c 84, pleistocene and recent deposits in the vicinity of · pdf file ·...

CANADA D E P A R T M E N T O F M I N E S

WILLIAM MCINNES, DIRECTING GEOLOGIST.

C No. 84, GEOLOGICAL SERIES

Pleistocene and Recent Deposits in the Vicinity of Ottawa,

with a Description of the Soils

BY

. W. A. Johnston

OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRIN~ING BUREAU

29073c 1917 No. 1693

CONTENTS . CHAPTER I . PAGE

Introduction ............................................................ 1 Generalstatement ................................................... 1 Locationandar ea ................................................... 1

...................................................... Previous work 2 Bibliography ........................................................ 3

CHAPTER I1 . ........................................................ Physical features 4

..................................................... General account 4 Relief .............................................................. 4 Drainage ........................................................... 5

.................................... Mode of origin of physical features 6

CHAPTER I11 . ....................................................... General geology 11

..................................................... General account 11 .................................................. Pleistocene deposits 12

........................................... Deposits of glacial origin 12 ..................................... Glacial till of ground moraine 12

............................................... Terminal moraines 14 ................................... Fluvioglacial sands and gravels 14

.................... Direction of ice movements and stage of glaciation 16 ........................................ Champlain (marine) deposits 16

................................................. General features 16 ....................................................... Beaches. 17

................................................ Champlain clays 18 ................................................ Champlain sands 22

............................... Organic remains of Champlain deposits 25 ........................ Climatic conditions and oscillations of sea-level 28

...................................... Source of the Champlain clays 32 ..................................................... River gravels 33 ..................................................... Recent deposits 34

......................................................... Alluvium 34 ......................................... Dune sand and beach sand 34

Peat ............................................................. 35 Marl .............................................................. 35

CHAPTER IV . ....................................................... Economic geology 37

............................................................... Soils 37 ................................................. General statement 37

....................................... General character of the soils 38 ................................................ Distribution of soils 39 ................................................ Description of soils 40

.................................................... Swamp soils 40 ............................................. Muck and peat 40

PAGB .................................................. Aeolian soils.. 41

................................................ Dune sand.. 41 .................................................. Alluvial d s . . 41 ................................................ Fine sand.. 42

............................................... River gravel soils.. 42 ................................................. Stonysand 42

................................................... Beach soils.. 43 Gravelly coarse sand.. ....................................... 43

................................................... Marine soils. 43 ................................................. Fine sand.. 43

Fine sandy loam. ........................................... 44 Clay loam and clay.. ........................................ 45

................................................ Glacial till soils. 46 ................................................. Shaleloam 46

Stony loam.. ............................................... 47 ................................... Gravelly, fine sandy loam. 47

Fluvioglacial sand and gravel soils.. .............................. 48 Gravelly sandy loam.. ....................................... 48

Brick and tile clays.. ................................................ 48 ................................................. Sands and gravels.. 49

Index ................................................................. 65

Illustrations.

Map 1662. Ottawa (Carleton and Ottawa counties), Ontario and Quebec. in pocket Plate I. Terrace, in marine clay, along Russell road near Hawthorne. .Frontispiece

11. Ice-moulded face of escarpment, excavation for new Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . building, Sussex street, Ottawa.. 51

111. Contact of till and overlying laminated marine silty clay, Albert and Kent streets, Ottawa.. ............................... 53

IV. Fluvioglacial sands and gravels overlain by marine gravels, Canad- ian Northern ballast pit near Bowesville, Ont.. .............. 55

V. Minutely folded sands of fluvioglacial origin, Canadian Northern ballast pit near Bowesville, Ont.. ......................... 57

VI. Crumpled and contorted Champlain (marine) silts, bed of Chelsea brook, 1 mile east of Kingsmere, Que.. ..................... 59

VII. Section of 40 feet of Champlain (marine) sands, sand pit on east bank of Rideau river three-quarters mile south of Rideau junction ................................................ 61

.............................. VIII. Coarse river gravels, Hull, Que.. 63

Pleistocen Vicinity of 0

1 The object of th

results of an investig; Recent ages, in the d importance economic and tile clays and sa tural purposes. The all the soils of the distl understanding and m upon the physical cha

1 the soils have formed The map which .

1 inch. The topogr: additions and correc

3 issued by the Depart on the map represent dated rocks of the sul The descriptive namc portions of the vari, mined by mechanic adopted by the Unite

The field work during the field seas(

The area mappc longitudes 75' 30' ar, The district lies alon of the Ottawa with

1 within the St. Lawrc

I

~tario and Quebec. in pocket ar Hawthorne. .Frontispiece )n for new Customs ................... 51

.ine silty clay, Albert ................... 53

narine gravels, Canad- , Ont.. .............. 55 n, Canadian Northern ................... 57 ) silts, bed of Chelsea .................... 59 nds, sand pit on east nile south of Rideau .................... 61 .................... 63

Pleistocene and Recent Deposits in the Vicinity of Ottawa, with a Description of the

Soils.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The object of this report and accompanying map is to present the results of an investigation of the superficial deposits, of Pleistocene and Recent ages, in the district surrounding Ottawa. These deposits are of 1 importance economically because they contain large deposits of brick and tile clays and sands and gravels used for ballast and various struc- ,, tural purposes. Their study is also of importance because practically' all the soils of the district are developed on these deposits, and the proper understanding and mapping of the various soils must necessarily be based upon the physical character and mode of origin of the deposits from which the soils have formed.

The map which accompanies this report is on the scale of 1 mile to 1 inch. The topographical base of the map is reproduced with minor additions and corrections from the topographical map of the district issued by the Department of Militia and Defence. The colours shown on the map represent the different soils and also the different unconsolidated rocks of the superficial deposits upon which the soils are developed. The descriptive names of the different soils are based on the relative pro- portions of the various sized particles comprising the soils, as determined by mechanical analysis. The classification of soil material as adopted by the United States Bureau of Soils has been followed.

The field work upon which the present report is based was done during the field season of 1915.

LOCATION AND AREA.

The area mapped is bounded by latitudes 45" 15' and 45" 30' and longitudes 75' 30' and 76" 00' and includes an area of 419 square miles. The district lies along Ottawa river, about 100 miles above the junction of the Ottawa with its trunk stream, the St. Lawrence, and is hence within the St. Lawrence drainage basin.

PREVIOUS WORK.

The published results of geological work previously done in Ottawa district, referring only to the main observations made with regard to the superficial deposits, may be briefly summarized as follows:

In the "Geology of Canada," 1863, reference is made to the stratified, marine sands and clays in the Ottawa district. These deposits are referred to as YChamplain sands and clays," following the nomenclature of the Vermont geologists. The occurrence of concretionary nodules, often containing fossils, in the Champlain clays along Ottawa river is also noted.

Sir William Dawson, who laid the foundation of our knowledge of the Champlain deposits in Canada, divided these deposits into the Leda clay and Saxicava sands, naming them after the commonest fossils occurring in each. In his "Canadian Ice Age," Dawson refers to the occurrence of the Leda clay and Saxicava sands along Ottawa river. He states that "Greens creek, a little below Ottawa city, has become cele- brated for the occurrence of hard calcareous nodules in the clay, containing not only the ordinary shells of this deposit, but also well-preserved skeletons of the Capelin (Mallotus), of the Lump-sucker (Cyclop- terus) and of a species of Stickleback (Gasterosteus), of a Cottus and of a species of seal."'

Ottawa was one of the localities in northeastern America examined in 1891 by Baron Gerard De Geer of Sweden, with the view of determining the limit of marine submergence during late Glacial time. The results of De Geer's researches are contained in a well-known paper entitled "On Pleistocene changes of level in eastern North America," published in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. XXV, 1892, pp. 454-477.

In the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1897, R. Chalmers referred to the occurrence of remarkable boulder ridges in the city of Hull and offered an explanation of their mode of origin. He also referred to the occurrence a t high altitudes of marine shore-lines near Kingsmere mountain north of the city of Ottawa.

A report now out of print, published in 1901 by the Geological Sur- vey of Canada on the "Geology and natural resources of the area included in the map of the city of Ottawa and vicinity," by R. W. Ells, gives a short account of the surface geology of the area. An appendix to this report, by H. M. Ami, gives lists of fossils from the Pleistocene and Recent deposits of the district. The lists of fossils from these deposits in the vicinity of Ottawa includes most of the species as determined from large collections made by different members of the Geological Survey and by private citizens.

A. P. Colemar Ontario," Report of results of an invest Ottawa and in the e:

Logan, Sir Wm. E., ( De Geer, Baron Ger.

America ; Proc. ,L 477. awson, Sir J. W., 'I

Chalmers, Robert, C C' I posits of southe.

Ells, R. W., Sands a vol. IX, 1898, Ottawa district 177-189.

Wilson, W. J., Note Ottawa valley; 209-220,

Ami, H. M., On thc Trans. Roy. Soc

Ells,. R. W., Ancien vol. XV, No. 1 natural resourcc Ottawa and vici 1899, 1901.

Coleman, A. P., St Toronto, Ont.,

Keele, J., and John Geol. Surv., Gal

Kindle, E. M., and brian and P a l a valleys; Geol. S

Leverett, F., and Ta Johnston, W. A., La

valley; Geol. Su

1 Damon. Sir J. W..'The Canadian Ice Age." 1893.p.203.

riously done in Ottawa lade with regard to the as follows: : is made to the strati- :t. These deposits are wing the nomenclature concretionary nodules, along Ottawa river is

!n of our knowledge of deposits into the Leda commonest fossils oc-

twson refers to the oc- Ing Ottawa river. He L city, has become cele- hies in the clay, con- ,sit, but also well-pre- Lump-sucker (Cyclop-

;), of a Cottus and of a

,ern America examined rith the view of deter- ate Glacial time. The L well-known paper en- North America," pub-

f Natural History, vol.

ey of Canada for 1897, kable boulder ridges in :ir mode of origin. He marine shore-lines near

A. P. Coleman in a report entitled "Sea beaches of eastern Ontario," Report of the Bureau of Mines, Toronto, Ontario, 1901, gives results of an investigation of the marine deposits in the vicinity of Ottawa and in the eastern portion of Ontario.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

by the Geological Sur- jources of the area in- :inity," by R. W. Ells, he area. An appendix Is from the Pleistocene E fossils from these de- ,f the species as deter- (

nbers of the Geological

Logan, Sir Wm. E., Geology of Canada; Geol. Surv., Can., 1863.

I De Geer, Baron Gerard, On Pleistocene changes of level in eastern North America; Proc. SOC. Nat. Hist., Boston, vol. XXV, 1892, pp. 454-

, 477. I

awson, Sir J. W., The Canadian Ice Age; Montreal, 1893. Chalmers, Robert, Geol. Surv., Can., Sum. Rept., 1897. Auriferous de-

b

. /*. posits of southeastern Quebec; Geol. Surv., Can., 1898. P Ells, R. W., Sands and clays of the Ottawa basin; Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,

vol. IX, 1898, pp. 211-222, Formations, faults, and folds of the Ottawa district; Ottawa Naturalist, vol. XI, No. 10, 1898, pp. 177-189.

Wilson, W. J., Notes on the Pleistocene geology of a few places in the Ottawa valley; Ottawa Naturalist, vol. XI, No. 12, 1898, pp. 209-220,

Ami, H. M., On the Geology of the principal cities in eastern Canada; Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., 2nd ser., vol. VI, 1900.

Ells,. R. W., Ancient channels of the Ottawa river; Ottawa Naturalist, vol. XV, No. 1, 1901, pp. 17-30. Report on the geology and natural resources of the area included in the map of the city of Ottawa and vicinity; Geol. Surv., Can., Ann. Rept., pt. C., vol. XII, 1899, 1901.

Coleman, A. P., Sea beaches of eastern Ontario; Rept. Bur. Mines, Toronto, Ont., 1901.

Keele, J., and Johnston, W. A., The superficial deposits near Ottawa; Qol. Surv., Can., Guide Book No. 3, 1913, pp. 126-134.

Kindle, E. M., and Burling, L. D., Structural relations of the Pre-Cam- brian and Palmzoic rocks north of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys; Geol. Surv., Can., Mus. Bull. 18, Geol. Ser. 28, 1915.

Leverett, F., and Taylor, F. B., U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon. LIII, 1915. Johnston, W. A., Late Pleistocene oscillations of sea-level in the Ottawa

valley; Geol. Surv., Can., Mus. Bull. 24, 1916.

CHAPTER 11.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

GENERAL ACCOUNT.

1 The Ottawa area lies a t the southern margin of the Pre-Cambrian

upland region which extends over the greater part of northeastern Canada and is known as the Laurentian plateau or Canadian shield. The map-area includes in its northern part a small portion of the Pre- Cambrian upland a t its southern border. South of this border the area is underlain largely by Palmzoic rocks or by glacial and marine deposits of Pleistocene age, the general surface of which has an altitude of several hundred feet below that of the upland area and has, in general, less relief; hence, there are two contrasting types of topography. The lowland area has for the most part a gently sloping or undulating surface and over considerable portions the surface is nearly level. In places, particularly in the northwestern part of the area where the drift deposits are relatively thin, broad rock valleys with sloping sides occur. In the northeastern and eastern part, where the drift deposits are relatively thick, narrow steep-sided valleys are developed. In places, as in the vicinity of Ottawa and in the southwestern part of the area, rock hills or small upland areas within the lowland present steep scarp-like fronts facing towards the north or northeast and slope gradually toward the south or southwest. In the northeastern part of the area the lowland area abuts directly against the precipitous slopes of the Pre-Cambrian upland which rises considerably above the lowland and presents in its irregular hummocky surface a marked difference in topography. The steep scarp or cliff which marks the boundary between the lowland and upland in the northeastern part of the area forms the most striking topographical feature in the region. The scarp extends for a considerable distance towards the northwest and forms the natural southern boundary of the Laurentian plateau or Canadian shield in this region. In the area east of Gatineau river the rise from lowland to upland is more gradual and no marked scarp occurs.

RELIEF.

The general slope of the northern part of the area is toward the south and southeast and that of the-southern-part tomrdsthe north and northeast to the depression or valley occupied by the Ottawa rive but many-IocaI Irregularities of slope occur owing chiefly to the irregular deposition of the drift deposits. The general slope 3f the bed-

rock valleys and con 1.-_---. -

the'southeast. -The nignestzart

one mile northwest of tain" has an altitudf part is in the valley the surface of the wa above the sea. In t hill has an altitude of part of the area nort 450 feet, the highest rising to nearly 475 part of the area the lated hills rise somew ville having an a l t i t~ of the area the highe ward from Bowesville along Rideau river is - --- ---- ville ends rather a b r ~ Black rapids and Ri on the west side of th Corners. In the eas the general relief is le

The area is drai river is the main strc direction across the consists of a series of is very low, separatt Ottawa the river fall: the falls, a series of occurs. Above Desc in part a broad roc extends to the nortl Ottawa the river has underlain by marine neau river, the seconl

, joins the Ottawa op its course it flows in a is characterized by .

I I the flow of the watt t For a few miles abo

' of the Pre-Cambrian part of northeastern Canadian shield. The i portion of the Pre- h of this border the by glacial and marine of which has an alti- upland area and has, -asting types of topo- rt a gently sloping or j the surface is nearly ern part of the area ,ad rock valleys with stern part, where the -sided valleys are de- wa and in the south- land areas within the towards the north or or southwest. In the abuts directly against and which rises con- ; irregular hummocky he steep scarp or cliff .d and upland in the striking topographical considerable distance

southern boundary of .s region. In the area ~pland is more gradual

-he area is toward the ~aruowards the north d by the Ottawa rive - . I -_ ,-.-- ring chiefly to the ir- neral slope 3f the bed-

rock valleys and consequently that of the bedrock . - surface - - - - - is towards the southeast.

- T I i m g E G t p a r t of the area is on the Pre-Cambrian upland, about one mile northwest of Kingsmere, where the highest part of the "mountain" has an altitude of nearly 1,220 feet above the sea. The lowest part is in the valley of Ottawa river below the city of Ottawa, where the surface of the water a t low stages has an altitude of 127 to 132 feet above the sea. In the city of Ottawa the highest part of Parliament hill has an altitude of nearly 300 feet. The lowland in the northwestern part of the area north of Ottawa river has a general altitude of 300 to 450 feet, the highest part 3 miles northwest of the town of Aylmer rising to nearly 475 feet. South of Ottawa river, in the southwestern part of the area the general altitude is from 250 to 350 feet, but iso- lated hills rise somewhat higher, the highest point 3 miles west of Stitts- ville having an altitude of nearly 470 feet. In the southeastern part of the area the highest part of a drift ridge which extends southeastward from Bowesville has an altitude of 405 feet, but thegeneralaltitude along Rideau -- ----- river is about 100 feet lower. The drift ridge near Bowes- viligends rather abruptly on the east side of the Rideau valley between Black rapids and Rideau junction but continues a t a lower altitude on the west side of the river, from the vicinity of Merivale to near Bells Corners. In the eastern part of the area, deeply underlain by drift, the general relief is less and the general altitude is from 225 to 275 feet.

DRAINAGE.

The area is drained by Ottawa river and its tributaries. Ottawa river is the main stream of the region and flows in a general easterly direction across the area. The river has not an even gradient, but consists of a series of lake-like expansions or stretches where the gradient is very low, separated by falls and rapids. At Chaudiere falls near Ottawa the river falls 25 to 30 feet over flat-lying limestone and, above the falls, a series of rapids separated by short stretches of slack water occurs. Above DeschCnes rapids near Britannia the river occupies in part a broad rock valley and forms a lake-like expansion which extends to the northwestern corner of the area. Below the city of Ottawa the river has a very low gradient and flows in a valley largely underlain _by qarinq _cIal,s, the hedrock being rar-!y exposed,, Gati- . . neau river, the second largest stream in the area, coming from the north joins the Ottawa opposite the city of Ottawa. In the upper part of its course it flows in a deep rock valley cut in the Pre-Cambrian upland and is characterized by rapids and falls with intervening stretches where the flow of the water is relatively slow because of the low gradient. For a few miles above its junction with the Ottawa the banks of the

river are formed of marine clay and the gradient of the river is very slight. Xideau river, coming from the south enters the Ottawa a t the

city of Ottawa where it falls nearly 50 feet over the limestone escarp ment which forms the south bank of the Ottawa. Throughout the greater part of its course in the area the Rideau occupies a valley which

/ is floored by drift deposits, the bedrock outcropping a t only a few places. ( Rapids and falls occur a t places where the bedrock outcrops, as a t Hogs- \,back and Black rapids.

Numerous small streams which, especially in their lower portions and in the areas where the drift deposits are thick, occupy narrow steep- sided valley: also occur, as is well seen in Chelsea brook in the no1 ~hern part of the area, in Greens creek in the eastern part, and in the creek near Breckenridge in the northwestern part of the area. Much of the drift-covered portions of the area are, however, only slightly dissected by stream erosion and there are comparatively large areas in which the nearly level surface of the drift deposits is almost entirely untrenched by streams.

