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Understanding the changing career patterns of the professional project manager

Abstract

As recognition of project management as a profession and increasing numbers of people from

a range of areas pursue careers moving from one project to the next, understanding of project

based careers gains relevance. For organisations employing project managers this presents

challenges in ensuring they have project managers with the knowledge, skills and experience

required to successfully deliver outcomes vital for project success. For individuals, projects

offer fruitful careers, but the roles are emergent and paths uncharted. The research reported

in this paper involved interviews with more than 75 project management practitioners from a

range of industries exploring their career journey, aspirations and future plans. Wittgenstein’s

family resemblance model was used in part to explain the diverse practices of project workers

and to understand the intricacies of project careers. Findings demonstrate a diversity of

project manager backgrounds and experiences with relational competencies forming and

shaping project management careers. Many workers are on an unexpected career path but are

enjoying the journey and not planning to change careers.

.

Key Words

Project, project management, temporary organisation, career

2

Introduction

The increasing role of projects in today’s organisations has led to an increasing recognition of

project management as a profession. There is a growing need for those working in project

management (PM) roles to seek new ways of developing their knowledge and capabilities in

order to pursue a career through a series of project management roles (Bredin & Söderlund,

2013). This may involve moving between organisations within the one industry or lead to

project managers seeking a career within the profession and across industries. Employees

may now be committed more to a profession, than to an organisation or industry leading to

them being viewed as having greater loyalty to their craft than to their company (Bredin &

Soderlund, 2011b). Indeed as organisations increasingly rely on temporary and contract staff

to carry out work in project teams people have had to consider self-employment as an option

(Amundson, 2006). This fits with the boundary-less career paths that have been predicted for

the future (Tams & Arthur, 2010). People are moving within organisations, between

organisations, across industries and globally if required to pursue a chosen career path.

Project managers no longer limit their career efforts to a single organisation or industry,

geographic location or specialised area. The temporary nature of projects may result in

discontinuous employment and regular changes of employer and location, with project

managers contracting to work for the duration of a specific project, often with the

accompanying benefit of building expertise to gain new and interesting project roles

(Holland, Hecker & Steen, 2002).

For employers, this mobility presents an additional challenge in attracting, motivating and

retaining the capable project managers they require to ensure success. Key staff will require

encouragement to build their expertise and capabilities (Whitley, 2006). Because the work

carried out in projects is crucial to organisational success it could be expected that

3

organisations would view “project competence as critical for the company’s success” (Bredin

& Söderlund, 2013: 892). Indeed, Lindgren and Packendorff (2006: 841) acknowledge that

project management has “become a common form of work organization in all sectors of the

economy” with processes vital for organisational success now commonly carried out across

industries using project teams. This study seeks to identify the career journey, career

aspirations and future work and development plans of project workers from a range of

industries with a view to understanding the changing career patterns of project workers.

Background

It is generally acknowledged that effective project managers require an understanding of the

industry in which they are operating and the technology used to support project management

(PMI, 2013). Additionally, project managers require general management knowledge and

skills, including communication skills within high level interpersonal skills. Research into the

competence of project managers confirms the increasing emphasis on interpersonal or soft

skills that concentrate on the behaviours required for successful completion of all stages of

the project (Crawford et al., 2006), Although traditionally project managers came from an

engineering background and were typically male (Gaddis, 1959) the knowledge, skills and

attributes now required of project managers indicate that engineering is not the only path to

PM success for the new types of projects being carried out in organisations (Crawford,

French and Lloyd-Walker, 2013). Projects are used to bring about change in organisations

(Bredin & Söderlund, 2013; Cicmil, 1999; Lehtonen & Martinsuo, 2008), to support

research and development (Bredin & Söderlund, 2013), within production environments, and

used to prepare learning programs in instructional design (van Rooij, 2010). The temporary

nature of projects remains common (see for instance Lundin & Söderholm, 1995; Turner &

Müller, 2003). Projects come about to solve complex problems (Modig, 2007). They require

4

project managers with both technical and interpersonal skills (Crawford et al., 2006). They

are undertaken to produce a unique product or service (Morris, 2002). Although the service

or product to be delivered may vary, the project will follow an appropriate life cycle (Morris,

2002; Turner, 2009). They are temporary organisations that contain the four elements: time,

task, team and transition (Lundin & Söderholm, 1995).

