

Normalize

patch

Detect patches

Compute

descriptor

Slide credit: Josef Sivic


…



2. Learning the visual vocabulary

…



Clustering

…



Clustering

…


Visual vocabulary

K-means clustering

• Want to minimize sum of squared Euclidean

distances between points xi and their

nearest cluster centers mk

Algorithm:

• Randomly initialize K cluster centers

• Iterate until convergence:• Assign each data point to the nearest center

• Recompute each cluster center as the mean of all points

assigned to it

k

ki

ki mxMXDcluster

clusterinpoint

2)(),(

Clustering and vector quantization

• Clustering is a common method for learning a

visual vocabulary or codebook• Unsupervised learning process

• Each cluster center produced by k-means becomes a

codevector

• Codebook can be learned on separate training set

• Provided the training set is sufficiently representative, the

codebook will be “universal”

• The codebook is used for quantizing features• A vector quantizer takes a feature vector and maps it to the

index of the nearest codevector in a codebook

• Codebook = visual vocabulary

• Codevector = visual word

Example codebook

…

Source: B. Leibe

Appearance codebook

Visual vocabularies: Issues

• How to choose vocabulary size?• Too small: visual words not representative of all patches

• Too large: quantization artifacts, overfitting

• Computational efficiency• Vocabulary trees

(Nister & Stewenius, 2006)

But what about layout?

All of these images have the same color histogram

Spatial pyramid

Compute histogram in each spatial bin

Spatial pyramid representation

• Extension of a bag of features

• Locally orderless representation at several levels of resolution

level 0

Lazebnik, Schmid & Ponce (CVPR 2006)




level 0 level 1



level 0 level 1 level 2




Scene category dataset

Multi-class classification results

(100 training images per class)

Caltech101 datasethttp://www.vision.caltech.edu/Image_Datasets/Caltech101/Caltech101.html

Multi-class classification results (30 training images per class)

Bags of features for action recognition

Juan Carlos Niebles, Hongcheng Wang and Li Fei-Fei, Unsupervised Learning of Human

Action Categories Using Spatial-Temporal Words, IJCV 2008.

Space-time interest points

http://vision.stanford.edu/niebles/humanactions.htm

History of ideas in recognition

• 1960s – early 1990s: the geometric era

• 1990s: appearance-based models

• Mid-1990s: sliding window approaches

• Late 1990s: local features

• Early 2000s: parts-and-shape models

• Mid-2000s: bags of features

• Present trends: combination of local and global

methods, context, deep learning

Svetlana Lazebnik

Large-scale Instance Retrieval

Computer Vision

James Hays

Many slides from Derek Hoiem and Kristen Grauman

Multi-view matching

vs

…

?

Matching two given

views for depth

Search for a matching

view for recognition

Kristen Grauman

Perc

eptu

al

and S

enso

ry A

ugm

ente

d C

om

puti

ng

Vis

ual

Ob

ject

Reco

gn

itio

n T

uto

rial

Video Google System

1. Collect all words within

query region

2. Inverted file index to find

relevant frames

3. Compare word counts

4. Spatial verification

Sivic & Zisserman, ICCV 2003

• Demo online at : http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~vgg/r

esearch/vgoogle/index.html

Query

region

Retrie

ved fra

mes

Kristen Grauman

Perc

eptu

al

and S

enso

ry A

ugm

ente

d C

om

puti

ng

Vis

ual

Ob

ject

Reco

gn

itio

n T

uto

rial

Vis

ual

Ob

ject

Reco

gn

itio

n T

uto

rial

Application: Large-Scale Retrieval

[Philbin CVPR’07]

Query Results from 5k Flickr images (demo available for 100k set)

Simple idea

See how many keypoints are close to keypoints in each other image

Lots of

Matches

Few or No

Matches

But this will be really, really slow!

Indexing local features

• Each patch / region has a descriptor, which is a

point in some high-dimensional feature space

(e.g., SIFT)

Descriptor’s

feature space

Kristen Grauman

Indexing local features

• When we see close points in feature space, we

have similar descriptors, which indicates similar

local content.

Descriptor’s

feature space

Database

images

Query

image

Easily can have millions of

features to search! Kristen Grauman

Indexing local features:

inverted file index• For text

documents, an

efficient way to find

all pages on which

a word occurs is to

use an index…

• We want to find all

images in which a

feature occurs.

• To use this idea,

we’ll need to map

our features to

“visual words”.Kristen Grauman

Visual words

• Map high-dimensional descriptors to tokens/words

by quantizing the feature space

Descriptor’s

feature space

• Quantize via

clustering, let

cluster centers be

the prototype

“words”

• Determine which

word to assign to

each new image

region by finding

the closest cluster

center.

Word #2

Kristen Grauman

Visual words

• Example: each

group of patches

belongs to the

same visual word

Figure from Sivic & Zisserman, ICCV 2003 Kristen Grauman

Visual vocabulary formation

Issues:

• Vocabulary size, number of words

• Sampling strategy: where to extract features?

• Clustering / quantization algorithm

• Unsupervised vs. supervised

• What corpus provides features (universal vocabulary?)

Kristen Grauman

Sampling strategies

61 K. Grauman, B. LeibeImage credits: F-F. Li, E. Nowak, J. Sivic

Dense, uniformly Sparse, at interest

pointsRandomly

Multiple interest

operators

• To find specific, textured objects, sparse

sampling from interest points often more reliable.

• Multiple complementary interest operators offer

more image coverage.

• For object categorization, dense sampling offers

better coverage.

[See Nowak, Jurie & Triggs, ECCV 2006]

Inverted file index

• Database images are loaded into the index mapping

words to image numbersKristen Grauman

• New query image is mapped to indices of database

images that share a word.

Inverted file index

Kristen Grauman

Inverted file index

• Key requirement for inverted file index to

be efficient: sparsity

• If most pages/images contain most words

then you’re no better off than exhaustive

search.

– Exhaustive search would mean comparing the

word distribution of a query versus every

page.

Instance recognition:

remaining issues

• How to summarize the content of an entire

image? And gauge overall similarity?

• How large should the vocabulary be? How to

perform quantization efficiently?

• Is having the same set of visual words enough to

identify the object/scene? How to verify spatial

agreement?

• How to score the retrieval results?

Kristen Grauman

by suren manvelyan, //hays/compvision2017/lectures/19.pdf · sampling strategies 61 k. grauman, b....

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