Terraces (Plate I) cut chiefly in the marine sands and clays occur along the valleys and a t considerable heights above the present drainage channels in the eastern part of the area. They occur along the lower portions of the Gatineau and Ottawa River valleys, along the Rideau valley, and in the area drained by Greens creek. They are especially well developed in the southern part of the city of Ottawa and along the Ottawa valley and its tributaries below the city of Ottawa.

The lakes of the area are not numerous. The largest, known as lake Deschenes, is an expansion of the Ottawa river. There are two small lakes in the Pre-Cambrian upland area. In the lowland area, except for the lake-like expansions of the Ottawa river, there are only a few small ponds or lakes, the largest of which is Constance lake.

MODE OF ORIGIN OF PHYSICAL FEATURES.'

The present physical features are of varied origin and are the result of erosion and deposition by various agencies. During a long period of

, time previous to Pleistocene or Glacial time, the region was above sea- -1 level, as is shown by the absence of marine Tertiary deposits and by the

development of stream valleys partly filled with Pleistocene deposits. During this time the major features of the bedrock topography were formed by processes of weathering and stream erosion. During Pleisto- / Icene time the region was invaded by one or more ice-sheets advancing @om the north. The pre-Glacial land surface was modified by glacial erosion and by deposition, in places, of material- eroded by the ice- i sheet. Near the close of Pleistocene time when the ice-sheet began to 1 retire, the area was, in large part, below sea-level so that as the ice retired,'

or melted back, the sl depth, in places, of sel as the Champlain se; down. As the ice-shc gradually emerged fro tive and has continue6 tively short time, geolt a small amount of ero:

The physical feat processes of weatherir is probable that glaci but there can be little raphy are pre-Glacial erosion. This seems places pass up over t northwest, as a t a poi by the character of th of glacially eroded va in almost entirely ren smoothing off irregula solid rock. Erosion o side wall of the small - in the city of Ottawa valley in places also sl the ice-sheet and was filling of many of the I

valleys were largely fo The lowland, dev

the vicinity of South : of the area and is larg pre-Glacial time. A (

as distinct from the Pn land areas developed minor upland areas, o river a t Ottawa, have Cambrian "old land" what have been namf tributed; they are de- varying distances fron being best developed 1

tual contact. The re: - 1 Elle. R. W.. "Formations.

No. 16, 1898. pp. 177-189.

the river is very slight. rs the Ottawa a t the

the limestone escarp- iwa. Throughout the )ccupies a valley which ~g a t only a few places. k outcrops, as a t Hogs-

n their lower portions . occupy narrow steep- Chelsea brook in the e eastern part, and in art of the area. Much lowever, only slightly paratively large areas )sits is almost entirely

sands and clays occur we the present drain- They occur along the ver valleys, along the -eens creek. They are bf the city of Ottawa 3w the city of Ottawa. ?he largest, known as -her. There are two In the lowland area, river, there are only a :onstance lake.

igin and are the result uring a long period of region was above sea- r deposits and by the

Pleistocene deposits. -ock topography were ion. During Pleisto-

ice-sheets advancing -, -is modified by glacial 'I

.I. eroded by the ice- ! he ice-sheet began to that as the ice retire ‘I/

or melted back, the sea entered and overspread the Ottawa valley to a depth, in places, of several hundred feet. In this arm of the sea, known as the Champlain sea, thick deposits of sand, silt, and clay were laid down. As the ice-sheet still further retired, uplift took place, the land gradually emerged from the sea, and stream erosion again became effective and has continued until the present time; but, owing to the compara- ' tively short time, geologically, since the land emerged from the sea, only '

a small amount of erosion has been accomplished. .-) The physical features of the bedrock surface are largely the result of

processes of weathering and stream erosion during pre-Glacial time. I t is probable that glacial erosion modified these features to some extent but there can be little doubt that the maincfeatures of the bedrock topography are pre-Glacial in origin and were not greatly modified by glacial erosion. This seems to be borne out by the fact that glacial strize in places pass up over the faces of the escarpments facing the north and northwest, as a t a point 14 miles northeast of Gatineau Point station, and by the character of the rock valleys which have not the typical U-shape of glacially eroded valleys. Glacial erosion was undoubtedly effective \ in almost entirely removing the loose mantle of weathered material, in smoothing off irregularities of the surface, and in eroding in places the solid rock. Erosion of the solid rock is shown by the appearance of the side wall of the small valley leading up from the Ottawa a t Sussex street in the city of Ottawa (Plate 11), but the character of the sides of the valley in places also shows that the valley existed before the advance of ' ' the ice-sheet and was only slightly modified by ice erosion. The partial filling of many of the rock valleys by glacial deposits shows also that the valleys were largely formed in pre-Glacial time.

The lowland, developed chiefly on Palzeozoic rocks but partly as in the vicinity of South March on Pre-Cambrian rocks, forms a large part of the area and is largely the result of subaerial processes of erosion in pre-Glacial time. A characteristic feature of the general lowland area as distinct from the Pre-Cambrian upland is the occurrence of minor upland areas developed on Palaeozoic rocks within the lowland. These minor upland areas, one of which occurs along the south side of Ottawa river a t Ottawa, have steep faces fronting the north towards the Pre- Cambrian "old land" and slope gently towards the south and form what have been named cuestas. They are somewhat irregularly distributed; they are developed on different kinds of rocks and occur a t varying distances from the contact of the Palmzoic and Pre-Cambrian, being best developed usually a t a distance of several miles from the actual contact. The region has been much affected by normal faulting1

C - . - --

1 EUe. R. W.. "Formations.f aults, and folds of the Ottawa district," Ottawa Eiaturalist, vol. XI. ) / No. 16, 1898, pp. 177-189. 4"

but the scarp-like fronts of the cuestas are, in their mode of origin, not directly connected with the faults. They are largely independent of the faults and clearly owe their origin to differential weathering and stream erosion. The faulting long antedated the Pleistocene period .J

and any scarps-which may have directly resulted from the faulting had '-

a short-lived existence. One result of the faulting, however, was the irregularity in the development and distribution of the cuestas and their development on rocks of different ages. Escarpments of Palmzoic rocks are usually not well developed near the actual contact of the Palmzoic and Pre-Cambrian rocks a t the southern margin of the upland region; but, on the other hand, in the northern part of the area, west of Gatineau river, a marked escarpment of the Pre-Cambrian rocks occurs. This escarpment is probably, as has been pointed out by Kindle and Burling1, a "fault-line scarp," the result of faulting and differential erosion of rocks, of varying degrees of resistance to erosion, involved in the faulting.

- The pre-Glacial drainage of the area was somewhat different from the present. The general trend of the bedrock valleys is towards the o_utheast and this was the general direction of the pre-Glacial drainage. 'In pre-Glacial time there was probably not a river comparable in size and general position to Ottawa river, but a series of rivers or streams existed parts of whose valleys are a t present occupied by Ottawa river. In the northwestern part of the area, Ottawa river forms a lake-like expansion occupying a broad rock valley which trends towards the southeast and whose lower portion southeast of the lake is drift-filled. From DeschGnes rapids a t the foot of the lake the river flows in a shallow, poorly defined valley across an interstream area to join the old Gatineau valley a t Ottawa, its course between the two old valleys being entirely post- Glacial. The pie-~lacial valley occupied by Gatineau river in its lower portion turns toward the east near the city of Ottawa, and is partly filled in this portion by glacial and marine deposits, in which the present river has cut a shallow trench. Rideau river occupies a valley which is almost entirely post-Glacial in origin, for the river throughout the,' greater part of its course flows over drift deposits. In the southwestern part of the area a rock valley, filled in places to overadepth of 100 feet by drift deposits, is occupied by Carp and Jock rivers. This valley trends towards the southeast and roughly ~arallels the broad valley occupied by the lake-like expansion of the Ottawa.

The principal fall in the Ottawa river occurs a t Chaudiere falls a t Ottawa where the water falls over a low escarpment of Trenton limestone. A series of narrow gorge-like channels below the falls, the largest one being

Kindle, E. M., and Burling, L. D.. "Structural relations of the Pre-Cambrian and Palmzolc r d a north of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys." Geol. Surv.. Can.. Mus. Bull. 18.1915.

occupied by the main have receded in post-( quarter mile. The m; character of the rocks widening of the joints vertical front over whic ness of the beds,. how(

r ~ t is probable also th:

I appearance of the mari was obstructed by acc which the energy of tli time. This is borne OL

gravels in the city of I compared with other - in post-Glacial time m

No true rock bas mere lake in the Pre-C valley the lower part Fairy lake and lake h. bedrock and partly b marine clays, forming 1 tudes of 20 feet or mo! the basins have been that they formed "plc during the period of er was much more exten:

Terraces cut chief feet to 250 feet above and in the eastern pa races, but their precise well developed along 0tFaGZ i i ia l l~r tK bf t also occur along the (

along the valleys thrc of the city of Ottawa. zontically bedded mar abruptly a t the sides c also clear that they ar terraces formed by m. and constructing a vz deposits; for the valle the valley bottoms art continuation of indiv

~eir mode of origin, not largely independent of rential weathering and the Pleistocene period J

1 from the faulting had ting, however, was the 3n of the cuestas and carpmen ts of Pal~ozoic actual contact of the

-n margin of the upland tart of the area, west of Cambrian rocks occurs. ted out by Kindle and ulting and differential to erosion, involved in

,mewhat different from valleys is towards the

le pre-Glacial drainage. ver comparable in size es of rivers or streams upied by Ottawa river. er forms a lake-like ex- nds towards the south- ce is drift-filled. From lows in a shallow, poorly the old Gatineau valley ys -heins _eptirely.post- .ineau river in its lower Ottawa, and is partly

ts, in which the present upies a valley which is? i river throughout the) . In the southwestern >ver a depth of 100 feet :k rivers. This valley Jlels the broad valley *.

a t Chaudiere falls a t i t of Trenton limestone. 'Is, the largest one being

e-Cambrian and Palaozolc rock8 :dl. 18.1915.

occupied by the main volume of the river, shows the distance the falls have receded in post-Glacial time. The total distance is only about one- quarter mile. The maintenance of the falls is owing to the well jointed character of the rocks which permits lhrge masses to be separated by widening of the joints and finally to be worn away, leaving a still nearly vertical front over which the water falls. The general uniformity of hard- ness of the beds, however, has prevented a rapid recession of the falls. r , I t is probable also that for a considerable length of time after the disappearance of the marine waters the river channel a t and above the falls was obstructed by accumulations of bouldery drift, upon the erosion of which the energy of the river was employed for a considerable length of time. This is borne out by the presence of large quantities of coarse river gravels in the city of Hull below the falls. Hence the short distance, as compared with other well-known cases, to which the falls have receded in post-Glacial time may be owing to several causes.

No true rock basin lakes are known to occur in the area. Kings- mere lake in the Pre-Cambrian upland occupies the upper part of a rock valley the lower part of which is blocked by a deposit of boulder clay. Fairy lake and lake Mackay in the lowland area are partly enclosed by bedrock and partly by glacial and marine deposits. The presence of marine clays, forming parts of the borders of the lakes and rising to altitudes of 20 feet or more near the margins of the lakes, seems to show that the basins have been partly excavated in the marine clays. I t is possible that they formed "plunge pools" into which the water flowed a t a time during the period of emergence of the land when the flow of Ottawa river was much more extensive and widespread than a t present.

Terraces cut chiefly in the marine clay, a t various altitudes from 150 feet to 250 feet above the sea, occur along Gatineau and Rideau rivers and in the eastern part of the area. They are, apparently, river terraces, but their precise mode of origfn is not clearly apparent. -T_he_~!are

- -- -

well developed along Rideau river in the southern part of the city of \ --. - --- . -- --I--- " ---. ^ ..-.- -- --

Ottawa and nor% of the city along the sides of ~a'tineau valley. They also occur aleng the Ottawa below the city of Ottawa and in general along the valleys 'throughout the greater portion of the area lying east of the city of Ottawa. I t is clear they are erosion forms; for the --- hori- zonti~llyca~de_dmarine&ys, in most places, form the bluffs which rise -- - abruptly a t the sides of the valleys to a height of 20 feet or more. I t is also clear that they are not, for the most part, alluvial terraces, that is, terraces formed by meandering streams eroding the sides of the valley and constructing a valley flat by erosion and deposition of flood-plain deposits; for the valleys are for the most part floored by marine clays, the valley bottoms are not level but slope gently, and the uninterrupted continuation of individual terraces, in places for several miles, shows

that they were not formed by meandering streams. In places also, in the lower portion of the Ottawa valley, the distance between the highest terraces on opposite sides of the valley is several miles and the river must have filled the valley from bank to bank. I t is probable that the valleys were not originally filled level full by marine deposits but that the surface of the clays sloped towards the central portion of the valleys. The fact, however, that the terraces are cut in the horizontally bedded marine clays shows that large quantities of the clays have been eroded and that the terraces are erosion forms. An important factor in the de- velopmen t of the terraces was, probably, the - great1 - y -- increased volume of the drainage waters in the Ottawa valley during and for a time after the closing stage of marine submergence. The individual terraces are very nearly horizontal or have too small a gradient down stream to be detected by levelling. The terrace bluffs resemble wave-cut cliffs but their continuity, the general absence of wave-built features a t similar levels, and the occurrences of the terraces, in places, in restricted valleys show that they were not entirely formed by wave action. I t seems probable, however, that the terraces were partly formed by wave action and partly by stream erosion acting chiefly along the sides of the valleys and widening them in a manner similar to that which may be observed along the south bank of the Ottawa below the city of Ottawa, where the banks are being rapidly cut back by stream erosion, assisted by seepage of water a t the ground water level and by constant slipping of the clay banks. The general level of the different terraces may have been determined by different stages of sea-level with respect to the land during the time of progressive uplift of the land, or may also have been determined by barriers a t some points in the lower portion of the Ottawa valley which, for a time, held up the waters and whose erosion resulted in a gradual lowering of the river bed. The former seems to be the more probable because of the altitude of the higher terraces and the wide extent of the valleys occupied by the waters.

The general surface of the bedrock of the lowland which occupies the greater part of the area forms part of the St. Lawrence lowland. Over a part of the area the bedrock is covered by a thick mantle of glacial and marine deposits, the greater part being marine clays of Champlain age. The surface of those portions of the area where the marine deposits are thick is generally nearly level and forms an uplifted marine plain. This descriptive term applies more particularly to the eastern part of the area.

The deposits occu area are superficial d e ~ underlying them in tha ent in origin, and are, 5 to the latest of the gc divided into Pleistocen entirely developed upol are not dealt with and of the deposits upon wf trolling influence in det

During Pleistocenl glaciers spread outwar One of these gathering dor peninsula. The io

i southward across the ( state and as far south region and in the Mir which shows that adv; different times during more than one main il earlieECE~nis-ofi-ce1s records of such are knol

The ice-sheet, whic lower part much of th rock, ground down the vast quantities of this When the ice melted i this transported mater

Near the close of glacier had melted bac pressed relatively to se: entered by way of the g the Champlain sea. 7 places in the Ottawa v: waters large quantitie: recent uplift of the lanc the streams a t work er

I 2

ams. In places also, in lnce between the highest :ral miles and the river

I t is probable that the ine deposits but that the -tion of the valleys. The he horizontally bedded clays have been eroded

portant factor in the de- reatly increased volume .ing and for a time after - individual terraces are lient down stream to be nble wave-cut cliffs but milt features a t similar ces, in restricted valleys gave action. I t seems formed by wave action : the sides of the valleys which may be observed ty of Ottawa, where the ion, assisted by seepage tant slipping of the clay 2s may have been deter- .t to the land during the o have been determined n of the Ottawa valley se erosion resulted in a - seems to be the more .rraces and the wide ex-

lowland which occupies St. Lawrence lowland.

a thick mantle of glacial .-he clays of Champlain here the marine deposits 1 uplifted marine plain. to the eastern part of

CHAPTER 111.

GENERAL GEOLOGY.

General Account.

The deposits occupying the surface of a large part of the Ottawa area are superficial deposits which differ from the bedrock or solid rock underlying them in that they are largely unconsolidated, they are different in origin, and are, geologically, vastly younger in age. They belong to the latest of the geological periods, the Quaternary, which is sub- divided into Pleistocene and Recent. The soils of the area are almost entirely developed upon these deposits. In this chapter the actual soils are not dealt with and attention is confined to the origin and character of the deposits upon which the soils are developed and which have a con- trolling influence in determining the agricultural value of the soils.

During Pleistocene or Glacial time, great ice-sheets or continental glaciers spread outward from different gathering grounds in Canada. One of these gathering grounds or centres of ice dispersion was in Labra- dor peninsula. The ice spread outward from that region and advanced southward across the Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys into New York state and as far south a3 New York city. In parts of the Great Lake region and in the Missi68ippi Valley region, evidence has been found which shows that advances and retreats by the ice-sheets occurred a t different times during the ice age. 15 the Ottawa -valley evidence of more than one main invasion has not been found. I t is possible that - -- earli~vms60TiE&sheets occurred in this region, but, if so, no definite records of such are known to exist.

The ice-sheet, which advanced across the region, incorporated in its -) lower part much of the loose rock debris, plucked out masses of solid: rock, ground down the solid rock over which it passed, and transported ; vast quantities of this material in the form of boulders, sand, and silt. \ When the ice melted it left the surface covered with accumulations of j this transported material, the glacial drift. /

Near the close of the Pleistocene epoch when the LabradoreanT glacier had melted back as far as the Ottawa valley this area was de- ,

pressed relatively to sea-level so that, as the glacier retired, the sea water , entered by way of the gulf of St. Lawrence and formed what is known as ' the Champlain sea. The waters of this sea covered the land in some ; places in the Ottawa valley to a depth of several hundred feet. In these '7, waters large quantities of sand, silt, and clay were deposited. More i

recent uplift of the land has driven the sea out of this region and has set / the streams a t work eroding the glacial and marine deposits and trans- j

2

: porting them to lower levels. However, comparatively 'little erosion has been effected, except in the larger stream valleys, because of the comparatively short time which has elapsed since the disappearance of the ice-sheets.

Pleistocene Deposits.

The superficial deposits of the Ottawa area are largely Pleistocene in age. They include glacial, marine, lacustrine, and fluvial deposits. They cover the greater part of the surface, the bedrock being exposed in only a comparatively small part of the area.

The glacial deposits consist of till or boulder clay chiefly .in the form .c-- ---.--. 2 ---. of ground moraine, and fluvioglacial or stratified drift in the forms of

-*---

kames, anFoutwash sheets of sand and gravel. The marine deposits consist of stratified sand, silt, and clay laid- t h e bottom anLalong the shores of the Champlain sea, an_a=of thg&Ian&e-which extended upkthk OtGWa-afi; S< Lawrence valley? during the -closingstage of the PJeistocene. Thcmarine deposits in places also contain jn their body \-- and on PfrEir surface boulders deposited through t h e agency of floating

ice. The lacustrine deposits were formed in lakes held up by drift barriers for a time after the disappearance of the marine waters or in water bodies rendered fresh by the shallowness of the receding sea and the inflow of fresh water. The fluvial deposits consist of river gravels and alluvium of the higher stream terraces.