Increased diversity in employment conditions has implications for individuals and

organisations. Compared with traditional industrial companies where permanent employment

is the norm (Ekstedt, 2009), new forms of organising and the growth of project-based

organisations has seen the growth of contracted project-by-project employment. In Australia,

where the research reported in this paper was conducted, Rawling (2015: 252) stated that in

2012 up to four million Australians were ‘casual workers, contractors, workers on short-term

employment contracts, outworkers and labour hire workers. Those working on project-

specific, fixed term contracts would form part of that number, usually as self-employed

contractors (Quinlan, 2012). This makes the challenge for organisations one of ensuring that

they implement the necessary systems and processes to retain a core group of high

performing project staff (Whitley, 2006) and to maintain a good relationship with contractors

that will enable them to continue to leverage the power of projects ensuring sustainability

into the future. It also brings into question the extent to which organisations have adjusted

their human resource practices in response to the move to increasingly project based work

(Bredin & Söderlund, 2011a; Huemann, Keegan & Turner, 2007; Söderlund & Bredin, 2006).

Careers in Project Management

The term ‘portfolio’ career has evolved to describe the careers of well educated, self-

employed professionals,, who regularly change their jobs, and who are keen to find a range of

5

short-term projects in which they can work to build their profile (McDowell &

Christopherson, 2009). McDowell and Christopherson (2009) observed that portfolio careers

were commonly pursued in the creative industries, but there is now an increase in people

following this career model in other sectors. People who negotiate contracts where their

experience and expertise are valued are described as members of the ‘gold-collar’ labour

market (Holland et al., 2002). They take a strategic approach to creating a portfolio of

experiences, developing expertise and a network of contacts to support them in gaining future

contracts. DeFillippi and Arthur (1996) developed the concept of ‘career capital’. Here an

individual creates value through improvements in the roles they take on and the recognition

they receive for their performance externally. Inkson and Arthur (2001) maintain that project

managers amass career capital through selecting projects that provide them with the

opportunity to increase their knowledge and expertise, expand their professional networks,

and gain attention externally.

Those who have commenced their careers in a profession where security and continuity are

the norm may feel uneasy when confronted with the need to re-negotiate their employment

terms and conditions regularly. Applying Holland’s typology and linked social cognitive

career theory, it could be assumed that some new entrants into a career in project

management may find this a difficult process to confront and to successfully conclude with

potential employers (Paton, Hodgson & Cicmil, 2010). Individuals face differences in

perception when making career choices. Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) establishes

that those with higher levels of self-efficacy will be more likely to seek out and respond to

challenges and opportunities. The higher the level of coping efficacy the more likely it is that

an individual will be able to cope effectively with the uncertainty that discontinuous project

work presents, and will also actively seek out such opportunities, viewing them as an

6

opportunity for character building and as a challenge (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2000).

Holland’s Typology links personality type to best fit career choices (Nauta, 2010). This

would suggest that those pursuing careers in PM would welcome such challenges, as they

tend to have higher levels of self-efficacy (Aitken, 2011). It has been found, though, that

individual levels of self-efficacy may have a moderating effect on outcomes (Sheu, Lent,

Brown, Miller, Hennessy & Duffy, 2010).

The projectification (Aubry & Lenfle, 2012; Midler, 1995) of work within organisations has

led to temporary internal work arrangements and to contracting or self-employment (Peel &

Inkson, 2004) increasing in popularity, because individuals may choose to contract to

complete projects for a range of organisations. Indeed as organisations increasingly rely on

temporary and contract staff to carry out work in project teams people have had to consider

self-employment as an option (Amundson, 2006). Contract employees may, especially

during a downturn in the economy, be viewed as being in precarious employment (Connell &