DEPOSITS OF GLACIAL ORIGIN.

Glacial Till of Ground Moraine.

Glacial till or boulder clay, the unstratited depositgf_ the-jse-,sheet, occupies the surface of only a small part of the Ottawa area kt&sxten- sive ovey muc_h-ad lhr: .a~aheneath-a covering. of marine sediments. I t is generally of small thickness and in places is almost entirely absent, the bedrock outcropping with little or no drift covering. In places also the marine deposits rest directly on the bedrock. In the northern part of the area, where the bedrock consists of Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks, the till is especially thin. I t is thickest and mo~_e_yjdespread in --- -- the southern part of the area where the bedrock consists _chiefly of Palae<~birrfimes€ofie's~~~n~-F5i~rjt- to the facte that the limestones were more easily eroded by the ice-sheet than the crystalline rocks. The' till is very unevenly distributed, in places filling depressions in the underlying bedrock, in other places being absent or forming heaps or mounds where no depressions in the bedrock existed. The general effect of the deposition of the till was to lessen the relief and make the surface smoother.

,That the character and composition of the till is largely determined '

by the nature of the shown in the Ottawa from the Pre-Cambri is composed largely of Palaeozoic rocks.1 I t z of rocks derived from material, especially th the till is nearly alwaj stone. , In the areas 1

till is usually reddish i a small proportion of i by Palmzoic limesto a n h c o < ~ i - r ~ -p a E Z i i s ~ a ~ ~ w ~ t _ I-__ ---___ set in a matrix of fir ----- and-djffi5ult of excavai it containm5CUGF sand and silt. Thesc origin or, it is more p of stratified material in a frozen condition evidence of folding ant

Good exposures o in the Ottawa area valleys and in artific bank of Rideau river 1

feeG33iRunXrZZi _ __-- of Greens creek 2 mi shows 18 feet of till re: the city of Ottawa nu] to varying depths. I building on Sussex strr least 50 feet and almc pit, near the Canadia freshly exposed showec and clay and underlain turbance apparently c: partially incorporated ; South on the south sic street show a small tl gravels of fluvioglaci: South near the canal composed of till which

rnparatively ' little erosion illeys, because of the com- the disappearance of the

.ea are largely Pleistocene rine, and fluvial deposits. bedrock being exposed in

er clay, chiefly in the form if&& d;ift in the forms of rel. The marine deposits n d b o ~ m a n ~ a l o n g g-+Wantic-which extended ~g the .closing stage of the llso contain in their body ~gh- the agency of floating n lakes held up by drift f the marine waters or in 3s of the receding sea and ts consist of river gravels

[GIN.

.ede~osit~f_th&c,e~sheet, Ottawa area hut is exten-

rofrarine sediments. I t is almost entirely absent, rift covering. In places ~ d r o c k . In the northern Pre-Cambrian crystalline

t and more wideseread in - - xirock consists chiefly of

*--.- ----- fac tha t - the limestones -hexrysblline xocks. he' a

g depressions in the under- j forming heaps or mounds ;

i The general effect of the i

make thesurface smoother. ; e till is largely determi<d

by the nature of the bedrock upon which or near which it lies is well shown in the Ottawa district; for, in places distant less than 5 miles from the Pre-Cambrian upland, from which the ice advanced, the till is composed largely of material derived from the underlying or adjacent Palzozoic rocks.1 I t also contains many boulders and smaller fragments of rocks derived from the crystalline rocks but the greater part of the material, especially the finer-grained part, is local in derivation. , Hence the till is nearly always highly calcareous in the areas underlain by l ime stone. , In the areas underlain by crystalline rocks and sandstones the till is usually reddish in colour, it is more or less arenaceous, and contains a small proportion of the finer-grained materials. In the areas underlain

1 by Palzozoic limestones the unweathered till is b lu i sh~g~yTn colour -_-- - - a n d - E t ~ i n s a-large proportion of silt and clay. --rheeet&f the Ottawa ------ - -_,

-__ _---- ----.---. area is usuallp crowZd GYth angular and subangular stones and bdulders - - - - - - - -- -__-_ - -r---- .--.-- * - set in a matrix of 'finer-graineFmateriaI. R2nce it IS very tenaclou: --- _ _ -7--- -- and-difficult of excavatidn. The till is Iwmout ~ t ~ f i c a t i o n but in places - it c o n t a i n ' S m ~ ~ i i L F l a ~ e r s or irregularly shaped masses of stratified sand and silt. These stratified portions may be of sub-glacial stream origin or, it is more probable that in most cases they represent masses of stratified material ploughed up by the glacier and incorporated while 1 in a frozen condition in the till, for the included masses usually show evidence of folding and contortion. /'

Good exposures of the till in sections are found a t only a few places in the Ottawa area (Plate 111). The exposures occur along stream valleys and in artificial excavations. A section ex&9n~h_.-we&- bank of Rideau riter one mile above Hogsback shows a thickness of 10 __- -I- --_ f e e t ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ i o ~ l a c i a l _ __- sands an'd 'giaTeTs7ln-&eeValley ---__--- of Greens creek 2 miles southwest of Blackburn post-office, a section shows 18 feet of till resting on bedrock and overlain by marine clay. In the city of Ottawa numerous artificial excavations have exposed the till to varying depths. In excavating for the foundation of the Customs building on Sussex street i t was found that the till had a thickness of a t least 50 feet and almost completely filled a bedrock valley. A ballast pit, near the Canadian Northern station in the city of Ottawa, when freshly exposed showed 6 to 10 feet of stony till overlain by marine sand and clay and underlain by fluvioglacial sands which sho wevidence of disturbance apparently caused by overriding of the ice-sheet and which are partially incorporated in the till. Sections exposed in sand pits in Ottawa South on the south side of Rideau river one-quarter mile east of Bank street show a small thickness of till overlying cross-bedded sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin. The low ridge which occurs in Ottawa South near the canal and extends northwest across the canal is partly composed of till which is highly arenaceous and loose in structure, owing

to the inclusion in the till of masses of the underlying fluvioglacial sands and gravels.

The till sheet of the Ottawa area owes its origin almost entirely t o d e p c d b ~ u n d moraine from the iesheet , that is i t was deposited b e _ n s ~ _ t h e u - & $ g d u r i n a i t s At the time of deposition of the till sheet the Ottawa area was depressed rela- tiveIy to sea-level a t least 300 feet so that the till of the lower portions of the district was deposited on a land surface which was below This is shown by the character of the contact of the till and the over- , lying marine deposits (Plate 111). .Sections ---.. . exwsed a t vario1;'22titudes up to atleasf -300 feet above sea-level show that no erosion or ~ S e r - ingd-the till si on o the m a r i n ~ a y s . The - -.,,,,- fL.----.- -" till - contains --._.-----. no mar-trm-hence -----.-..---------- it cannoc& regarded as a marine deposit although deposited below sea-level. T h s mode of origin of the till as ground moraine explains the absence of" stratification and the lack of marine fossils.

I Terminal Moraines. I No well developed terminal moraines marking positions of the ice

front a t time of halt during the general retirement of the ice-sheet have I

' been recognized in the Ottawa area and their recognition is difficult because of the general covering of marine sediments. Part of the i

ridge extending southeast near Bowexville appears to be of morainic origin, for, in places, its surface is characterized by irregular knoils and undrained basins; but, in general, the surface of the ridge is smoothed I

off by marine deposition and erosion.

Fluviogkcial Sands and Gravels. I

Stratified sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin are of local and irregular occurrence in the Ottawa area and rarely outcrop a t the surface, for they are generally buried beneath a covering of marine deposits. In ! places also they are overlain by till and are exposed only in sections. i

In general character the fluvioglacial deposits are more sandy than gravelly but in places they contain numerous large boulders and occasionally masses of till; they are generally markedly cross-bedded and show

'I- abundant evidence of minor folding and faulting due to the melting of

i !

included ice-blocks and consequent settling or to overriding of the ice- sheet.

Sections exposing fluvioglacial sands and gravels occur along the west side of Gatineau river one-quarter mile above Wright's bridge. The upper portion of the gravels is cemented to a depth of 2 to 4 feet by infiltration and deposition of lime carbonate derived from the overlying marine clay. Gravels of similar origin are exposed in a gravel pit a t ,

Britannia. At this localit ation occurs onlv where tl which form the source of? in the ballast pit of the (

mile east of Bowesville w overlain by 1 to 4 feet the sections exposed in tl in character, in places bc and grey in colour, marked (Plate V). In other pl stratified form the larger diameter is included in th overlaps the deposits. T sands and gravels are crl the throw of the faults lenticuiar masses of evenly They are in most cases a from the main mass. 11 which occupy the surface glacial origin. The conta apparently marking a wi disturbed by folding or f western end of the pit an( end, lens-shaped masses fossiis.of .arctic spscies, ot fluvioglacial deposits and The lens-shaped masses a to that of the underlying fl of the overlying marine g deposits shows that the f c took place previous to th be largely accounted for b: fluvioglacial deposits a t thc of the ice the deposits set; folding of the sands in plac partly caused by overrid supported by the fact that There is no evidence of ero having taken place previo deposits are known to be readvances of the ice occ~ importance.

The fluvioglacial d e ~

1 underlying fluvioglacial

ts origin almost entirely :t, that is i t was deposited ----+------ - --.--

ring.ifs-mging. At the \ area was depressed rela- 11 of the lower portions of . hich was below sea-lev? i of the till and the over- msed a t various altitudes 1 - - --- ..-..__ ___-

s t no erosion or ~ g a t h e r - _------ lf_t,hre_ mar j , n ~ clays. The 6ed;. hence it cannot bk ed below sea-level. The explains the absence of

-king positions of the ice lent of the ice-sheet have ir recognition is difficult sediments. Part of the pears to be of morainic d by irregular knolls and ~f the ridge is smoothed

lvels.

11 origin are of local and 4y outcrop a t the surface, g of marine deposits. In sed only in sections. ;its are more sandy than .ge boulders and occasion- y cross-bedded and show ng due to the melting of to overriding of the ice-

gravels occur along the above Wright's bridge.

I a depth of 2 to 4 feet by :rived from the overlying :posed in a gravel pit a t

Britannia. At this locality also the grave lsare partly cemented. Cement- --___ ation occurs only where the gravels are overlain by iime-bearing._d,e~sits --" x .- -.-*.---- w E t G z L % e of -- the cemenflng materlTmff'hey are well exposed in the ballast pit of the Canadian Northern railway three-fourths of a mile east of Bowesville where a thickness of 10 to 15 feet are exposed, overlain by 1 to 4 feet of marine sands and gravels (Plate IV). In the sections exposed in this pit the material shows a marked variation - in character, in places being almost entirely sand, usually unoxidized and grey in colour, markedly cross-bedded and in places folded and faulted (Plate V). In other places coarse gravel and boulders irregularly stratified form the larger part. At one place a mass of till 10 feet in diameter is included in the gravels. At the western edge of the pit, till overlaps the deposits. Throughout the greater part of the deposit the sands and gravels are crumpled, folded, and faulted on a small scale, the throw of the faults being usually only a few inches. In places lenticular masses of evenly bedded sand and silt are included in the sands. They are in most cases abruptly terminated and appear to be distinct from the main mass. Marine fossils occur in the overlying gravels which occupy the surface but not in the underlying deposits of fluvioglacial origin. The contact is well defined and fonns an even surface apparently marking a wave-cut plain. The marine deposits are not disturbed by folding or faulting. At two places, one being near the western end of the pit and the other on the south side near the eastern end, lens-shaped masses of laminated sand and silt, hdding marine fossils ofarctjc s ~ c i e s , occupy depressions in the upper portion of the fluvioglacial deposits and are overlain directly by the marine gravels. The lens-shaped masses are crumpled and folded in a manner similar to that of the underlying fluvioglacial deposits. The lack of disturbance of the overlying marine gravels which are apparently beach or terrace deposits shows that the folding and faulting of the underlying deposits took place previous to the deposition of the marine gravels. I t may be largely accounted for by assuming that ice blocks were included in the fluvioglacial deposits a t the time of their deposition and with the melting of the ice the deposits settled and readjusted themselves. The intense folding of the sands in places, suggests, however, that the deformation was partly caused by overriding by the ice-sheet and this explanaton is supported by the fact that in places till overlies the fluvioglacial deposits. There is no evidence of erosion or weathering of the fluvioglacial deposits having taken place previous to the deposition of the till and no marine deposits are known to be overlain by till in the Ottawa area so that if

importance.

1 readvances of the ice occurred, i t is probable that they were of minor ,

The fluvioglacial deposits of the Ottawa area differ somewhat

in form and mode of origin, but, because they are in great part buried beneath marine deposits and in some places by till, their form and mode of deposition are not clearly apparent. The irregularly shaped hill east of Gatineau river near Wright's bridge appears to be a kame. The ridge which extends southeastward for several miles from Bowes- ville and in which the Canadian Northern ballast pit is situated is probably partly morainic in origin and includes outwash sands and gravels associated with the moraine. The fluvioglacial deposits buried the till may be sub-glacial stream deposits, the till covering merely being the ground moraine deposited from the base of the ice during its melting or they may may be kame or outwash deposits formed margin of the ice-sheet and subsequently overridden by the ice.

DIRECTION OF ICE MOVEMENTS AND STAGE OF GLACIATION.

,r There are a t least two distinct sets of glacial striae in the district.

I One set, which is the more pronounced, trends nearly south; the other, which is the later, trends nearly southeast. This shows, a t least, a marked change in direction of movement of the ice-sheet during the closing

t- stage of glaciation. Stratified sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin are in places

overlain by till and show evidence of disturbance as if overridden by the ice-sheet. Hence, it is possible that a readvance of the ice took place. But no marine or lacustrine deposits are known to be overlain by till and no evidence of weathering or erosion of the deposits overlain by till having taken place prior to the deposition of the till has been found, so that

- there is little evidence of any lengthy retreat and subsequent readvance > of the ice-sheet. The glacial deposits are weathered to only a slight

depth and it is probable that they belong to one general stage of glacia- -;,tion, which is presumably the latest or Wisconsin stage of glaciation.

I t is possible that the region was invaded by ice-sheets during early stages of Pleistocene glaciation; but, if so, no definite records have been left, so far as is known. .-

General Features. C--4

! The waters of the Champlain sea followed the retreating front of the ice-sheet and covered the lower ground as fast as the ice withdrew, for

I the region was depressed relatively to sea-level. The depression of the I / land relatively to sea-level does not entirely account for the flooding

by marine waters, for it is probable that for a time the sea also rose on the land owing to the return to the ocean of the water which had been bound up in the ice-sheets. --

The sea-bottom depc consist of fine sand, silt, the whole sea bottom bu area being covered by lit were, for the most part, c

sions, and the sand in beach deposits of sand an( the ancient shore-lines of uplifted and was emergin!

The maximum exten shown by the distribution near - - - Kings.ms?:ee-i-n-& nc l ~ Q 9 , o f e e i ahoxe sea-leve this altitude was the onlj sea during the time of ma

Raised beaches occul a t altitudes ranging from cases the beaches are not

i individual beaches for ac localities where there wz exposed to wave action

I spaced, apparently showi

The best locality a t 1

I the upper limit of marine : I 8 miles northwest of Ott:

occurrence of a sheet of b ------ - tain" and because of the

1 valley leading up to King

1 occur overlying marine a

1 and gravels is sharply de 1 inner edge of the terrace

corner above this localit) map-sheet issued by thc

i feet) was found to be 68

1 slope rises to an altitude

1 action could be found a 1 probably the same as th;

I the highest shore-line to to the fact that the alt determination, which WOI -

De Geer. Gerard. "On Pleistt Soc., Boston, vol. XXV, 1892. pp. 4

are in great part buried till, their form and mode

3 irregularly shaped hill appears to be a kame.

everal miles from Bowes- ballast pit is situated is ~utwash sands and gravels r l deposits buried the till covering merely base of the ice during its deposits formed

idden by the ice.

>E OF GLACIATION.

tcial striz in the district. ; nearly south; the other, s shows, a t least, a marked -sheet during the closing

lcial origin are in places Ice as if overridden by the nce of the ice took place. to be overlain by till and

sits overlain by till having has been found, so that

.nd subsequent readvance bathered to only a slight :e general stage of glacia- msin stage of glaciation. y ice-sheets during early lefinite records have been

the retreating front of the : as the ice withdrew, for -1. The depression of the account for the flooding time the sea also rose on he water which had been

The sea-bottom deposits of the Champlain sea in the Ottawa area consist of fine sand, silt, and clay. The deposits were not formed over the whole sea bottom but only in favourable localities, portions of the ; area being covered by little or no marine sediments. The silt and clay ) were, for the most part, deposited in the deeper portions and in depres- i sions, and the sand in the shallower portions and near shore. The beach deposits of sand and gravel were formed along the shores and mark the ancient shore-lines of the sea a t different levels as the land was being uplifted and was emerging from the sea.

The maximum extent of the Champlain sea in the Ottawa area is) shown by the distribution of the marine deposits. Thehighest shore-line, near Kingsmere in the nerthern part of the area, has an atitude of688 f6 690 feet above sea-level. The small area near Kingsmere lying above this altitude was the only portion of the Ottawa area not covered by the , sea during the time of maximum marine submergence. -

Beaches.

Raised beaches occur in the Ottawa area a t numerous localities and a t altitudes ranging from 240 feet to 690 feet above the sea. In most cases the beaches are not strongly developed so that it is difficult to trace individual beaches for any great distance. They are best developed in localities where there was an abundance of drift and which were well exposed to wave action. In these localities the beaches are closely spaced, apparently showing an almost continuous emergence of the land.

The best locality a t which the altitude of the highest beach marking the upper limit of marine submergence may be determined is a t Kingsmere, 8 miles northwest of Ottawa. This locality is favourable because of the occurrence of a sheet of boulder clay on the southern slope of the-"moun- --- 7- tarn" and because of the good exposure to wave action. In the stream valley leading up to Kingsmere from the east stratified sands and gravels occur overlying marine clay. The upper limit of the stratified sands and gravels is sharply defined and forms a terrace. The altitude of the inner edge of the terrace (as determined by levelling from the first road corner above this locality, the altitude of which is given on the Ottawa map-sheet issued by the Department of Militia and Defence, as 796 feet) was found to be 688 to 690 feet above the sea. The boulder clay slope rises to an altitude of over 200 feet higher, but no evidence of wave action could be found above an altitude of 690 feet. This locality is probably the same as that a t which de Geer determined the altitude of the highest shore-line to be 705 feet.' The difference is probably due to the fact that the altitude as found by de Geer was a barometric determination, which would readily account for the slight difference.

1 De Geer, Gerard. "On Pleistocene changes of level in eastern North America." Proc Nat. Hfat. Soc., Boston, vol. XXV, 1892, pp. 454-477. (Map.)

Raised beaches a t lower levels occur in the valley leading up to Kingsmere from the east a t altitudes of 492, 484, 477, 468, and 461 feet. Beach deposits also occur in this valley and in the valley leading up to Kingsmere from the west a t various altitudes between 492 and 690 feet, but they are generally poorly developed because of the steep and rocky character of the slopes; and in general throughout the district the areas lying between altitudes of 500 and 700 feet were unfavourable for the development of shore-line features. A well developed beach, the crest of which has an altitude of 440 feet, occurs on the west side of Chelsea road one-half mile north of Chelsea. This beach is developed in places around the base of the highland area in the northern part of the district and on the relatively high area northwest of Aylmer. I t is probably also represented by beach deposits on some of the higher ground in the southern part of the area, which formed islands in the sea a t this stage of the marine submergence. The highest beach in the southeastern part of the area occurs one mile southeast of Bowes- ville and has an altitude of 405 feet. In the southwest part of the area beaches also occur a t altitudes of about 400 feet near Fallowfield and near Stittsville. Two miles northwest of Old Stittsville several beaches have altitudes of 400 to 450 feet, the latter being the highest altitude of the beaches in this portion of the area. Individual beaches of this series cannot be traced for any great distance because they are only locally developed and were formed on islands in the sea, so that their altitudes furnish little evidence as to the character of the uplift.

One beach, however, which can be traced for a considerable distance, was found to occur in the valley of Ottawa river above the city of Ottawa. This beach probably marks the outline of a lake which was formed after the partial or complete withdrawal of the marine waters; for no marine fossils are known to occur in its deposits and in the vicinity of Ottawa strongly marked river terraces and river gravels occur a t altitudes nearly corresponding to the altitudes of the beach in the upper part of the basin. The altitudes of this beach, determined a t different points', shows, approximately, that the differential uplift which affected this area during the life of and after the disappearance of the lake was greatest in a nearly due north direction and that the rate of tilt is about 3 feet per mile over part of the area.

[ The Champlain or Leda clays, as they were named by J. W. Daw- 1_.4---

son, underlie approximately two-thirds of the Ottawa area. They h a v e a maximum thickness in places of nearly 200 feet and are best

7-

1 Johnston. W. A.. "Late Pleiatoane oscillations of sea-level in the Ottawa valley." Geol. Surv.. Can.. Mua. Bull. No. 24. 1916. p. 7.

developed in the stre; do not, however, occu what irregularly distri owing partly to non-c quent to their deposit; valley north of the city 100 feet, and in Otta. borings in Ottawa Ril clays t o have a maxim of Greens creek where feet thick. The clays

! and underlie the Mer I able depth. A well bc a thickness of 186 feet also underlain by mari. a maximum thickness o southward along Bank ward to Bronson aver

I ing a large part of Otl known as Sandy Hill, of which rises considera

1 1

the clays were origina stream erosion. They T

part of the city in the of the valley and have feet above the valley miles along the valley near Rideau junction o junction the marine cla:

I strip along the river, b

I tensive and spread out

I In the southeastern part of Carp and Jock rive, a thickness in places c

I of the area a considera

I ward from Breckenrids ness. Stream valleys h. of 400 feet and have no

1 . of 220 feet of clay is s: water on P. Hogan's far1 ous small areas of mari sional remnants of a m

1 tudes throughout the ;

:he valley leading up to L, 477, 468, and 461 feet. in the valley leading up !es between 492 and 690 .xcause of the steep and throughout the district

10 feet were unfavourable 1 well developed beach, occurs on the west side

sea. This beach is de- md area in the northern -ea northwest of Aylmer. ts on some of the higher :h formed islands in the

The highest beach in nile southeast of Bowes- 3 southwest part of the COO feet near Fallowfield f Old Stittsville several latter being the highest rea. Individual beaches istance because they are ands in the sea, so that character of the uplift.

! for a considerable dis- .a river above the city of :ne of a lake which was 11 of the marine waters; posits and in the vicinity L river gravels occur a t ,f the beach in the upper determined a t different

ia l uplift which affected earance of the lake was t the rate of tilt is about

e named by J. W. Daw- le Ottawa area. They r 200 feet and are best

.he Ottawa valley." Geol. Surr.,

developed in the stream valleys and lowest parts of the area. They do not, however, occupy all the depressions in the area but are somewhat irregularly distributed, being absent in some of the depressions owing partly to nondeposition and partly to stream erosion s u b s ' quent to their deposition. They are well developed in Gatineau River valley north of the city of Ottawa, where they have a thickness of over

i 100 feet, and in Ottawa River valley below the city of Ottawa. Well borings in Ottawa River valley below the city of Ottawa show the clays to have a maximum thickness of a t least 170 feet. In the valley of Greens creek where it crosses the Montreal road the clays are 125 feet thick. The clays are also extensive in the eastern part of the area and underlie the Mer Bleue peat bog and adjacent areas to a considerable depth. A well boring near Ramsayville showed the clay to have a thickness of 186 feet. The central portion of the city of Ottawa is also underlain by marine clay occupying a basin in which the clay has a maximum thickness of nearly 10JUtxt. This basin-shaped area extends southward along Bank street from Albert street to the Glebe, westward to Bronson avenue, and northeastward to Rideau river, including a large part of Ottawa East. The northeastern part of the city, known as Sandy Hill, is underlaid largely by marine clay, the surface of which rises considerably above the area lying to the east, showing that the clays were originally more extensive but have been removed by stream erosion. They were originally more extensive also in the southern' part of the city in the valley of Rideau river for they occur on the sides \I i of the valley and have considerable thickness a t altitudes of 60 to 70, feet above the valley bottom. They also extend south for severall miles along the valley of the Rideau and have a maximum thickness \

near Rideau junction of nearly 100 feet. Two miles south of Rideau junction the marine clays in the Rideau valley are confined to a narrow strip along the river, but south of Black rapids they again become extensive and spread out for several miles on both sides of the valley. In the southeastern part of the area the clays are extensive in the valleys of Carp and Jock rivers, where well borings show the clays to have a thickness in places of a t least 100 feet. In the northwestern part of the area a considerable deposit occurs in the valley extending eastward from Breckenridge. This deposit is remarkable for its thickness. Stream valleys have been cut down through the clays to a depth of 100 feet and have not exposed the base of the clays, and a thickness of 220 feet of clay is said to have been passed through in drilling for water on P.. Hogan's farm 23 miles northeast of Breckenridge. Numer- ous small areas of marine clay, occupying depressions or forming ero- sional remnants of a more extensive sheet also occur a t different altitudes throughout the area. The thick deposits are confined to the

lower ground and deepest depressions. Some of the valleys, however, as for instance the Constance Lake valley and the upper part of Ottawa River valley, appear to have received little sediment.

The Champlain clays are exposed in n _ ~ ~ ~ i n - the Ottawa' area, a t various altitudes fmndLUeet,-b-;n--the lowest part of h i e y , u ~ f e e & h e . s e a - l e v e l , the highest lo-' cafity a t which they are known to occur being in the stream valley leading up to ~ i n ~ s m e r d r o m the east. Well borings show that they extend to a depth of 130 feet below the level of the lower part of the Ottawa river, so that they have a total vertical range of about 600 feet. The great mass ~f_-t_~&~,-hawe~~lies.hel~w .&nn altitude of 400-feet. The clay occupies a few depressions in the hilly northern pa'i%Zf the area a t altitudes ranging from 400 feet to 500 feet. Above 500 feet the deposits are small and are confined to the narrow stream valleys.

The surface of- theclays "is nearly level-or gently. sipping but, in places, as ?nuC%-tineau valley and northeast of Breckenridge, they are deeply trenched by streams. In the vicinity of Ottawa and in the eastern portion of the area the clays show marked evidence of stream erosion and terracing so that the original surface of deposition is in part destroyed. The occurence of flat-topped ridges of horizontally bedded marine clay separated by valleys, as in the southern part of the city of Ottawa and in the vicinity of Mer Bleue peat bog, shows clearly that the ridges as now existing originally formed part of a more extensive plain, and that a considerable part of the clay has been re- ,' moved by erosion and transported to lower levels. The original surface of deposition is, however, preserved in parts of the area or a t least has been only slightly modified by processes of erosion. This surface is particularly well preserved around the base of the Laurentian hills where the clay abuts closely against the base of the steep rocky slopes and extends outward, being only slightly trenched by stream erosion. The general surface of the clay where uneroded is not level, but slopes towards the valleys or central parts of the depressions in which the clays were deposited and in the case of Gatineau valley slopes up-stream. Hence, it is probable that, although a large amount of clay has been removed from the lower portions of the Ottawa and tributary valleys,, as is shown by the strong terracing of the clays, the original surface 1 did not form a level plain across the valleys but dipped down into) them, conforming somewhat to the original depressions. .

In physical character the clays are markedly different in their upper and lower portions. The lower part is a sandy and silty clay

, often well laminated, especially towards the base, but becoming more massive and indistinctly bedded in the upper part. I t occurs practi-

cally a t all altitudes fr. of the Ottawa valley, v ally finer-grained and c the lower clay passes . a t altitudes from 200 a t which this occurs is 2 miles east of Willow( creek shows a t the ba: overlain by 6 feet of horizontally bedded sar of stratified clay which layers, but in the up exposed on the west s Canadian Northern Ra lying the lower silty relations are shown in bank of Rideau river 01

on Rideau river, a t th Ottawa, and along the station. The sand wh by the upper clay is i fine gravel and is rip1 valley near Ottawa thc silty clay is overlain d boulders occur abundar

I crumpled and contortc well seen in sections e: foot of Graham bay, w beds. From the fore, deposition was continl

I upper beds contain sm formed .by floating ice portions of which were re-deposited. At Blac faulted beds also occur causes. Crumpled cla! leading up to Kingsme ever, i t is probable tha by the pressure of the occur in a restricted silty and sandy clays and there can be littk of the melting ice-she( the clays were depositc

j f the valleys, however, le upper part of Ottawa diment. neraus sections in the *in the lowest part -a-level, the highest lo- g in the stream valley borings show that they f the lower part of the .a1 range of about 600 s below an altitude of i in the hilly northern 2et to 500 feet. Above 1 to the narrow stream

gently &ping but, in Breckenridge, they are

of Ottawa and in the ked evidence of stream ace of deposition is in ridges of horizontally I

I the southern part of I

Bleue peat bog, shows ; formed part of a more I

i f the clay has been re;., lels. The original sur- s of the area or a t least

erosion. This surface of the Laurentian hills the steep rocky slopes

hed by stream erosion. is not level, b,ut slopes

pressions in which the valley slopes up-stream. n t of clay has been re- and tributary valleys,

qs, the original surface but dipped down into ~ressions.

1 edly different in their I sandy and silty clay se, but becoming more )art. I t occurs practi-

J -\ cally a t all altitudes from 130 feet up to 605 feet. In the lower parts of the Ottawa valley, where the lowest exposures are found, it is gener- I ally finer-grained and contains less silt and sand. In its upper portion /

i the lower clay passes upward into sand. This occurs most markedly - ' a t altitudes from 200 up to 350 feet. The lowest locality observed a t which this occurs is in the valley of Greens creek a t the road crossing 2 miles east of Willowdale. A section exposed on the west side of the creek shows a t the base 18 feet of till resting on bedrock. The till is overlain by 6 feet of laminated silty clay which passes upward into horizontally bedded sand and fine gravel 7 feet thick, overlain by 11 feet of stratified clay which in the lower 3 feet is interstratified with sandy layers, but in the upper part is uniformly fine-grained. A section exposed on the west side of Rideau river one-quarter mile above the Canadian Northern Railway bridge shows 20 feet of sand and silt overlying the lower silty clay and overlain by the upper clay. Similar relations are shown in sections exposed in the sand pits on the east bank of Rideau river one mile south of Rideau junction, a t Black rapids on Rideau river, a t the Peerless brickyard south of Rideau river near Ottawa, and along the railway three-fourths of a mile north of Chelsea station. The sand which overlies the lower silty clay and is overlain' by the upper clay is generally evenly bedded. In places it contains fine gravel and is ripple-marked. In the lower part of the Ottawa valley near Ottawa the sand is generally thin or absent, and the lower silty clay is overlain directly by the upper clay. Glaciated stones and ; boulders occur abundantly in the lower clays and the beds are in placed

i crumpled and contorted as if by the grounding of icebergs. This is well seen in sections exposed along the shore of lake Deschenes a t the foot of Graham bay, where contorted beds are overlain by undisturbed beds. From the foregoing observations i t may be concluded that ,

I

deposition was continuous throughout the series. In places also the upper beds contain small fragments of the underlying clay apparently formed .by floating ice masses grounding on and churning up the clays,

i portions of which were taken into suspension in the water and rapidly re-deposited. At Black rapids on Rideau river a series of folded and faulted beds also occurs and apparently owes its deformation to similar causes. Crumpled clays are also well exposed in the bed of the brook leading up to Kingsmere from the east (Plate VI). In this case, however, i t is probable that the beds were deformed by movement induced by the pressure of the overlying deposits of sand and gravel, for they occur in a restricted valley and on a fairly steep slope. The lower "I silty and sandy clays form the greater part of the marine sediments 5 and there can be little doubt that they were derived from the waters

The upper clay overlies the lower sandy and silty clay a t practically all altitudes from the lowest part of the.Ottawa valley up to a t least 425 feet. I t is generally only 6 to 10 feet thick but in places has

maximum thickness of 20 feet or more. The greatest thickness ob- L served is in the valley of Greens creek where it is a t least 20 feet thick and possibly more. I t also has considerable thickness in parts of the Gatineau valley. The upper clay differs markedly in physical character from the lower clay. I t is an exceedingly fine-grained, plastic clay genl) erally interlaminated with sandy layers in its lower portion near the contact with the underlying sandy or silty beds, but nearly free from sand in its upper portion. The stratification is not usually apparent except on close examination because of the fineness of grain and nearly

casionally in and on the surface of the clays as if dropped from floating uniform size of the particles composing the clay. Boulders occur oc- \ ice, but the upper clays are not known to becrumpled or disturbed ea- cept where landslides have occurred.

i -- .

The colour of the marine clays is for the most part bluish grey changing to brownish red in the upper weathered portion. In places t h p lower parts of the clays containing abundant organic matter are nearly black when wet. In places also reddish bands ) inch to 4 or 5 inches thick occur alternating with grey bands, giving a distinct appearance of colour banding. The red bands occur most abundantly near the base of the upper fine-grained clays and in places extend through a vertical interval of several feet but are not extensively developed. They are well exposed in sections along the east side of Gatineau river near the Cana- dian Pacific Railway bridge. The red bands are composed of exception- ally fine-grained material, the greater part being composed of particlg less than 0.003 mm. in diameter. The general bluish grey colour of thd, ; marine clays is similar to that of the unweathered till and is ~ r o b a b l ~ due to the fact that the material was largely derived by the grinding: action of the glaciers on fresh rocks and was deposited as clay withoyt' having been 0xidized.l The dark coloration mentioned above appears to be due to the presence of the black iron sulphide formed through the agency of the organic matter included in the clay. The red bands are composed largely of weathered material. Their occurrence and inter- banding with grey beds may, possibly, be owing to erosion by stream and wave action of different kinds of rocks and superficial deposits, in part weathered, which were intermittently exposed during the time of retreat of the ice and submergence and emergence of the land.

Chumplain Sands.

The Champlain marine sands or Saxicava sands, as they were named -

' MerriU. G. P.. "Rocks, rock-weathering. and roils." p. 323.

by J. W. Dawson, are w area. Where they do oo portion of the marine cla deposition and differ in shallow water and near s somewhat deeper water. of the land and were der the sea gradually receded erosion acting along the also include a small amc Because of the difficulty, of different origin they k

The marine or Cha distribution and are usu. inches to a few feet, but thick. They are thickes ridges of glacial drift for material easily erodible i in the areas adjacent tc which extends southeast Ottawa river towards Bt sands are well develope Sections exposed in the of Rideau junction show clay (Plate VII). The sa but the upper 20 to 30 1 deposition. The exceptic is evidently owing to the able for erosion by wave a water slope existed upon a built terrace. Marine clay are extensive in the of the area the marine clz ing of sand. This is pa area whye, in places, the upland area, the absencc paucity of drift on the I

available for erosion by w a t the high levels long en The marine sands also in places bedrock. In mos general they were derived deposits, and, in smaller

ind silty clay a t practi- Ottawa valley up to a t

thick but in places has e greatest thickness ob- is a t least 20 feet thick

hickness in parts of the dly in physical character :rained, plastic clay gen- , lower portion near the ;

s, but nearly free from ,! is not usually apparent \

I ness of grain and nearly I ay. Boulders occur oc- 1 if dropped from floating 1

i -urnpled or disturbed ex-:

! most part bluish grey 1 portion. In places the- -ganic matter are nearly s 4 inch to 4 or 5 inches g a distinct appearance bundantly near the base ;tend through a vertical :veloped. They are well a u river near the Cana- composed of exception-

~g composed of particlcz bluish grey colour of the', .; :red till and is probably,! . derived by the grinding, qmsited as clay withot$ lentioned above appears hide formed through the ay. The red bands are ir occurrence and inter- ig to erosion by stream 1 superficial deposits, in ied during the time of re- of the land.

nds, as they were named

by J. W. Dawson, are widely but not uniformly spread over the Ottawa area. Where they do occur they usually overlie or rather form the upper portion of the marine clay, for they belong to the same general period of deposition and differ in origin from the marine clay in that they are shallow water and near shore deposits whereas the clay was deposited in somewhat deeper water. They belong chiefly to the time of emergence of the land and were deposited in the shallow waters near the shores as the sea gradually receded, being derived very largely by wave and current erosion acting along the shores and on the shallow bottom. The sands also include a small amount of delta, alluvial, and lacustrine deposits. Because of the difficulty, however, of distinguishing in the field the sands of different origin they have in the mapping been all grouped together.