Burgess, 2006). They may be at risk of not gaining another contract, at least until the

economy improves, or of having to strike a new, but less attractive contract in order to have a

job. Generally, precarious employment has been viewed as involving working arrangements

that include low levels of pay, fixed term and temporary contracts, and often involving

irregular work hours (Burrows, 2013). Although this may not be the reality for contract

project managers, the fear that it might be the case, at least at some time in the future, may be

ever present. The term ‘non-standard work’ is also used to refer to non-permanent or part

time employment and includes independent contracting (Broschak, Davis-Blake & Block,

2008). Such non-standard work is increasingly common globally, with employers viewing it

as providing them with flexibility (Fuller & Stecy-Hildebrandt, 2015) especially when

seasonal fluctuations or a unique event like the Olympic Games require additional staffing for

7

a limited period of time only (Broschak et al., 2008). Benefits to employers may include

reduced costs, especially indirect costs, and greater flexibility whilst ensuring that

employment regulations are being adhered to. Temporary employees may also provide a

source of new knowledge for the organisation (Guest, 2004). McKeown (2005) found that

precarious or non-standard employment may now relate to highly qualified and capable

professionals, suggesting that even the elite are now precarious as a result of their move to

what Barley and Kunda (2006: 45) term “a new form of professional practice”, contract-

based work.

It has long been acknowledged that the type of employment arrangement that exists between

the employee and the employer has an influence on the psychological contract between them.

However, this impact need not necessarily be a negative one (Guest, 2004). For knowledge

workers such as project managers pursuing a boundary-less career and taking a protean

approach to their career development this may be positive for both parties. Project

Management could therefore be described as containing the elements shown in Figure 1,

below.

Insert Figure 1 here

This study endeavours to interpret how the new ways of working in projects is translating

into new project based career path trajectories.

Method

Content Analysis using Wittgenstein’s Family-Resemblance Concept

The variation in what constitutes a career in PM makes it difficult to understand how to

appreciate it, work within it or manage it. Yeung, Chan and Chan (2012) note that the lack of

consensus on elements of a concept does not mean there are no similarities. Wittgenstein’s

8

family-resemblance concept enables complex concepts to be understood by identifying the

overlapping similarities (Nyström, 2005a). “The notion of family resemblance is both one of

the ideas most commonly associated with Wittgenstein and one of the most widely used tools

of contemporary philosophers” (Baker & Hacker 1983). Nyström (2005a) used

Wittgenstein’s theory to define partnering in the construction industry, and Yeung, et al.

(2012) used it to define forms of relational contracting. Wittgenstein’s family resemblance

allows for variations or differences which in the family context may relate to eye or hair

colour or gait, for instance (Griffin, 1974). Family resemblance when applied to project

management may mean working in a project team but for one project manager that work may

involve building a bridge whilst for another it might mean ensuring new legislation is

effectively implemented. The context, industry, skills and experience all vary. It remains,

though, that both are following PM methodology and delivering an outcome within a

specified time period. While there may be overlapping elements there is no single set of

characteristics common across all the projects (Nyström, 2005b; Yeung et al., 2012).

In this study, Wittgenstein’s family resemblance model was used to understand variations in

project management careers. There are a number of salient points that can be drawn from

Wittgenstein’s family resemblance model (Baker & Hacker (1983). “Games” are referred to

as having no common properties although the same word can be applied to them all and

states that ability to give a precise definition of a word is not a necessary condition of

understanding it. A “game” is a complicated network of similarities with a large number of

relationships like a long twisted rope. The expression of ‘family resemblance’ invokes a

metaphor of the various resemblances between the members of a family. The explanation of

the language requires the giving of examples. Further the family has no sharp boundaries.

For special purposes we can draw boundaries around the concept of a family but whether we

9

should draw it in a specific place depends on our purpose (Baker & Hacker 1983:197). They

suggest use of the following framework when applying Wittgenstein’s family resemblance

concept:

1. Boundaries – how are the lines of demarcation to be drawn for a family; what

features are considered characteristics of family resemblance

2. Coherence – is the family concept coherent

3. Applications – is there a reasonable expectation that family resemblance concepts will

apply

4. Unity - what binds together the complex pattern of family resemblance

5. Range – what concepts fall within this family, if any

In this study we address these elements of the family resemblance framework through the

weight of evidence of specific concepts obtained from interviews and offer an understanding

of consistency and application by providing examples of specific cases. We support our

broad recognition of concepts by linking our research findings from current project

managers’ views of their career experiences with the current literature on careers to indicate

unity and range.