The marine or Champlain sands are somewhat irregular in their distribution and are usually of no great thickness, varying from a few inches to a few feet, but in eGeptiona1 cases being as much as 40 feet thick. They are thickest and most widespread in areas where hills and ridges of glacial drift formed the shores and supplied an abundance of material easily erodible by the waves and currents. This is well shown in the areas adjacent to the ridge, composed largely of glacial drift, which extends southeastward through Bowesville and westward across Ottawa river towards Bells Corners. Along the sides of this ridge the sands are well developed and in places have considerable thickness. Section8 exposed in the sand pits along Rideau river one mile south of Rideau junction show in places 40 feet of marine sand overlying marine clay (Plate VII). The sands are horizontally bedded in the lower portion, but the upper 20 to 30 feet is diagonally bedded, indicatingnear shore deposition. The exceptional thickness of the marine sands a t this locality is evidently owing to the fact that an abundance of material was available for erosion by wave and current action and that a fairly steep under- water slope existed upon which the sands were deposited in the form of a built terrace. Marine sands forming a thin covering over the marine clay are extensive in the eastern portion of the area but over large parts of the area the marine clay appears a t the surface with little or no covering of sand. This is particularly the case in the northern part of the area where, in places, the clay occurs almost up to the base of the rocky upland >rea, the. absence of the sand being apparently due to general paucity of drift on the rocky upland areas so that little material was available for erosion by wave and current action and the sea did not stand a t the high levels long enough to permit of much erosion of the bedrock. The marine sands also in places overlie the glacial deposits and in other places bedrock. In most cases they form merdy a thin veneer. In general they were derived by erosion, chiefly by wave action on the glacial deposits, and, in smaller part, by erosion of the marine clays. They

were formed in shallow water and their distribution was largely controlled by the presence of hills and ridges of drift which were only partly submerged a t the time of deposition of the sands. -! The marine sands vary in character from very fine sand to coarse sand and gravel and are usually somewhat oxidized and yellow in colour. They are finest and are usually horizontally bedded in the nearly level areas where they overlie the marine clay. The near shore deposits are 1 coarser in character and are diagonally bedded or cross-bedded.

Delta sands and gravels are only slightly developed in the Ottawa area. They were formed as sub-aqueous delta deposits and occur in small amount in some of the stream valleys in the rocky upland in the northern part of the area. In Gatineau valley, east of the river one-half mile above Wright's bridge and also one mile below the bridge there is a deposit of sand which is probably a remnant of a delta formed in the valley by the Gatineau river a t a late stage during the marine submergence. Subsequent to its deposition the greater part of the deposit has been removed by stream erosion.

Alluvial ..._ j sand, formed as a flood-plain deposit on some of the higher a. e x - .

stream terraces, occurs in places but is shallow and occupies small areas. I t occurs in places along Rideau river as a t Rideau junction where alluvium containing freshwater fossil shells occurs a t a height of 20 feet above the river. River sands, probably formed as bars, occur along Ottawa river below the city of Ottawa. Sands which appear to have been formed in this way a t a time when the river flowed a t a higher level occur near East Templeton, and it is possible that some of the sands along Rideau river in the vicinity of Ottawa and a t Beechwood cemetery are r i y ~ r ~ a d s , but their mode of origin is not clearly apparent.

Lacustrine sands, formed after the disappearance of the marine waters or during the closing stages of the marine submergence when the waters had become fresh, probably also occur; for no marine fossils are known to occur in place in the sands a t altitudes below about 240 feet and well-marked river terraces along the Ottawa river, a t about this altitude, show that the waters in the Ottawa valley had become somewhat restricted. A lake still existed, however, in the upper part of the Ottawa River valley so that i t is probable that the sands in this basin below an altitude of about 240 feet are lacustrine in origin. The altitude of 240 feet applies to the central part of the area. I t becomes greater towards the north and less towards the south because of the differential uplift.

The delta, alluvial, and lacustrine sands have, in the mapping, been included in the marine deposits because of their relatively small amount and distribution and because of the difficulty of distinguishing them from the truly marine deposits.

ORGANIC

Large collections of region have been made ;

Geological Survey and b appeared in different pul H. M. Ami, given in the natural resources of the ar vicinity," by R. W. Ells. have been found is along t wharf and the mouth of C city of Ottawa. The cla nodules from which a grea The concretions are wast

I of water and may be col the water is low. The or fossil fish of the genera Cc of molluscs, the bones of s leaves, etc., a freshwal occurrence of marine fos: also described by Ells an( the progress of the presen clays a t a number of diff two exceptions, been prt area so that little can be and their distribution. 7 tribution of marine fossils

t ' because of the significanct I have upon the questions level during the time of d

! do not seem to have recei-

The marine clays e> Ottawa River valley, a t places, as along the east : Railway bridge and in th landia arctica Gray ( = Nucula tenuis Mont. Th of the upper clay, but not

A section exposed in Railway bridge one-half rr lower silty clay overlain portion of the section a arctica occurs abundantlj and Natica afinis Gmel., ;

ion was largely controlled ch were only partly sub-

very fine sand to coarse [zed and yellow in colour. Aded in the nearly level ie near shore deposits are or cross-bedded. developed in the Ottawa :a deposits and occur in the rocky upland in the east of the river one-half =.low the bridge there is a delta formed in the valley the marine submergence. of the deposit has been

sit on some of the higher and occupies small areas. ieau junction where allu- , at a height of 20 feet xl as bars, occur along ~h ich appear to have been flowed a t a higher level it some of the sands along Beechw6od cemetery are ly apparent. )pearance of the marine ie submergence when the for no marine fossils are

les below about 240 feet awa river, a t about this ey had become somewhat upper part of the Ottawa ands in this basin below origin. The altitude of

t becomes greater towards the differential uplift.

I have, in the mapping, of their relatively small

ifficulty of distinguishing

ORGANIC REMAINS OF CHAMPLAIN DEPOSITS.

Large collections of fossils from the marine clays in the Ottawa region have been made a t different times by various members of the Geological Survey and by other geologists and lists of the fossils have appeared in different publications. The most complete list is that by H. M. Ami, given in the appendix to the "Report on the geology and natural resources of the area included in the map of the city of Ottawa and vicinity," by R. W. Ells. The best known locality a t which these fossils have been found is along the south shore of the Ottawa between Besserers wharf and the mouth of Greens creek a few miles down the river from the city of Ottawa. The clay contains numerous calcareous concretionary nodules from which a great variety of organic remains have been obtained. The concretions are washed from the clays by the river a t high stages of water and may be collected in large numbers along the shore when the water is low. The organic remains found in the concretions include fossil fish of the genera Cottus and Mallotus, fossil shells of several species of molluscs, the bones of seals, the feathers of birds, the remains of plants, leaves, etc., a freshwater shell, and bones of a chipmunk. The occurrence of marine fossils in the clays a t several other localities was also described by Ells and Ami in the above-mentioned report. During the progress of the present investigation marine fossils were found in the clays a t a number of different localities. They have all, with possibly two exceptions, been previously reported as occurring in the Ottawa area so that little can be added to the already published lists of fossils and their distribution. The following notes of the occurrences and distribution of marine fossils of molluscan species are given, however, chiefly

' because of the significance which the fossils and their mode of occurrence have upon the questions of climatic conditions and oscillations of sea- level during the time of deposition of marine sediments, questions which do not seem to have received adequate consideration.

The marine clays exposed in sections in the lowest parts of the Ottawa River valley, a t altitudes from 130 to 140 feet, contain, in, places, as along the east side of Gatineau river a t the Canadian Pacific I Railway bridge and in the clay pits a t Leamy lake fossil shells, of Port- landia arctica Gray (=Leda glacialis), Saxicava rugosa Lin., Nucula tenuis Mont. They occur in the lower silty clay and a t the of the upper clay, but not abundantly.

A section exposed in the bed of a creek a t the Canadian Northern Railway bridge one-half mile west of Orleans station shows 6 feet of the lower silty clay overlain by 10 feet of the upper clay. In the lower portion of the section a t altitudes from 175 to 180 feet, Portlandia arctua occurs abundantly. Macoma calcarea Chemn., Saxicava rugosa, and Natica afinis Gmel., also occur fairly abundantly.

On the east side of Greens creek a t the road crossing 2 miles east of Willowdale, a few feet of the lower silty clays, overlain by 10 to 15 feet of the upper clay, are exposed. The silty clay contains large numbers of fossil shells of Portlandia arctua, Macoma cakarea, and Saxicava rugosa a t an altitude of about 200 feet. A few small poorly preserved forms of Portlandia arctica and Saxicava rugosa occur in the lower 2 to 3 feet of the upper clay but the greater part of the upper clay appears to be barren of fossils.

A section exposed in a ditch cutting along the flat just south of Somerset Street bridge over the railway in the western part of the city of Ottawa showed 3 feet of the lower silty clay containing abundant remains of mollusca of the species Pordlandia arctica, Saxicava rugosa var. arctica, Macoma cakarea, Macoma M t h u a , Neptunea despecta Lin., and Natica afinis: Portlandia arctica occurs in large numbers and is by far the most abundant species. Macoma balthica occurs as a small thin form and is not abundant. The fossils occur a t an altitude of about 190 feet. In sections exposed along the railway a t this locality 6 to 10 feet of the upper clay occurs overlying the silty clay but no fossils were found in it.

Sections exposed in the Peerless brickyards south of Rideau river, near Billings Bridge, and in-the-Ottawa-brickyard - - on the - west -- side of the ri_v_er~~r~-Hogs_b_ac_k, ~ a l t i t u d e s from 200 to 250 feet,-show abundant __. _ .---- ---_- - - remains of PortlQndia - arciiGZiii- - tKe lower silty and sandy clays but no .___-_-___ .- - fossils in the upper clay.

One of sections of the marine deposits exposed in the district is at the sand pits on the east bank of Rideau river three-fourths of a mile south of Rideau junction and about 6 miles south of the city of Ottawa. In one of the sand pits the following series of beds is exposed:

1 Section along Ridcau River. Feet

1. Diagonally and cross-bedded sand with some fine gravel and an occasional boulder. The sands contain a great abundance of fossil shells of the species Mytilus edulis Lin., Macoma balthica and Saxicava rugosa, the two former being the most abundant. Balani are also abundant and are frequently found attached to pebbles or to other shells. Mytilus edulis occurs a t the base as well as in the middle portion of the sands and in places its remains form the larger part of a bed, many of the shells being in the attitude of growth. In places, also, the shells of Macoma balthica form similar beds or parts of beds and where exposed by erosion or by excavation show as glistening white beds extending for 30 feet or more along

.............................................. the bedding planes 28 2. Horizontally bedded sand holding Saxicava rugosa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. Horizontally bedded clay with sand partings. In the lower portion the

sandy layers are thicker than the clay layers. In the upper part the sandy layers are thin and the beds are mostly con~posed of stiff clay. The beds hold Saxuava rugosa in abundance but no other fossils could be . . found. ...................................................... 10

4. Stratified sand generally horizontally bedded but in places ripple-marked and containing numerous thin layers of silt and small rounded, apparently waterworn masses of silt and clay. The beds hold remains of Portlandia arctica, Saxicava rugosa, Cylichna alba Brown, and fragments of Balani ......................................................... 22

5. Beds concealed.. . . . . . . . 6 . Laminated silty clay hold

2 feet the beds consist Portlandia drctua.. . . . .

7 . Concealed to level of watc Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The highest part of the sec

On the east side of Ric 20 feet of stratified sands faulted. At the northern and silt are underlain by the southern end of the se the upper clay. The sar numbers of fossil shells of Macoma calcarea, M a c o m ~ occur a t altitudes from 25(

Sections exposed in fourths of a mile east of B of stratified sand and silt and fluvioglacial deposits sands and gravels. The :

I and contorted and are trul 1 , They contain numerous f F carea, and Saxicava rrugosa

375 feet. The highest locality il

known to occur in the cla! mere from. the east. The various altitudes along thc and contorted, the deform induced by the pressure of silty clays contain fossil Macoma calcarea, and sma sandy layers included in Aifytilus edulis were also fo to 510 feet. The silty Ian to an altitude of 605 feet, b and no fossils were found i can be little doubt, howeve

Fossil shells of marinc numerous localities and at the beach deposits are bar they have been found is on( of 470 feet, the most abunc occur at nearly the same alt

td crossing 2 miles east of overlain by 10 to 15 feet y contains large numbers a calcarea, and Saxicava w small poorly preserved a occur in the lower 2 to ~f the upper clay appears

ng the flat just south of western part of the city of taining abundant remains xicava rugosa var. arctica, despecta Lin., and Natica lmbers and is by far the urs as a small thin form altitude of about 190 feet. (ocality 6 to 10 feet of the o fossils were found in it. ds south of Rideau river, ird on the w ~ t side of the - -- -- - 250 feet,-show abundant .-- __ - -- --.- -

y and sandy clays but no --- - ..--- deposits exposed in the

Rideau river three-fourths : 6 miles south of the city ~g series of beds is exposed:

*r. Feet

gravel and an occasional x of fossil shells of the md Saxicava rugosa, the i are also abundant and

other shells. Mytilus portion of the sands and , many of the shells being shells of Macoma bdthica osed by erosion or by ex- for 30 feet or more along ..................... 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

n the lower portion the In the upper part the

y con~posed of stiff clay. ; no other fossils could be

10 .................... in places ripple-marked 1d small rounded, appar- le beds hold remains of Brown, and fragments of ...................... 22

5. Beds concealed.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6. Laminated silty clay holding scattered stones and boulders. In the upper

2 feet the beds consist of alternate sand and silt layers. The beds hold Portlandia arctica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Concealed to level of water in the river.. 10 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

The highest part of the section has an altitude of 340 feet.

On the east side of Rideau river a t Black rapids a section shows about 20 feet of stratified sands and silts which are in places folded and thrust faulted. At the northern end of the section the disturbed beds of sand and silt are underlain by undisturbed beds of laminated silty clay. At the southern end of the section above the dam the sands are overlain by the upper clay. The sands and lower silty clay contain considerable numbers of fossil shells of Portlandia arctica, Saxicava rugosa var. arclica, Macoma calcarea, Macoma balthica, and Astarte compressa Mont. They occur a t altitudes from 250 to 275 feet.

Sections exposed in the Canadian Northern ballast pit three- fourths of a mile east of Bowesville show a t two places a small thickness of stratified sand and silt occupying depressions in the surface of glacial and fluvioglacial deposits and overlain by marine littoral or terrace sands and gravels. The stratified sand and silt deposits are crumpled and contorted and are truncated a t the top by a marine plane of erosion. They contain numerous fossil shells of Portlandia arctica, Macoma calcarea, and Saxicava rugosa. They occur a t altitudes from about 365 to 375 feet. ,

The highest locality in the Ottawa area a t which marine fossils are known to occur in the clay is in the stream valley leading up to Kings- mere from-the east. The lower silty clays are exposed in sections a t various altitudes along the bed of the creek and are in plares crumpled and contorted, the deformation being probably the result of movement induced by the pressure of the overlying sand and gravel deposits. The silty clays contain fossil shells of Portlandia arctica, Saxicava rugosa, Macoma calcarea, and small forms of Macoma balthica. At one place in sandy layers included in the crumpled beds well preserved forms of Mytilus edulis were also found. The fossils occur a t altitudes from 450 to 510 feet. The silty laminated clays also occur in the same valley up to an altitude of 605 feet, but in the upper portion they are poorly exposed and no fossils were found in them above an altitude of 510 feet. There can be little doubt, however, that they are all marine.

Fossil shells of marine species also occur in the beach deposits a t numerous localities and a t various altitudes. In some cases, however, the beach deposits are barren of fossils. The highest locality a t which they have been found is one-half mile north of Old Chelsea a t an altitude of 470 feet, the most abundant form being Macoma balthica. They also occur a t nearly the same altitude 2 miles north of Queens park.

The shallow-water sand deposits are generally unfossiliferous over the greater part of the area. This is especially the case a t altitudes . below 275 feet. The general absence of fossil marine shells in these deposits a t the lower altitudes may be owing to the influx of fresh water and constriction of the water bodies as the land emerged from the sea. This is borne out by the occurrence of freshwater shells in the alluvium of the higher terraces of the Rideau a t Rideau junction a t an altitude of 265 to 270 feet. In places, as a t this locality, fossil marine shells are intermingled with fossil freshwater shells but there is no evidence that the marine and freshwater fauna lived in the same waters. The marine shells were probably derived by erosion of the marine clays and became included in the freshwater deposits, for this process may be seen going on a t the present time along Rideau river. The occurrence of marl and freshwater shells, as a t Mackay lake and along the ridge in Ottawa East south of the canal, a t altitudes considerably above the level of the present drainage, shows that these deposits in some cases date back to the closing stage of the marine submergence or were formed after the withdrawal of the marine waters and before the present streams had eroded their channels to the present general level.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND OSCILLATIONS OF SEA-LEVEL.

The fossil marine shells of molluscan species which occur in the Champlain clays of the Ottawa district are largely confined to the lower clays. The commonest and most characteristic fossil shell found in the lower clay is Portlandia (Yoldia) arctica Gray = (Leda glacialis), from the ,abundant occurrence of which in the clay the name "Leda clay" was given by J. W. Dawson. The molluscan fauna of the lower clays in the Ottawa area also includes Nucula tenuis Mont., Macoma calcarea Chemn., Saxicava rugosa var. arctica, Natica afinis Gmel., Neptunea despecta Lin., Cylichna alba Brown, and Astarte compressa Mont. These species of mollusca are all in European waters, high Arctic.' They are nearly all: ,\

however, known to be living in the colder parts of the gulf of St. Lawrence,. A notable exception is Portlandia arctica Gray, which is not known to occur south of the strait of Belle I ~ l e . ~ Portlandia arctica "now only lives in sea water a t a temperature below 0 degrees Centigrade and thrives in the muddy waters discharged a t the mouth of glacier stream^."^ The silty lower clays holding Portlandia arctica and other fossil shells of

i Arctic species occur in the vicinity of Ottawa a t altitudes from 130 feet / in the lowest portion of the Ottawa valley up to a t least 510 feet above -

1 Br6gger. W. C.. "Om de Senglaclale og Post-glaciale Nivalorandrtnger i Kristianiafeltet," Norges Gcologlska Untemgelse No. 31, 1901, p. 681.

' Whltmvea, J. F., "Catalogue of the marine invertebra of eaatern Caneda," *I. SUW.. Can.. 1901. p. 127.

'Wright. W. B.. "The Quaternary Ice Age." p. 327. *

I

I

I sea-level, the highest lo

mentioned locality near clays most abundantly a sea-level.

The upper clays are is especially the case in t bedded with clay layers ?

thua Lin. sometimes occ also occurs and, rarely, s the abundant and charact clays is absent in the uppe

The calcareous concrc remains of plants and aE

r well as in the lower clays Gatineau, and Rideau val known to occur in the cla: away from the stream val portion of the Ottawa va and along Greens creek, 1 fossil-bearing concretions cretions occur most abunc clays and near the contact abundantly, in the upper cretions lie with their lo, ding. The beds show no el cretions which appear rnf I t is generally held th found in the marine clay, above the general perma to be borne out by the m a Hence it is probable complete withdrawal of

I time since the establishm oscillations of ground watt in the lower portion of t of the river, would gre; explain the apparent a some distance from the water level would not be of the concretions found in place in the clays, becau place in the undisturbed c concretions may have bet

.-ally unfossiliferous over Ily the case a t altitudes 1 marine shells in these the influx of fresh water d emerged from the sea. er shells in the alluvium unction a t an altitude of ., fossil marine shells are there is no evidence that :me waters. The marine narine clays and became -ocess may be seen going e occurrence of marl and :the ridge in Ottawa East ve the level of the present .s date back to the closing led after the withdrawal itreams had eroded their

INS OF SEA-LEVEL.

xies which occur in the rely confined to the lower c fossil shell found in the (Leda glacialis), from the : name "Leda clay" was of the lower clays in the

Macoma calcarea Chemn., ;mel., Neptunea despecta rsa Mont. These species tic.' They are nearly all' ' f the gulf of St. Lawrence/ ., which is not known to 'an& arctica "now only degrees Centigrade and

:outh of glacier stream^."^ z and other fossil shells of it altitudes from 130 feet :o a t least 510 feet above

ttern Canada." Geol. Sum., Can..

sea-level, the highest locality, so far as known, being a t the above- mentioned locality near Kingsmere. The fauna occurs in the lower clays most abundantly a t altitudes from 175 feet up to 275 feet above sea-level.

The upper clays are generally nearly barren of fossil shells. This . is especially the case in their upper portion. In the sandy layers interd' bedded with clay layers near the base of the upper clays, Macoma Bal- thica Lin. sometimes occurs in considerable numbers. Saxicava rugosa also occurs and, rarely, small forms of Portlandia. In general, though,' the abundant and characteristic fauna of Arctic species found in the lower ., clays is absent in the upper clays.

The calcareous concretions from which a considerable number of the remains of plants and animals have been obtained occur in the upper as well as in the lower clays. They occur in sections exposed along Ottawa, Gatineau, and Rideau valleys and in their tributary valleys, but are not known to occur in the clays exposed in excavations as in the brickyards away from the stream valleys. They occur most abundantly in the lower portion of the Ottawa valley between Greens creek and Besserers wharf and along Greens creek, from which localities the greater number of the fossil-bearing concretions have been obtained. At these localities the concretions occur most abundantly in the upper portion of the lower silty clays and near the contact with the upper clay. They also occur, but less abundantly, in the upper clay. Where seen in place in the clays the concretions lie with their longer axis in the direction of the planes of bedding. The beds show no evidence of bulging or unevenness around the concretions which appear merely to interrupt the continuity of the bedding. I t is generally held that calcareous clay concretions, such as those found in the marine clay, are formed only in the zone of cementation, above the general permanentlevel of the ground water, and this appears to be borne out by the mode of occurrence of the concretions in this area. Hence i t is probable that the concretions were formed after the complete withdrawal of the marinewaters and largely during the time since the establishment of the present drainage. The marked oscillations of ground water level in the vicinity of the streams, especially in the lower portion of the Ottawa river owing to the rise and fall of the river, would greatly favour concretionary action and would explain the apparent absence of ' the concretions in the clays a t some distance from the river courses where the oscillations of ground water level would not be pronounced. There is little doubt that most of the concretions found along the shores of the rivers were originally in place in the clays, because considerable numbers may actually be seen in place in the undisturbed clays. I t is possible, however, that some of the concretions may have been formed in clays disturbed by land slips and

that they include organic remains of recent age, which became buried in the clay by reason of the land slips. Thus the occurrence of a freshwater shell found in one of the concretions as already noted seems to bear this out. The occurrence of the bones of a chipmunk, feathers of birds, and plant remains as implying an abundant vegetation and climatic conditions nearly similar to the present is of doubtful significance. In any case this conclusion as to climatic conditions could, apply only to the time of deposition of the upper clay, for the abundant occurrence of fossil shells of Arctic species in the lower clays shows that Arctic conditions of temperature prevailed a t the time of deposition of the lower clays. - - .-. J

As\ the typical and common species of the lower clays have been .," found to live abundantly in high Arctic seas only a t depths of from about

10 to 30 metres,l and as these clays in the vicinity of Ottawa occur a t altitudes of from 130 feet up to a t least 510 feet and occur abundantly a t altitudes from 175 feet up to a t least 275 feet above the sea, hence i t is evident that the sea must have stood a t a considerably lower level

' with respect to the land when the lower clays holding shells of Arctic species were deposited in the lowest part of the Ottawa valley than when those a t high altitudes were deposited. The clays a t low altitudes could not have been deposited during the time of emergence of the land, for they are overlain by the upper clay, and the occurrence of abundant remains of Macoma balthica in the littoral deposits in the district a t altit- tudes of 470 feet and lower, and of Mytilus edulis Lin. a t an altitude of a t least 325 feet above the sea, and also, a t one locality, a t an altitude of 450 feet, shows that the climate was not high Arctic during the time of

' emergence of the land as Mytilus edulis on high Arctic shores is not a littoral shell and Macoma balthica is more characteristically boreal than Arctic2 The occurrence of the clays a t high altitudes far up the Ottawa and Gatineau valleys also shows that the ice-sheet had retreated a considerable distance before emergence of the land had taken place to any great extent. Both the physical character of the clays and the character and mode of occurrence of the molluscan fauna, therefore, seem to show that the sea must have risen on the land as the ice-sheet withdrew.

This is exactly what has been shown by Brogger to have taken place i~ southern Norway. Brogger has held that the oscillation of sea-level was due to a depression of the land. Wright: however, has pointed out that it is more probable that the sea rose on the land owing to the return to the ocean of the water which had been bound up in the ice- ' sheets, for the depression of the sea-level was "an absolutely necessary -

' Br6gger. W. C., Ibid, p. 681. Broeger, W. C.. Ibid, p. 693.

a Wrlsht, W. B . "The Quaternary ice age."

result of glaciation" as Woodworth, and DaIy.

The rise of the sea Ottawa valley was prec region; for the Ottawa . by the ice-sheet during and a t least a small an; lake Ontario during t t the northern portion of t upper Ottawa valley nea and while the ice-sheet evidence is known whi. subsequently affected th upper St. Lawrence val improbable that depres during the time of the I

results of investigations the Great Lakes region almost continuously as . south to north, so that tl ice-sheet was affected b affected. The evidence level which, apparently, return to the sea of the I and was not due to d e p ~

The fact that the i return to the sea of the v has an important beari theory of isostacy to th sea and serves to establ a~wribes the differential ti1 t e d 4 S ~ i i ~ = h ~ m u n - d ;

Pleistocene ice-sheets, tc of the ice-sheets and its away. The evidence f o ~ view; for if, as seems prc depression of the land bu bound up in the ice-shet of the land took place du The fact, also, that the trend of the isobases or -

1 Coleman. A. P.. "The Iroquoi 368.

1 =Taylor, F. B., Monograph LII

dgger to have taken place the oscillation of sea-leve! ~ t ? however, has pointed on the land owing to the *en bound up in the ice-

11 an absolutely necessary

ge, which became buried the occurrence of a fresh- j already noted seems to f a chipmunk, feathers of bundant vegetation and sent is of doubtful signi-

result of glaciation" as has been shown by the investigations of Penck, LVoodworth, and Daly.

The rise of the sea on the land which, apparently, took place in the *-" Ottawa valley was preceded by uplift which affected the Great Lakes region; for the Ottawa valley must have been, in part a t least, occupied by the ice-sheet during the existence of lakes Iroquois and Algonquin and a t least a small amount of uplift affected the region a t the foot of lake Ontario during the life of lake 1roquois.l Uplift also affected the northern portion of the Great Lakes region and probably included the upper Ottawa valley near Mattawa during the existence of lake Algonquin and while the ice-sheet still occupied the upper Ottawa valley.* No evidence is known which ~ o u l d suggest that depression of the land subsequently affected the northern part of the Great Lakes region or the upper St. Lawrence valley near the foot of lake Ontario. I t seemi) improbable that depression of the land took place in the Ottawa valley f during the time of the retreat of the ice-sheet from this region; for the/ results of investigations by numerous geologists of the raised beaches of!

\ the Great Lakes region have shown that differential uplift took place, almost continuously as the ice withdrew, but probably proceeded from 1

a south to north, so that the region well outside the borders of the retreating / ice-sheet was affected by uplift before the more northerly regions were affected. The evidence so far as known suggests that the rise of sea- level which, apparently, took place in the Ottawa valley was due to a return to the sea of the waters which had been bound up in the ice-sheet . and was not due to depression of the land.

The fact that the initial rise of sea-level was apparently due to a return to the sea of the waters which had been bound up in the ice-sheets has an important bearing on the question of the applicability of the theory of isostacy to the late Pleistocene changes of level of land and sea and serves to establish the theory on a firmer basis. This theory ac~rjkes the differential depression and uplif~recorded by thk raised or tilted s-, iound around the-borders of the regions occupied by the Pleistocene ice-sheets, to- depression of the earth's crust beneath the load$\ of the ice-sheets and its s - q ~ m e m . f i ~ e l t e d away. The evidence found in the Ottawa valley strongly supports this view; for if, as seems probable, the initial rise of sea-level was not due to depression of the land but to the return to the sea of water which had been%$, bound up in the ice-sheets, the objection to supposing that depression I of the land took place during the time of retreat of the glaciers is removed. The fact, also, that the direction of maximum uplift, as shown by the trend of the isobases or lines of equal elevation of the raised beaches, -

1 Coleman. A. P., "The Iroquois beach In Ontario." Bull. Geol. Soc Am., vol. XV, 1903, pp. 347- 368.

:limatic conditions could, )er clay, for the abundant j he lower clays shows that e time of deposition of the J le lower clays have been y a t depths of from about :inity of Ottawa occur a t x t and occur abundantly feet above the sea, hence L considerably lower level s holding shells of Arctic the Ottawa valley than The clays a t low altitudes of emergence of the land,

te occurrence of abundant ;its in the district a t altit- is Lin. a t an altitude of a t locality, a t an altitude of Arctic during the time of igh Arctic shores is not a -acteristically boreal than titudes far up the Ottawa ce-sheet had retreated a land had taken place to of the clays and the char- fauna, therefore, seem to

nd as the ice-sheet with-

'Taylor, F. B.. Monograph LIII. U. S Geol. SUN.

I

changes from about 20 degrees east of north in the Great Lakes region to nearly due north in the Ottawa valley, indicating a maximum amount of uplift in the region occupied by the great mass of the ice-sheet, further supports this view.

The low stage of sea-level followed by a rising stage in the Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys during the time of withdrawal of the ice-sheets may also explain the continuance of the Trent Valley outlet channel of lake Algonquin down to the level of lake Ontario and far below the level of marine submergence in the Ontario basin.'

SOURCE OF !I'HE CHAMPLAIN CLAYS.

A remarkable and puzzling feature of the Champlain clays in the Ottawa region is their great extent and thickness. In bulk they probably far exceed all the other superficial deposits and the question naturally arises whence and how were they derived. I t is clear that they were not derived from stream and wave erosion of the bedrock in the valleys and along the ancient shores, for very slight erosion of the bedrock has taken place in post-Glacial time, as is shown by the frequent occurrence of

erosion of the glacial deposits, for the glacial deposits, especially on the

I strize in the beds of the streams and by the very slight evidence of wavd erosion of the rocky shores; nor was the material largely derived from

upland areas, are remarkably thin and only small amounts of bouldery deposits occur, such as would be left by any extensive erosion of the \ glacial drift. I t has been already pointed out that the lower portion of the marine deposits consists of sandy and silty clay which is, in places, folded and contorted as if by the grounding of ice-floes or icebergs and I

contains glaciated stones and boulders, so that there can be little doubt / that these deposits were derived from the waters of the melting ice-

'

sheet which could not have been far distant a t the time of their deposition. i The lower clays form the greater part of the marine deposits but the upper clays are also widespread and have, in places, considerable thickness.

'

They differ somewhat in origin from the lower clays for they are finer grained, contain fewer stones or boulders, and are undisturbed i

except where affected by landslides. They were in part derived by stream and wave erosion of land surfaces; for the evidence of the beaches i and terraces shows that a t least a part of the clay was derived by wave erosion of the glacial deposits and of the previously deposited marin J clays. The occurrence of thick deposits of the clays opposite the mouth of Gatineau river and extending far up the valley shows that part of the clay was transported by this stream. Probably the distribution and

Gilbert. G. K.. "The Algonauin river." (Abstract) Am. Geol.. vol. XVIII, P. 23. Johnston. W. A.. "The Trent Valley outlet of lake Algonquin and the deformation of the Algonauin

water- lane in Lake Simcoe district, Ontario." Geol. Sum., Cm., Mus. Bull, 23, 1916.

deposition of the uppe chiefly to the fact that the whole drainage of tl pass into the Ottawa I probably, transported 1 of the submerged porti marine clay occupying t owe their deposition ir depression which is not large valley coming fro. were caught in a depre of the Ottawa which n The upper clay probabl to thorough sorting ow so that only the finest 1

deposited where current The upper clays are ge boulders do occur, hov surface of the clays thz rence on the surface of emergence of the lanc became shallower and 1

the Ottawa valley extc by ice-floes, were trans^, surface of the clays, tc land finally took place.

River gravels occul are most abundant in altitudes considerably . they rest upon the ma1 derived from erosion o cccurs in the city of Ot Britannia street car l i ~ rest upon marine clay deposits because they 1

must have been inefl because they contain rr they are regarded as ri cular bar-shaped form occur in the southern I above the sea. -

1 Taylor, F. B., Monograph 1

I ( the Great Lakes region deposition of the upper clay over the greater part of the area was due

I .ting a maximum amount chiefly to the fact that during part of the period of marine submergence

.s of the ice-sheet, further the whole drainage of the upper Great Lakes was by way of the Nipissing i

pass into the Ottawa valley.' Large quantities of fine sediment were,

sing stage in the Ottawa :hdrawal of the ice-sheets nt Valley outlet channel ntario and far below the " 1

Champlain clays in the 5 . In bulk they probably d the question naturally clear that they were not\

.edrock in the valleys and of the bedrock has taken

y slight evidence of wavd I e frequent occurrence of,

rial largely derived from' leposits, especially on the nall amounts of bouldery extensive erosion of the

:lay which is, in places, ' ice-floes or icebergs and

\ ct the lower portion of the

$:

there can be little doubt aters of the melting ice-

Iwer clays for they are .!

1 le time of their deposition. I ine deposits but the upper i, considerable thickness. /,

I' rs, and are undisturbed I were in part derived by

day was derived by wave

i e evidence of the beaches 1

viously deposited marin 3J clays opposite the mouth ey shows that part of the ~ b l y the distribution and

.. ml. XVIII, p. 23. ad the deformation of the Algonauio I. Bull, 23, 1916.

- -

probably, transported by the great river and deposited in deeper parts of the submerged portion of the Ottawa valley. The thick deposits of marine clay occupying the depression northeast of Breckenridge evidently owe their deposition in part a t least to this river for they occur in a depression which is not connected with the Gatineau valley or any other large valley coming from the north. Their position indicated that they were caught in a depression along the side of the main valley channel of the Ottawa which was largely kept free from sediment by currents. The upper clay probably owes its fineness of grain and uniform characte3 to thorough sorting owing to transportation over considerable distances, : so that only the finest materials remained in suspension and were finally ! deposited where current action ceased in the waters of the marine estuary. i The upper clays are generally free from stones or boulders. In places, \ boulders do occur, however, and appear to be more numerous on the surface of the clays than within the clays. Their more frequent occurrence on the surface of the clays may be explained by supposing that as emergence of the land progressed the waters of the marine estuary became shallower and current action in the great river which occupied the Ottawa valley extended farther eastward; so that boulders, rafted by ice-floes, were transported and deposited in the upper portion or on the surface of the clays, to be later exposed as complete emergence of the land finally took place.

RIVER GRAVELS.

River gravels occur a t several places along the Ottawa valley. They are most abundant in the vicinity of the city of Ottawa and occur a t altitudes considerably above the present drainage channels. In places they rest upon the marine clays and contain fragmentary marine fossils derived from erosion of the marine clays. A deposit of this character cccurs in the city of Ottawa on Holland avenue a t the junction with the Britannia Street car line a t an altitude of about 230 feet. The gravels rest upon marine clay and contain marine fossils. They are not beach deposits because they occur in a protected position where wave action must have been ineffective and they are not fluvioglacial deposits because they contain marine fossils and overlie the marine clays. Hence they are regarded as river deposits and this is confirmed by their lenticular bar-shaped form extending down stream. Similar deposits also occur in the southern part of the city a t altitudes from 200 to 230 feet above the sea. -

1 Taylor. F. B.. ~ o n o m ~ h LIII, U.S. GCO~. SUt'T.

The largest deposit and the most remarkable because of the coarseness of much of the material (Plate VIII) occurs in the city of Hull. This deposit was described by R. Chalmersl who suggested that the gravels owe t h e i ~ origin to river and river-ice action during the period of emergence of the land. These seems to be little doubt that this is the correct explanation of their mode of origin.

I t is possible that the river gravels, a t least in part, should be classed as Recent deposits, but the fact that they occur in places a t considerable heights above the present drainage channels seems to show that they for the most part belong to the latest stage of the Pleistocene.

Recent Deposits.

ALLUVIUM.

Alluvial or flood-plain deposits of the present streams occur along Ottawa river and along its tributary streams. The deposits are most abundant in the lower portion of the Ottawa valley where there is a marked rise and fall in the river. They occur chiefly on the north side of the river owing to the fact that the river is actively eroding the south bank. The islands in the river downstream from the mouth of the Gatineau are composed largely of alluvium. They were probably a t first formed as bars and were gradually built up by accretions of flood- plain deposits. In places along the north side of the river, as a t Gatineau point, a low natural levee has been built along the bank of the river.

The alluvial deposits consist largely of very fine sand containing considerable organic material and are underlain in places by gravels. The sands are generally yellowish or reddish in colour and are well leached and oxidized so that they contain little calcareous material. In places the beds have a thickness of 10 to 15 feet but in general the thickness is only 6 to 10 feet. The bedding is generally poorly defined but is in places made apparent by layers of organic material or by altern- ations of coarser and finer material. The general absence of distinct bedding is, no doubt, owing to the fact that the successive layers were exposed to processes of weathering during periods of low water, following stages of high water when deposition took place, so that the original bedding was largely destroyed.

DUNE SAND AND BEACH SAND.

Deposits of wind-blown sand occur on the east side of Rideau river b&een Rideau junction and Black rapids and on the west side of the river near Merivale and extend westward from the latter locality -

I Chalmers. R., "Report on the surface geology and auriferous deposits of southeastern Quebec." Geol. SUN.. Can.. Ann. Rept., vol. X, 1897, pp. 61-623.

for several miles to tl the river have in part portation from the m; of the river. On the overlies sands and grz part derived. Owing tended to move eastw. lapping the older dep occur in the southeast with and adjacent to of fluvioglacial origin.

Beach sand occupic Deschenes.