Sample

Seventy-five (75) interviews were conducted in three broad industry sector groups: namely,

engineering/construction; information technology/business; and, emergency management

(Table 1). In-depth interviews were conducted with people in project roles and included, but

were not limited to, construction managers, project and program managers. A conscious

attempt was made to engage interviewees at various stages of their career journeys.

Participants have been grouped into ‘generations’. Those born between 1965 and 1981, and

10

thus aged between 35 and 51, have been termed Generation X (or Gen X); those born

between 1982 and 2000 and aged up to 34 have been termed Generation Y (Gen Y)

(Kupperschmidt, 2000), though Gen Ys are also sometimes labelled ‘Millennials’ (Twenge &

Campbell, 2008). Those born between 1945 and 1964 and 52 years of age or older are

labelled Baby Boomers (Kupperschmidt, 2000) (abbreviated to Boomers). The distribution

across industry groups and gender distribution is shown in Table 1 and reveals a close to

balanced gender representation. The age group of each of the participants, or generation to

which they belong, is shown in Table 2, along with the first post-secondary qualification, if

any, of participants and their gender.

Insert Table 1 here

Results and Discussion

Project career family resemblance elements

According to the literature, industry skills and project management technical skills are vital

elements in a project career. In addition to the industry and gender concepts outlined above

in our family resemblance framework we identified four other components from our

interviews. These elements include age and qualifications; retention and motivation; form of

employment, and career development.

Insert Figure 2 here

We now use quotes from interview transcripts to demonstrate how the elements shown in

Figure 2 apply to project management today.

Age and Qualifications

Although males outnumber females (Table 1), Table 2 reveals that as project teams are

increasingly being used to deliver a broader range of products and services more project

11

managers are now coming from non-engineering backgrounds and female participation has

also increased along with this change. Many authors have suggested that there needs to be

some rethinking in relation to what project management is today, and what a project manager

is (Cicmil, Williams, Thomas & Hodgson, 2006). Our research shows that project managers

aged 50 and over commonly entered the profession with engineering qualifications while in

more recent years the range of initial qualifications has broadened, and we suggest this is in

line with the move to use project teams across industries and deliver a more diverse range of

outcomes via projects. The figures for Generations X and Y indicate an increasing

involvement of females in the profession. Overall the range of qualifications indicates that

many practising project managers did not expect to be pursuing a career in project

management (Paton et al., 2010).

Insert Table 2 here

Retention and Motivation

Research has found that employees sponsored to complete Masters level studies were slightly

more likely to leave the organisation than those who did not receive tuition reimbursement.

These employees left because they were not being provided with the opportunity to use their

newly developed knowledge and skills in their job. Their studies had not been linked to their

work assignments and they sought challenge and achievement elsewhere (Benson, Finegold

& Mohrman, 2004). The majority of participants in the study reported in this paper indicated

that they wished to remain in project management as it provided them with challenges and

job satisfaction through achieving desired outcomes. Others indicated they would leave their

current employer if the size, complexity or budget of their projects did not increase over time,

and the challenge they sought was no longer available.

12

We found that some groups (namely the younger project managers – Gen X) are determined

to build their experiences through delivering on project complexity. This is true for women

as well as men. If this is not available they articulate their plans to leave for more interesting,

developmental opportunities that do not need to be industry specific.

When asked if he planned to continue in project management, a Gen X participant responded:

Yes. ... It’s the deliverables. ... I need to always be achieving something. If you’re

always delivering deliverables and something is always being done and if there’s

something floating in the ocean or on the ground that you’ve built then that’s a legacy.

Then you can say you’ve achieved that, okay, next thing.

Another Gen X male said: Yes, and move up the ladder and into bigger projects.

A Boomer male in the IT area said:

The biggest buzz I get is making the customer happy. Obviously I like to complete

projects on time and within budget, but I also like challenging projects that are a mess

and turning it around so it works out well. I like to get my teeth into a complex project.

Another Boomer male, in the construction industry responded:

Yes, but … probably continue to pick and choose my projects … I like a challenge.