Deposits of peat occupy numerous sma the district. The larg is known as the Mer supply of fuel peat in t A. Anrep in Bulletin Department of Mines, also occur in the souths is generally of small thi

Marl consisting o admixture of other ms district. The best knc Rockcliffe where a dep end of the lake. The c largely removed. I t i: 1845-46, on page 96. results of a chemical a] known to occur in the lying just east of Glou, of a t least 3 feet and for about one-quarter traverses the bog in a nc considerable part of the in the area but are of sl

A list of fossil she1 given by H. M. Ami in G, Annual Report, vol.

because of the coarseness the city of Hull. This

:gested that the gravels ing the period of emerg- ct that this is the correct

n part, should be classed in places a t considerable :ems to show that they 3 Pleistocene.

2nt streams occur along The deposits are most

valley where there is a iefly on the north side of .ively eroding the south -ram the mouth of the rhey were probably a t

by accretions of flood- the river, as a t Gatineau le bank of the river. ry fine sand containing n in places by gravels. in colour and are well tle calcareous material. feet but in general the

generally poorly defined !ic material or by altern- era1 absence of distinct e successive layers were 3 of low water, following ce, so that the original

le east side of Rideau ds and on the west side from the latter locality

,emits of southeastern Quebec,"

for several miles to the vicinity of Bells Corners. The deposits east of the river have in part a t least been derived by wind erosion and transportation from the marine sands exposed in sections along the east side of the river. On the west side of the river the dune sand, in places, overlies sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin from which it was in part derived. Owing to the prevailing westerly winds the sands have tended to move eastward and are gradually encroaching upon and overlapping the older deposits in that direction. Smaller dune areas also occur in the southeastern part of the district and are usually associated with and adjacent to exposures of marine sands or sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin.

Beach sand occupies small areas in places along the shore of lake Deschenes.

PEAT.

Deposits of peat consisting of partly decomposed organic material occupy numerous small areas and a few comparatively large areas in the district. The largest, which occurs in the eastern part of the area, is known as the Mer Bleue bog. This bog, which contains the largest

1 supply of fuel peat in the district, has been described by E. Nystrom and A. Anrep in Bulletin NO. 1 of the publications of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Canada. Several comparatively large peat bogs also occur in the southeastern part of the area but in these bogs the peat is generally of small thickness.

I

MARL.

I Marl consisting of nearly pure carbonate of lime with avarying , admixture of other materials occurs a t several localities in the Ottawa district. The best known locality is a t Mackay (or Hemlock) lake near

1 Rockcliffe where a deposit about 5 feet in thickness occurs a t the south end of the lake. The deposit was formerly more extensive but has been

I largely removed. It is referred to in the Geological Survey report for I 1845-46, on page 96. In the Annual Report, vol VII, 1894, p. 23R, the

I results of a chemical analysis of the marl are given. The largest deposit known to occur in the area underlies a part of the small swamp or bog lying just east of Gloucester station. The marl has a depth, in places, of a t least 3 feet and is overlain by 1 to 3 feet of peat. I t is exposed for about one-quarter of a mile in a ditch alongside the road which

1 traverses the bog in a north and south direction, and probably underlies a considerable part of the bog. Small deposits of marl occur a t other places in the area but are of slight importance.

A list of fossil shells found in the marl deposits a t Hemlock lake is given b y H. M. Ami in the appendix to the report by R. W. Ells, part G, Annual Report, V O ~ . XII, 1899.

The marl contains numerous well preserved fossil shells and also fragments of shells but they do not form a large part of the deposits, which consist largely of fine impalpable powder and fine to rather coarse granular material which is apparently not composed of comminuted shell fragments. I t is probable that much of the calcium carbonate owes its origin, as has been shown by C. A. Davis,' to concentration and precipitation by the agency of chara and other related algae.

=Davis. C. A.. "A contribution to the natural history of marl," Jour. of Geol.. Sept.-Oct.. 1900, pp. 485-503, and Sept.-Oct., 1901, pp. 491-506. The soils of the

they are derived from These deposits, the gc been discussed in the

f~

I soils; but the term it layer or uppermost st^ or agricultural soil as which i t is developed i i

by the gradual accun matter, and has been ductive. The soil m soil proper and the : portion a few inches i the subsoil by a da matter and has been a the surface soil. I t substrata which may (

On the map whic various soils is shown

I the various surface f o ~ I descriptive names of

and are based on the tc following the classific States Bureau of Soils are shown on the map of surface soil mechar 6 inches and the subs descriptions of the SI

average depth of 6 inc: The following ta

different classes with

Soils Con Coarse sand Over 2:

Sand other

Over 25 fine ~i

1 fossil shells and also :e part of the deposits, nd fine to rather coarse lposed of comminuted the calcium carbonate

5,' to concentration and ated algae.

our. of Geol., Sept.-Oct., 1900, PD.

CHAPTER IV.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

Coarse sand Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand and less than 50% of any other grade of sand.

Sand Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than 50% fine sand.

Soils.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The soils of the Ottawa area are practically all drift soils, that is they are derived from superficial deposits of Pleistocene and Recent ages. These deposits, the general character and mode of origin of which have been discussed in the preceding chapter, are sometimes referred to as soils; but the term is more corrqtly applied to the actual cultivated layer or uppermost stratum of earth which supports plant life. The soil, or agricultural soil as it may be termed, differs from the deposits upon which it is developed in that it has been affected by processes of weathering, by the gradual accumulation in this stratum of animal and vegetable matter, and has been acted upon by life in some form, so that it is productive. The soil may be considered as including the surface soil, or soil proper and the subsoil; the surface soil consists of the uppermost portion a few inches in thickness, which is generally distinguished from the subsoil by a darker colour. The subsoil contains less organic matter and has been acted upon by organic agencies to a less extent than the surface soil. I t passes down without any sharp change into the substrata which may consist either of unconsolidated or solid rocks.

On the map which accompanies this report the distribution of the various soils is shown by different colours. The colours also represent the various surface formations upon which the soils are developed. The descriptive names of the soils, e.g., sandy loam, refer to the surface soil and are based on the texture of the soils as shown by mechanical analyses, following the classification of soil material as adopted by the United States Bureau of Soils. Only the most characteristic soils of the district are shown on the map and the boundaries are approximate. The samples of surface soil mechanically analysed were taken to an average depth of 6 inches and the subsoil samples to a depth of 3 feet. In the following descriptions of the soils the surface soil is considered to extend to an average depth of 6 inches and the subsoil from 6 inches to 3 feet.

The following table shows the classification of soil material into different classes with their descriptive names:

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL MATERIAL.

Soils Containing Less Than 20 per cent Silt and Clay.

'Fine sand Om-Sa% fine-sad,. or-less-than%- fine. gravel, coarse and medium-sand. .

Very fine sand Over 50% very fine sand.

Soils Containing 20 to 50 per cent Silt and Clay. \sandy loam Over 25% fine grrvel, coarse and medium sand. W i n e sandy loam ..Over 50% fine sand; oiXsS than '25TEe-~ave l , coarse and medium

saiicr. - - --- Sandy clay L'ess than 20% silt.

Soils Containing Over 50% Silt and Clay.

The sizes of the particles of the different grades adopted and used in the mechanical analysis work are as follows: Grade Diameter i n millimetres. Fine gravel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 to 1 Coarse sand.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 to 0.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saod- -*. 0 .5 t00 .25 ~ ~ n e san&::::. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.25 to 0.1 Very fine sand.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .O.l to 0.05 Silt,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.05 to 0.005 Clay,). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.005 to 0.0

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOILS. I The soils of the district have been derived from glacial and marine

deposits which are, for the most part, calcareous in character; hence the soils as a whole are somewhat calcareous, especially in the subsoil portions. The till soils are, for the most part, highly calcareous but small areas on the Pre-Cambrian upland contain little lime. The marine clay and clay) loam soils, which are the most important and widespread soils, contain,i f

from 1 to 3 per cent of lime in their subsoil portions. The surface soil is usually sufficiently leached to eliminate most of the carbonate material but the small amount which i t does contain together with the calcareous character of the subsoil renders the soil somewhat calcareous but not markedly so.

In general, the soils of the district have the light to medium dark colours of the soils of most timbered regions and lack the deep black colour characteristic of theprairiesoils. The muck and peat soils are brown to black in colour, the dark shade being more pronounced in the muck soils in which the organic matter is more decomposed. The alluvial soils are generally dark coloured owing to the presence of abundant organic material. The zolian, river gravel, beach, and fluvioglacial soils are generally light-coloured, indicating a low organic-matter content. The marine fine sand soil is in most places light to medium dark-coloured, being low in organic matter except in places where the content of organic

matter has been increa marine and glacial soils, clay soils, are darker col dark brown and in plac matter they are nearly t

The "lightest"soilsc soils. They occupy sma and open porous charact drained and are easily E

fine sand is also a light so of its nearly level or ge easily affected by drouth c l c a n d -m soils heavy soils are the m s which the most importa are also of considerable

The swamp, peat, a and consist of organic D which is incorporated on

The alluvial soils oc, are best developed along rivers.

The total area inc square miles of which 35 miles is occupied by thc have not been mapped, 1( miles have been mappee bedrock outcrop include are too small to show on t the bedrock is very thil Much of the area is ti1 bedrock outcrop are bett for agricultural purpose bution of the different soi by water, the cities of Otr

Swamp soils Muck and peat.. ........

Eolian soils Dune sand.. ............

Alluvial soils Fine sand.. ............

River gravel soils Stony sand .............

?6 fine gravel, coarse and

ilt and Clay. n sand. ne gravel, coarse and medium

Clay. silt.

1.50% silt. . silt.

rades adopted and used

Diameter in millimetres. . . . . . . 2 t o 1 . . . . . . 1 to 0 . 5 . . . . . . 0 . 5 to 0.25 . . . . .0 .25 to 0 - 1

. . . . . .O.l to 0.05 . . . . . 0 .05t00 .005 . . . . . 0.005to 0 . 0

From glacial and marine in character; hence the

y in the subsoil portions. eous but small areas on he marine clay and clay ridespread soils, contain/ 1 tions. The surface soil f the carbonate material ther with the calcareous -hat calcareous but not

: light to medium dark td lack the deep black and peat soils are brown -0nounced in the muck ~mposed. The alluvial

presence of abundant :a&, and fluvioglacial organic-matter content. medium dark-coloured, e the content of organic

matter has been increased by proper methods of farm practice. The I marine and glacial soils, especially in the case of the marine clay loam and I clay soils, are darker coloured, ranging in colour from greyish-brown to

dark brown and in places where they have a high content of organic matter they are nearly black.

The "lightest" soils of the district are thezolian, river gravel, and beach soils. They occupy small areas and, on account of the relief of the surface and open porous character of much of the material, tend to be excessively drained and are easily affected by drouth in dry seasons. The marine fine sand is also a light soil and has a loose porous structure, but on account of its nearly level or gently sloping surface and finer texture, is not so easily affected by drouth. The "heaviest" soils of the area are the marine- ) clay-and e m soils. The soils intermediate between the light and heavy soils are ize marine fine -am soil and the giacial sqils, of ; which the most important is the gravelly fine sandy loam. These soils) - ---- --.-- .. are also of considerable extent.

The swamp, peat, and muck soils occupy areas of considerabie size and consist of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition, with which is incorporated only a small amount of mineral matter.

The alluvial soils occupy the flood-plains of the present streams and are best developed along the lower portions of the Ottawa and Gatineau rivers.

DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS. !

The total area included in the Ottawa map-area is nearly 420 square miles of which 35 square miles is occupied by water. Five square miles is occupied by the cities of Ottawa and Hull in which the soils have not been mapped, leaving 380 square miles. Of this area 43 square miles have been mapped as bedrock outcrop. The portion mapped as bedrock outcrop includes small areas of agricultural soil but these areas are too small to show on the map. Over the greater part the soil covering the bedrock is very thin and in many places the bare rock outcrops. Much of the area is timbered and as a whole the areas mapped as bedrock outcrop are better adapted for cultivation of forest growth than for agricultural purposes. The following table gives the areal distribution of the different soils of the area exclusive of those portions occupied by water, the cities of Ottawa and Hull, and the bedrock outcrops.

Square miles. Swamp soils

Muck and peat.. .................................................... 22; Bolian soils

Dunesand .......................................................... Alluvial soils

3;

Fine sand.. ........................................................ 6 River gravel soils

a Stonysand ......................................................... -

Square miles. Beach soils

Gravelly coarse sand. ................................................ C- Marine soils 23

........................................................ Fine sand.. Fine sandy loam. ................................................... 443 Clay loam and clay.. ................................................ ?:!

Glacial till soils Shale loam.. ....................................................... Stony loam.. 35f ....................................................... -c^-Gravelly fine sandy loam.. ........................................... 83

Fluvioglacial sand and gravel soils 39)

Gravelly sandy loam.. ............................................... 5 a Total area.. 337 ....................................................

DESCRIPTION OF SOILS.

Swamp Soils. Muck and Peat. The muck and peat soils consist largely of organic

material in various stages of decomposition, and vary in depth from 1 to 15 feet or more. The muck differs from the peat in that it contains a greater amount of mineral soil and the organic material which comprises a considerable part of it is more decomposed. The peat contains comparatively little mineral soil and the organic matter is only partly decomposed. The formation and preservation of the peat is owing to the presence of the ground water near the surface. Drainage, by lowering the water level, brings about atmospheric oxidation and decomposition of the peat and tends to produce a mucky soil. In areas covered by 1 to 3 feet of peaty material it has been found that after drainage and cultivation the peat largely disappears; for the bulk of the peat is greatly reduced by oxidation and when mixed with the undersoil forms a rich mucky soil. In the Ottawa district the muck areas are small and in the mapping have not been distinguished from the peat areas. Small areas in the vicinity of Ottawa, which have been cultivated, and narrow strips around the larger bogs are mucky in character. Peat forms the surface soil in the greater portion of the swampy areas. Along Carp Stream valley, the surface soil is mucky in character owing to the inclusion in the peat of mineral soil by overflow of the stream.

Peat, with included areas of muck, is distributed in areas of varying size throughout the district. The largest area is that occupied by the Mer Bleue peat bog in the eastern part of the area. Other comparatively large areas occur in the southeastern part near South Gloucester and Greely.

The surface of the peat marshes is for the most part nearly level and the natural drainage is very deficient. Some of the small areas occupy natural depressions which have no visible outlet but for the most part the bogs occupy areas which are so nearly level that the natural drainage is deficient and swampy conditions prevail. In places small

areas of peat occur, as r the base of a hill where a t least a slight slope so

The peat of the Mer lain for the most part 1 also forms the subsoil i southeastern part of the places also as in the bog marl.

The peat has been vegetable matter in swal a small amount of Ainej of the mineral elements J

being the element in wh contains a large amount required for the growth form not available to pl; it is necessary to conver is partly accomplished b The process is greatly character of the peat an is thin and has been mixc lying sand or clay, or , amount of mineral mat highly productive. Whe and requires the use of j

found that peat has in pk of a thin top dressing of I

effective if taken from plants have been grown. downward into the peat ;

Dune Sand. The lar east side of Rideau river ing from the vicinity of small areas occur in the s

The dune sand soils if cultivation is attempte forest covering has been rr the trees have been rem areas have been pasturec natural conditions is des

consist largely of organic 1 vary in depth from 1 to Eat in that it contains a material which comprises The peat contains com-

tter is only partly decom- he peat is owing to the

Drainage, by lowering ation and decomposition . In areas covered by 1 that after drainage and

bulk of the peat is greatly ie undersoil forms a rich : areas are small and in 1 the peat areas. Small ?n cultivated, and narrow aracter. Peat forms the mpy areas. Along Carp :ter owing to the inclusion -.am. buted in areas of varying . is that occupied by the area. Other comparati-

a t near South Gloucester

e most part nearly level Some of the small areas le outlet but for the most ly level that the natural prevail. In places small

areas of peat occur, as near Black rapids, on relatively steep slopes near the base of a hill where springs issue. In nearly all cases the bogs have a t least a slight slope so that artificial drainage is possible.

The peat of the Mer Bleue bog, the largest of the peat areas, is underlain for the most part by marine clay or clay loam. The marine clay also forms the subsoil in Carp River valley. The peaty areas in the southeastern part of the district are underlain chiefly by fine sand. In places also as in the bog near Gloucester station the peat is underlain by marl.

The peat has been largely formed by the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter in swamps and shallow ponds and hence contains only a small amount of mineral soil. On this account it is deficient in some of the mineral elements necessary for the growth of plant life, potassium being the element in which it is likely to be most deficient. The peat contains a large amount of nitrogen, one of the most important elements required for the growth of plants, but the nitrogen in peat is largely in a form not available to plants. In order to render the nitrogen available it is necessary to convert the peat, at least in part, into humus. This is partly accomplished by drainage, cultivation, and aeration of the soil. The process is greatly aided by liming to correct the generally acid character of the peat and by applications of manure. Where the peat is thin and has been mixed to some extent by cultivation with the underlying sand or clay, or where the peaty material contains a sufficient amount of mineral matter, a muck soil is produced which is usually highly ~roductive. Where the peat is thick it is of low agricultural value and requires the use of fertilizers to render i t productive. I t has been found that peat has in places been rendered productive by the application of a thin top dressing of mineral soil or earth. This top dressing is most effective if taken from the surface soil of fields in which leguminous plants have been grown. This surface dressing, however, tends to pass downward into the peat and requires renewal from time to time.

Aeolian Soils.

Dune Sand. The largest areas occupied by dune sand are on the east side of Rideau river near the Hunt club and on the west side extending from the vicinity of Merivale westward for several miles. Other small areas occur in the southeastern part of the district.

The dune sand soils are of little agricultural value chiefly because, if cultivation is attempted, the sand is likely to drift. In places where a forest covering has been maintained the sand does not blow out, but where the trees have been removed and cultivation carried on or where the areas have been pastured too severely, the sod originally formed under natural conditions is destroyed and "blow outs" occur. On account of

the prevailing westerly winds the dune sand in the Ottawa area tends to drift towards the east and in places, as in the vicinity of Merivale, is overlapping upon and destroying good agricultural land. I t has been found that one of the most effective means of checking the drift of the sand is by mixing small amounts of clay with the surface soil and planting willows to act as a wind break.

Included under dune sand are small areas of beach sand, partly wind blown, along the shores of lake Deschenes. The areas are of very small extent.

A Eluvial Soils.

River Gravel Soils.

Fine Sand. Alluvial fine sand forms the soil in areas along the lower portions of Ottawa, Gatineau, and Rideau rivers. Small areas also occur on the lowest terraces of some of the tributary streams, but these areas are generally too small to be shown on the map.

The surface soil usually consists of reddish-brown, fine sand which is well leached and oxidized but contains in most places considerable organic material. The subsoil for the most part consists of fine sand, but, in places, the marine clay forms the subsoil. The subsoil is somewhat lighter in colour than the surface soil. In places the subsoil as well as the surface soil contains considerable organic material.

The areas have all been subject to overflow by the streams during stages of high water. During recent years the areas along Ottawa and Gatineau rivers have not been subjected to floods so often as in former years owing to the more efficient control of the upper waters of these streams.