A generation X female expressed a desire to continue in project management and indicated

that continuing to learn from her project roles was important to her:

I am on a mammoth learning curve; if I wasn’t learning anymore I would perhaps

move on or get it from elsewhere.

13

Overall, participants chose to enter and remain in the project management profession because

they enjoyed it:

I love projects and programs ..., I love them, I only do this because I want to. I have an

absolute passion for them and yes, I’ve just gone down the path so far with my

educational qualifications and my experience and I would have to struggle to imagine

myself doing anything else. It’s not to say I couldn’t do anything but would I, and the

choices I would make.

Whereas some indicated a desire to remain in project management within their current

industry, and often the only industry they had been in, others demonstrated a desire to move

to project manager roles in other areas:

There’s a big challenge there in terms of getting business management to understand

where the value of project management is and I like that challenge and am drawn to it,

though am frustrated at the same time. It can give me an opportunity anywhere, you

can do it anywhere. As my experience broadens, so I’ve gone from construction to IT

and financial world through clients at PM Consulting / Contracting Firm, and I’m

seeing lots of different worlds. In the last while I’ve been in ... school projects, to

[Public Service], to large banking institutions. So it’s varied, and really interesting.

I’m in a unique situation ... [Male, Gen X]

Project management skills are now viewed as transferable across industries and project types

and thus offer the opportunity for project managers to pursue new and interesting work.

Whilst this provides mobility for project managers it presents organisations with the

challenge of considering how they might retain the skills and knowledge within their

organisation ensuring they are making knowledge work to the advantage of the organisation.

14

A Gen X male participant expressed a commitment to project management, rather than to his

organisation, a trend suggested by Bredin and Soderlund (2011b) and indicated a willingness

to change jobs to gain the challenge and satisfaction he desired from his project roles:

I plan to stay in Project Management, I don’t necessarily plan to stay in the business

I’m in at the moment in terms of the company or organisation because I’m more

attached to Project Management as a discipline rather than the company I’m working

for. ... It’s mainly about work. I read around the subject, blogs and websites, I’m

reasonably up to date with the industry, PMI Membership, some events through PMI. I

do intend to stay, plenty of scope, plenty of specialisms you can get into plenty of

breadth if that’s the way you choose to go, you’ve just got to find your niche whether

it’s delivering projects which I have done, but my current role is more about helping

others deliver projects in terms of a tool with regards methodologies and housing the

PMI resource management type aspect.

For professionals, commitment can be directed more to the profession, than the organisation

(Kidd & Green, 2006), and this is likely to be the case for those who seek challenge,

achievement and satisfaction; for those who see development of their career capital as vital

for their career progression. With project management skills now sought across industries,

project managers can find the challenge and satisfaction they seek within their organisation,

if opportunities are provided, or they will find them elsewhere if planning and project team

selection within their current organisation do not support their objectives.

Forms of Employment

Contracting, a form of employment that is commonly used in the project context due to its

temporality, may be a double-edged sword. The state of the economy will impact on supply

and demand, sometimes making the negotiation of a contract that represents a better deal than

15

that of being an employee worthwhile. But there are times when this approach may be a

negative for either the employer or the employee. For the employee, it may be the need to

update knowledge and skills that is hindered by the demands of a contract, limiting future

employability. For the employer, continued employment of high quality project managers

may be hampered by their desire to seek greater challenge and satisfaction elsewhere,

because they now can work across industries.

Participants’ responses to interview questions provide insights into the possible issues arising

from contracting as a form of employment in projects. For the employer a key issue is

maintaining quality project staffing levels. For the employee issues include having a

continuing income to service commitments, enjoying the challenge and satisfaction that

increasingly large complex projects may be able to provide, while at the same time ensuring

that development opportunities support future contracts. Within this lies the need to negotiate

a fair and appropriate contract that will make further contracts likely, should this be the desire

of both parties.

The background of a project manager may influence the way in which they perceive the

suitability of contracting as a career for them.

The thing is for me, I was in the army for ten years, and I’m extremely loyal, so I would

prefer to be an employee ... that’s just me. That would sway me in a decision to join a

company. I don’t like to contract. I just think it’s a little bit mercenary. But I also just

like the security myself. And there’s opportunities (sic)! I like the fact that I want to be

part of a team. I just feel that, if it’s obvious or not, when you’re contracting, you’re

not really part of a team. Especially as a project manager, as you get higher up in the

whole scheme of things, it’s difficult to be a contractor and not an employee. [Male X]

16

This participant acknowledges that their earlier career choices influence their views and

career decisions. Security is of great importance to this person and will strongly influence

their decision making. An employer will need to be aware of this preference if they are to

gain the greatest possible contribution from this project manager. This may present a

challenge for organisations when project team staff report to both a line manager and a

project leader, and when these reporting relationships become clouded, or if they are not

monitored at some central point. If not managed well, the opportunity to gain the potential

contractor’s expertise and skills may be lost to the organisation.

Capelli (2008) cautioned that if organisations do not ensure that they have enough skilled

project managers, they may have to put inexperienced people into a role, jeopardising project

success. Short-term incentives and a commitment to supporting long-term career progression

may be required to encourage key staff to develop the capabilities and flexibility that will

enable them to perform different roles over time within project teams (Whitley, 2006).

Retaining a core of permanent, experienced and highly capable project managers may be vital

for sustainability.

The lack of confidence, or self-efficacy, to confront the possibility of a career of contracting,

was evident in the responses of some participants.

Because of job security ... I never thought I had the skills as a contractor and now that

I would say I do have the skills to be a contractor I have family commitments and a

very large mortgage and to risk going into contracting it’s just too high of a risk at this

point in time. Maybe in a couple of years’ time depending on how things turn out I

17

might go into contracting but at this point in time it’s just too high of a risk. [Male IT

X]

The Male IT participant echoed the concerns of several others; contracting could be

attractive, but there is a level of risk involved that some are not willing to consider.

It could be due to my nature, I’m more risk averse. I can plan. At one stage I was

doing a little bit of contract, the attraction was you will learn more and have a higher

financial reward. Permanent you have more planning and more security. It depends on

different people [Male Boomer]

Many participants had experienced a range of employment forms. The costs and benefits of

each become clearer to these project managers over time, and they make considered career

decisions based on their understanding of the environment.

I have worked full time, contract and consulting. ... Obviously the market conditions

are not very good at the moment, but if you want to get work quickly, contracting is

normally a very good way of finding work. Consulting I found was a really good way of

improving my knowledge exponentially very quickly, they say that one year in

consulting is the equivalent to three years in a normal client situation. The full time

was for job security etc. [Male Boomer]

For some, their life circumstances at the time strongly influence their decision making:

... why I stayed in the organisation at the end of the day was because I was a single

mother for a long time and it was purely that it was a secure job, it was paying me well

enough so that I could look after my children so I stayed there mostly because of the

security and it’s not all bad all the time. [Female Boomer]

18

Another female Boomer, an IT contractor, commented: contracting has given me the choice

of a working life and a career path. Other interviewees mentioned the flexibility that

contracting offers and which they sought.

One participant indicated how they had balanced high demand periods against other

pressures in their life, by taking time out for a break and to fulfil family responsibilities:

If you work for yourself, you take a lot more money home. Then for a period, I’ve been

flexible, I’ve been able to pick the kids up from school, do interviews like this with you,

travel; we travelled for six weeks this year. All of that travel has refreshed me and I

have the energy I had when I joined [Company] in 2000. I’ve had my break which has

been financially beneficial so I don’t mind going into a demanding role now. [Male

Boomer]

Even those who enjoy contract project management, and have been successful within it, at

times have negative experiences that they find difficult to extricate themselves from, because

of the contractual arrangement. The participant quoted above, an experienced Boomer,

female, IT contractor also experienced difficulties:

Nobody would treat a permanent employee, expect the number of hours expect weekend

work and put the time demands on a permanent employee because they would go and

complain to HR and all the litany of other factors … so one of my most recent

assignments I was working for a client, suppliers thought I was a permanent employee

and yet how I was actually being treated by my own manager, no permanent employee

could be treated like that because they would make appeals. I see it as a career

19

building opportunity and you take steps whatever you need to. You can have both in

the same situation.

Contractors lack the protection provided by workplace laws and regulations. At times this can

lead to unpleasant working conditions. It is perhaps only the years of experience this

contractor has had that helped her to cope with the difficulties she was confronting.

The pros and cons of contract work for individuals/organisations are many. Gaining the

knowledge of these possibilities and pitfalls can be at times a costly experience for a start out

contractor (Fenwick, 2008). Negotiating a contract that is appropriate for the current

environment can be extremely challenging for a first time contractor. It can be contrasted to

that of a non-award employee negotiating a pay raise, but if workplace law cannot be used as

a safety net if things go wrong, the risks for both parties may be considerable.

Contracting requires the negotiation of terms and conditions. Some project managers find

these negotiations easier than do others and self-efficacy possibly plays a major role in this.

A Boomer male suggested that gender was also a factor:

A man will bolster up his price, whereas a woman, and this is generalising, but she will

give a price that won’t upset the person she’s negotiating with. Whereas a man won’t

care if he upsets them. He’s after what he’s after.

For some, the need to pursue a career through contracting may place considerable demands

upon them. For others this may provide the flexibility, challenge, and opportunity to gain new

experiences and increase the expertise levels that they desire to support their career in

contracting. The ability to choose which project to be involved in, autonomy, flexibility, the

20

possibility of travel being involved, and potentially higher earnings have been found to lead

to the decision to pursue self-employment in contracting (Peel & Inkson, 2004).

Career Development

Projectification has led to individuals taking on greater responsibility to support advancement

of their careers (Arvidsson & Ekstedt, 2006). Contractors, and at times permanent

employees, felt obliged to take control of their own careers and their career development.

This demonstrated an acceptance of the need to adopt a protean career approach by several

participants:

Pretty much me doing it for myself ... [Female X Finance]

This protean career approach, one where the individual accepts responsibility for their career

planning and development, was seen to be a necessary approach for those who were

contracting. Contractors accepted that reality:

... as a contractor,... those firms weren’t obliged to give me any training or career

advice. So my career has been entirely self-managed from start to finish. No company

has ever taken an interest in my career. They’re interested in the project I’m doing, and

then I leave. I have to be totally proactive, decide what industry I want to be in, all of

that. I’ve had to develop some guidelines for myself over the years and been self-

educated. I did my MBA, PhD, decided what certifications to do. And I think my IT

project managers are largely like that. Some organisations are really good ... They

have a company structure there to look after them. Some project managers have been

there for twenty years. [Male IT X]

21

The acceptance was perhaps made easier because the contract position was offering the

contractor the opportunity to gain new and different experiences and to build their profile to

support future contract negotiations. New relationship types did impact. Joint ventures can

lead to more confused reporting lines, alliances, because they operate as separate entities to

that of any of the organisations contributing staff to the alliance, further complicate the issues

of career path planning and development.

... being a joint venture, I was employed by the joint venture, so I wasn’t with

[Organisation A] and I wasn’t with [Organisation B]. So my role there was only for

the course of the job, and then I’ve found my own. So I can understand why there

wasn’t a huge effort being put into my own development, which is cool as I was getting

enough out of that, the actual opportunities on the project. [Male Cons X]

For some, it is considered that it is only a matter of time until the possible negative side to

contracting will be experienced. For this reason they develop a self-supporting approach to

their career and this is also a felt need of some project managers who are employees:

I make it happen myself. Obviously [Company] has provided a lot of training to me

over the years, but I find that because I manage it myself I don’t have any expectation

of [Company] to do that for me. [Male Boomer].

A female Gen Y participant commented:

... we don’t get training as contractors. It is tough when you’re contracting, there’s an

assumed knowledge. Managers don’t care if you’re doing courses as long as you do the

job. Generally they don’t care.

22

Conclusion

There is broad agreement on the contribution that project management teams can make to

organisational success. Projects are viewed as powerful strategic weapons impacting business

results (Shenhar, Dvir, Levy & Maltz, 2001) by supporting implementation of strategic goals

(Anderson, Birchall, Jessen & Money, 2006). Organisations are restructuring, introducing a

team-based approach to business processes resulting in changes to “stability of work roles

and task organization” (Whitley, 2006: 77). Project managers now come from more diverse

backgrounds and work in industries formerly not project-based, that now use project teams to

deliver services or products. Although these projects and the industries in which they are

carried out may not fit with original definitions of projects and project management, they do

follow a similar approach to traditional project management, adjusted for specific needs.

There remains a family resemblance through the overlapping characteristics of all projects

but an increasing range of possible differences as a result of the increased use of projects to

deliver business outcomes.

In this paper Wittgenstein’s family resemblance concept has been applied to project based

careers, providing a framework for comparison of traditional and contemporary project

management career characteristics. Drawing on in-depth interviews with project

practitioners, four project career family resemblance themes were identified: age and

qualifications, retention and motivation, form of employment, and career development.

Implications for project based careers that can be drawn from this analysis are summarised in

Table 3 (below).

Insert Table 3 here

23

The traditional family of project management careers is still practised across industries such

as construction and infrastructure and mining where the outcome remains a product, and

different approaches to project management are observable within those industries.

Increasingly the differences are most observable wjen project management moves into

settings that vary greatly from Gaddis’s seminal view of project management (Gaddis, 1959).

Changing organisational structures and ways of organising work, the use of projects to

deliver services, and the need for increased flexibility in today’s organisations (Whitley,

2006) require new approaches to managing projects. This has resulted in a change in the

project manager from that described by in 1959 (Gaddis, 1959). The role of project manager

may be an unexpected one for many, but similarities as described by our research respondents

confirm this new family of project management and new career trajectories within the project

management profession.

24

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Traditional PM Career requirements Noted Changes

Industry specific knowledge and skills PM moves across sectors, industries &

professions

Technical PM skills Additional Skills noted:

• Team skills

• Relationship skills

• Collaboration capabilities

Contextual changes:

• Organisation change (flatter structures)

• Job structure change (higher

performance teams)

• Qualification legitimacy in PM

• Diversity participation across industries

• Diversity management

Figure 1: Changes to Traditional PM Career Requirements

29

Table 1: Research participants by industry and gender

Engineering/ Construction

Business/ IT

Emergency Management Total %

Male 21 21 0 41 55% Female 10 8 15 34 45% Total 31 29 15 75 100%

30

Figure 2 Project Management Career Family Elements

Traditional PM Career RequirementsTechnical Skills and Industry Knowlege

Age and Qualifications

Industry and

Gender

Motivation and Retention

Form of employment

CareerDevelopment

31

Table 2: First Qualification by Gender and Generation

Boomer Gen X Gen Y Total

M F M F M F M F

Engineering 12 10 1 1 23 1

Architecture 1 1 1 1 2

Computer Sc/EDP 1 4 2 1 3 5

Science (other) 1 1 2 1 1 4

Business/Commerce 4 3 1 5 1 2 6 10

Arts 1 5 1 3 2 8

Education 1 0 1

PM Dip, 1st qualif’cn 1 1 1 1

Trade 1 1 0

Other 2 0 2

No post-secondary 2 1 0 3

38 37

19 11 16 18 3 8 75

32

Table 3: Comparison of Traditional and New PM against Identified Themes

Traditional Family of PM Careers Contemporary Family of PM Careers

• Challenge and advancement within a

single organisation or industry

• Predominately male

• Predominately older; experienced

PMs

• Delivering on product or

infrastructure

• Challenge and advancement across

organisations, industries and sectors

• Delivering projects on service, product or

capital works

• Gender diversity

• Generational differences

• On-going employment within an

industry and profession directly

related to original qualification

• Limited formal PM qualifications

• Engineering or construction a likely

entryway

• Increasingly contract employment, linked

to project duration. Often leading to

entering the project management

profession from non-traditional disciplines.

• Increasing formal PM qualifications

• Professional Membership

• Provided by the organisation and

through increasingly challenging

project roles, within the same or a

similar field.

• Project size and complexity increases

with experience

• Project managers may now have to manage

their own career development and

progression. Establishing an externally

visible profile becomes important, given

the new employment conditions.

• Protean / boundary-less / portfolio career

development