The following table gives results, in percentages, of mechanical analyses of typical samples of the soil and subsoil of the alluvial fine sand :

Mechanical Analyses of Alluvial Fine Sand.

Stony Sand. The surface soil consists of reddish-brown or yellowish sand containing stones and occasional boulders. The subsoil consists of yellowish sand with stones and boulders. In places the soil is very stony and contains such a small amount of fine material that it is of

little agricultural value. and contains a higher pt

The largest area oc of the city of Hull. Rideau rivers in the vic only about three-fourth:

The surface of the of low ridges. Because material forming the so is easily affected by droi

Clay

0.2 0 - 3

Gravelly, Coarse Sa for the most part of rec less proportion of gra coarse sand with gravel or boulders. The soil il material.

The beach soils occ the total area being abc of low and relatively lor and loose porous charac drainage is usually exce dry seasons.

Soil

Surface . . . . . . . . . . Subsoil . . . . . . . . . . .

Fine Sand. The su: the most part of reddisl a small amount of grave; The subsoil consists of : from stones or boulder sand or sand, the subs( soil is well leached anc generally low in organic where the content of or by proper methods of fz

The fine sand areas spread in the southeas square miles.

The surface for tk In places in the southea part of the fine sand arc over the greater part Owing to the nearly le. drouth as the beach san

Coarse sand

0 . 3 0 . 1

Fine gravel

0 .0 0 .0

Medium sand

0.9 0 .3

Silt

9.8 16.4

Fine sand

-------

39.7 18.7

Very fine sand

48.9 64.2

he Ottawa area tends to vicinity of Merivale, is ural land. I t has been :hecking the drift of the surface soil and planting

; of beach sand, partly . The areas are of very

in areas along the lower ivers. Small areas also utary streams, but these map. orown, fine sand which is ost places considerable r t consists of fine sand, The subsoil is somewhat -s the subsoil as well as terial. by the streams during

areas along Ottawa and ds so often as in former e upper waters of these

mntages, of mechanical )soil of the alluvial fine

Idish-brown or yellowish 3. The subsoil consists n places the soil is very e material that i t is of

e Sand.

little agricultural value. In places the soil is gravelly rather than stony and contains a higher percentage of fine material.

The largest area occupied by the river gravel soils is in the vicinity of the city of Hull. Other small areas occur along Ottawa and Rideau rivers in the vicinity of Ottawa. The total area is small, being only about three-fourths of a square mile.

The surface of the areas occupied by this soil is usually in the form of low ridges. Because of the relief of the surface and the character of the material forming the son, the natural drainage is excessive and the soil is easily affected by dropth.

Beach Soils.

Gravelly, Coarse Sand. The surface soil of the beach soils consists for the most part of reddish-brown, coarse sand containing a greater or less proportion of gravel. The subsoil consists of lighter-coloured, coarse sand with gravel and in places a large proportion of coarse gravel or boulders. The soil in most places contains a low percentage of organic material.

The beach soils occupy small areas scattered throughout the district, the total area being about 24 square miles. The surface is in the form of low and relatively long, narrow ridges. Because of the ridged surface and loose porous character of the material composing the soil, the natural drainage is usually excessive and the soil is easily affected by drouth in

Clay

0.2 0.3

Very fine sand

48.9 64.2

dry seasons. Marine Soils.

Silt

--- 9.8 16.4

Fine Sand. The surface soil of the marine fine sand soil consists for the most part of reddish-brown or brown, fine sand containing in places a small amount of gravel but generally nearly free from stones or boulders. The subsoil consists of yellowish, fine sand or sandy loam generally free i from stones or boulders. In places the surface soil consists of coarse j sand or sand, the subsoil in most places being fine sand. The surface [ soil is well leached and oxidized and contains little or no lime. I t is j generally low in organic matter except in the poorly drained areas and i

where the content of organic matter has been maintained and increased ; by proper methods of farm practice.

The fine sand areas occur throughout the district and are most widespread in the southeastern portion. They have a total area of 444 square miles.

The surface for the most part is nearly level or gently sloping. In places in the southeastern part of the district the natural drainage of part of the fine sand areas is poor owing to the nearly level surface, but over the greater part of the areas the surface is naturally drained, Owing to the nearly level surface the soil is not so readily affected by 1 drouth as the beach sand soils.

The following table gives results, in percentages, of mechanical analyses of typical samples of the soil and subsoil of the marine fine sand:

Mechanical Analyses of Marine Fine Sand.

Soil Fine Coarse Medium Fine Very fine 1 gravel 1 sand 1 sand / sand 1 sand ---- Surface ........... 1 0.8 1 6.6 1 13.6 1 40.3 1 30.1 Subsoil ........... 0.0 0.8 2.7 33.3 55.4 Surface . . . . . . . . . . I : 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 " ........... Subsoil. 10.1 19.5 29-9

I Silt Clay

Fine Sandy Loam. The surface soil of the marine fine sandy loam consists for the most part of reddish-brown or brown, fine sandy loam generally free from stones or boulders. The subsoil consists of grey to brown clay loam or clay. In places, the surface soil consists of fine sand, sandy loam, or loam which is underlain a t a varying depth by clay loam or clay. The depth of the surface sandy material is usually only a few inches but in places is 1 to 14 feet. I t usually becomes progressively finer downwards and merges into the underlying clay loam or clay. The subsoil becomes lighter in colour and finer in texture with depth and grades into a brownish-grey or grey, sticky clay which is very retentive of moisture. The soil is for the most part slightly calcareous, especially in the subsoil portion. The content of organic matter is generally higher and is more easily maintained than in the sandier soils.

The marine fine sandy loam occupies areas of considerable extent throughout the district. The largest areas occur in the southeastern portion. The total area is 634 square miles.

The surface is nearly level or gently sloping, but the natural surface drainage is generally adequate. In places, because of the heavy subsoil, the under drainage is somewhat deficient. Owing to the nearly level surface and fine-grained character of the soil, especially in the subsoil portion, the soil is not readily affected by drouth. The somewhat sandy and friable nature of the surface soil renders the soil easily worked, and this together with its other properties makes it one of the most important soils in the district.

The following tal analyses of typical sal sandy loam :

Mechanic

Soil I Fine gravel

Surface.. . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Subsoil.. . . . . . . . . . 0.3

Clay Loam and CL clay consists of greyish free from stones or bou which becomes lighter The results of mechal soil show that i t usual1 large percentage of silt. clay the distinction bt field. In places the su These areas are confine In general the surface s contains a sufficient an friable when dry, but higher percentage of cl wet and highly retenti form in its fine-grainec coarser than silt or clay especially in the subsoi cent of lime, the surfacc

The marine clay 1% district. Large areas northwest part near Br river. Smaller areas a is 105 square miles.

The surface is nea by stream valleys. 11 by terraces. The surf natural surface drainai slight surface slopes an is poor. &-ing To thc slightly pervious charac the under drainage is g

tentages, of mechanical 1 of the marine fine sand :

e Sand.

8

marine fine sandy loam brown, fine sandy loam

~bsoil consists of grey to soil consists of fine sand, ying depth by clay loam -ial is usually only a few y becomes progressively clay loam or clay. The

re with depth and grades is very retentive of mois- :areous, especially in the r is generally higher and Is. .s of considerable extent .cur in the southeastern

;, but the natural surface use of the heavy subsoil, wing to the nearly level especially in the subsoil

1. The somewhat sandy : soil easily worked, and ne of the most important

The following table gives results, in percentages, of mechanical analyses of typical samples of the soil and subsoil of the marine fine sandy loam :

Mechunical Analyses of Marine Fine Sandy Loam.

Soil I Fine I Coarse lhlediurn I Fine (very fino/ Silt 1 Clay gravel sand sand sand sand

Surface . . . . . . . 1 1 ::: 1 i:: 1 3 1 1 : 1 0 1 6.8 Subsoil. . . . . . . . . . . 37.0 50.3

Clay Loam and Clay. The surface soil of the marine clay loam and clay consists of greyish-brown to dark brown clay loam or clay generally free from stones or boulders. The subsoil consists of grey to brown clay which becomes lighter in colour and finer in texture in the lower portion. The results of mechanical analyses of several samples of the surface I

soil show that it usually contains from 28 to 35 per cent of clay with a large percentage of silt. Hence the soil varies between a clay loam and a clay the distinction between which cannot readily be detected in the field. In places the surface soil contains as high as 45 per cent of clay. These areas are confined chiefly to the lower terraces along Ottawa river. In general the surface soil is not an especially heavy clay soil and usually contains a sufficient amount of silt and fine sand to render it somewhat friable when dry, but it is sticky when wet. The subsoil contains a higher percentage of clay than the surface soil and is very sticky when wet and highly retentive of moisture. The subsoil is remarkably uniform in its fine-grained character and in the small amount of material coarser than silt or clay which it contains. The soil is slightly calcareous, especially in the subsoil portion which usually contains from 1 to 3 per cent of lime, the surface soil containing somewhat less.

The marine clay loam and clay are the most extensive soils in the district. Large areas occur along Gatineau and Ottawa rivers, in the northwest part near Breckenridge, and in the southern part along Rideau river. Smaller areas also occur throughout the district. The total arc is 105 square miles.

The surface is nearly level or gently sloping, except where + *- _.___---- -

by stream valleys. In places the general even surface is ' A

by terraces. The surface for the most part has a slight the natural surface drainage is adequate, b ~ t , in *r .e very slights&ice slopes and absence of stream valleys L drainage is poor. &ing to the slight surface slopes a ~ r - .led and only slightly pervious character of these soils, esper' dubsoil portions, the under drainage is generally somewhat cS

The marine clay loam and clay soils are the most important in the district. They are naturally more highly productive than the lighter soils but are more difficult to work and can be worked with best results

', only within limited periods of time. If worked when too wet the soil \-tends to puddle or run together forming clods. If the soil is worked

when too dry, clods tend to form by baking. Hence the clay loam and clay soils can only be worked to best advantage when the soil is neither too wet nor too dry. The physical condition and working qualities of the heavy soils are grea~ly-;mPr~v,e~_b~~ming and-by increasing

-'c"Y- the organic matter content, which tend to promote granulation of the soil, and by under drainage.

The following table gives results, in percentages, of mechanical analyses of typical samples of the soil and subsoil of the marine clay loam and clay.

Mechanical Analyses of Marine Clay Loam and Clay.

Glacial Till Soils.

Description

Surfacesoil. . . . . . . Subsoil.. . . . . . . . . . Surface soil. . . . . . . Subsoil.. . . . . . . . . .

Shale Loam. The surface soil of the areas mapped as shale loam consists, for the most part, of brown or dark brown Ioam containing in places small amounts of stones and boulders, and is underlain, a t varying depths, by partly disintegrated shale or limestone. In places the depth'j of soil over the bedrock is onlya few inches and usually does not exceed! 2 feet. In the areas underlain by limestone, the bedrock is usuallyj somewhat disintegrated and fragments of the rock are more or less mixed i with the soil which is thus partly composed of disintegrated portions of \ the bedrock and partly of drift materials. In the areas underlain by j shale, small fragments of the shale, in places, form a large part of the ' soil. Where the soil is of sufficient thickness and the underlying rock/ is somewhat decomposed the soil is usually highly productive. In smdl areas east of the city of Ottawa the surface soil is heavier and is underlain by a stiff waxy clay formed by the disintegration of the underlying shale. The subsoil is only slightly pervious to water and requires artificial drainage to make the soil productive. In small areas also sandstone or sandy shale underlie the surface soils. In these areas the soil is of little value. As a whole the soils are affected by the nearness to the surface

Fine gravel

1.7 0.4 1.8 0.8

of the bedrock and tend productive where underla

The total area occup Stony Loam. The sur

part of brown loam cor boulders underlain by st too stony to be of valw and are best adapted for in the vicinity of the cio stones and houlders have ation but the greater part

The total area occupi Gravelly Fine Sand?

sandy loam of the glacial to dark brown, fine, sanc stones, and boulders but interfere with agricultur brown, compact, fine, sant ing amounts. In places approaches in general cha more friable and contain: except in the northern pc quantities of limestone a district. In places a t h i ~ and the surface soil is san

The areas occupied 1 till occur scattered throl total area is 393 square m

The surface for the m low ridges or irregularly low. Over the greater pz and artificial drainage is shaped depressions occur.

The following table analyses of typical sampl sandy loam of the glacial

I

Coarse sand

2.0 0.6 4.1 3 .1

Soil

s..".e . . . . . . . . . I ::I I Subsoil. . . . . . . . . . .

Medium ' sand

2.0 1.2 3.8 3.5

Silt I Clay Fine sand

~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~

5.4 5.8 3 .4 3 . 1

43.7 44.0 37.0 36.7

Very fine sand

16.4 12.8 8.5 8.8

28.7 35.0 41.4 44.4

most important in the uctive than the lighter rorked with best results when too wet the soil If the soil is worked Hence the clay loam

intage when the soil is ition and working qilal- iming and by increasing note granulation of the

entages, of mechanical of the marine clay loam

i I

n and Clay.

Very fine Silt I Clay sand 1 ---

mapped as shale loam own loam containing in is underlain, a t varying< le. In places the depth) usually does not exceed1 the bedrock is usuallyf k are more or less mixed b lisintegrated portions of the areas underlain by

orm a large part of the

y productive. In small

\ nd the underlying rock, 1 heavier and is underlain of the underlying shale. and requires artificial

areas also sandstone or areas the soil is of little nearness to the surface

of the bedrock and tend to be droughty in dry seasons. They are most productive where underlain by disintegrated shale or limestone. A,,

The total area occupied by shale loam is 35i square miles. Stony Loam. The surface soil of the stony loam consists for the most

part of brown loam containing considerable quantities of stones and boulders underlain by stony loam or bedrock. The areas are usually too stony to be of value for agricultural purposes except for grazing, and are best adapted for the cultivation of forest growth. Small areas in the vicinity of the city of Ottawa from which the greater part of the stones and boulders have been removed have been brought under cultivation but the greater part of the areas forms "waste land."

The total area occupied by the stony loam is 5$ square miles. Gravelly Fine Sandy Loam. The surface soil of the gravelly fine

sandy loam of the glacial till consists for the most part of greyish-brown to dark brown, fine, sandy loam containing varying amounts of gravel, stones, and boulders but usually not in sufficient amount to seriously interfere with agriculture. The subsoil consists of grey to greyish- brown, compact, fine, sandy loam containing stones and boulders in varying amounts. In places the surface soil is nearly free from stones and approaches in general character the marine clay loam soil but is generally more friable and contains less clay. The till soils throughout the area, except in the northern portion, in the upland area usually contain largd quantities of limestone and are the =st highly calcareous soils of th i

i district. In places a thin covering of ma;ine sand occupies the surface and the surface soil is sand or sandy loam.

The areas occupied by the gravelly fine sandy loam of the glacial till occur scattered throughout the greater part of the district. The total area is 393 squar'e miles.

The surface for the most part is slightly rolling or sloping. I n ~ k s low jidges- ~r-- irr~~lariy-=shapd-fd~~ .&&~, . -~at :~%i&f is -generally low. Over the greater part of the areas the surface is naturally drained and artificial drainage is not required except rarely where small basin- shaped depressions occur.

3 /I-

The following table gives results, in percentages, of mechanical analyses of typical samples of the soil and subsoil of the gravelly fine sandy loam of the glacial till.

Mechunkid Analyses of Gravelly Fine Sandy Loam.

soil / Fine 1 2 ; ~ gravel

Surface. . . . . . . . . . . Subsoil. . . . . . . . . . . / h:: I :::

Medium Fine Very fine sand sand sand ---

Fluvioglacial Sand and Gravel Soils.

Gavelly Sandy Loam. The surface soil of the fluvioglacial sand and gravel soils consists, for the most part, of yellowish to reddish- brown sandy loam containing a considerable proportion of fine to coarse gravel with some boulders. The subsoil consists of yellowish or grey sandy loam containing varying amounts of gravel and boulders. In places the surface has a thin covering of marine sand and the soil varies from sand to sandy loam. In places also the subsoil is variable but is usually somewhat finer and more compact than the surface soil. The surface soil is well oxidized and leached and contains little or no lime but the subsoil is usually calcareous. The soil is, for the most part, low in organic matter, the maintenance of which is difficult on account of the loose open structure of the soil.

The gravelly sandy loam areas are small and are confined largely to the southeastern part of the district. They have a total area of 53 square miles.

The surface for the most part is sloping or uneven and is naturally well-drained. Owing to the relief and open porous character of much of the material the soil, in places, tends to be excessively drained and is easily affected by drouth. Where the subsoil is more compact and consists of finer material the soil is not so readily affected by drouth.

Brick and Tile Clays. The marine clays of the Ottawa district are used for the manu-

facture, by the soft mud process, of common red brick. They have also been used in the manufacture of Portland cement at the works of the Canada Cement Company near Hull, Quebec. Bricks are manufactured a t several brickyards in the vicinity of Ottawa and Hull. Two brickyards are located near Hull, one along the Chelsea road north of Hull and the other north of the Aylmer road near Broadview. Three are located near Ottawa, one south of Rideau river near Billings Bridge, and two close together on the west side of Rideau canal near Hogsback. The-clay deposit and method of manufacture of the brick a t the brickyard on the Chelsea road have been described by J. Keele in the "Pre- liminary report on the clay and shale deposits of the province of Quebec,'' Memoir 64, Geol. Surv., Can., Ottawa, page 53. The clay deposits and method of manufacture of the brick a t the brickyards near Ottawa have been described by M. B. Baker in the Report of the Bureau of Mines, 1906, vol. XV, part TI, "Clay and the clay industry of Ontario," pp.; 60-61. j

Deposits of marine clay which can be utilized for the manufacture of common brick and field drain tile are of widespread occurrence in the Ottawa district. Their distribution is shown on the map which accom-

panies this report. The sections exposed. The 1

consists of a uniformly being somewhat oxidize, greater or less thicknes to 10 feet and in places t silt which passes downw. thickness. The three cl strong, the mild, and tk formly fine-grained and I of brick and a mixture of clay is mixed with sand. are impure and readily wares than common brick

Numerous localities . facture of brick and tile is a report by J. Keele of t clay from one locality at to 10 feet of the upper s lower silty clay.

Zab. No. 387. Grey of mouth of Stillwater cre a t Britannia. This mater best working consistency, : inclined to be pasty, but clay must be dried slowl) The shrinkage in drying J

addition of sand would r burned to cone 010 the cl; an absorption of 15 per ct and harder body is obtain, to still higher temperatul material overfired and prc manufacture of common t i t will be necessary to add limits of burning vary bet F)."

Sands and gravels usec occur in the river gravel ar the beach, marine sand, ;

throughout the district. '

worked by the Canadian

I Soils.

3f the fluvioglacial sand of yellowish to reddish-

:oportion of fine to coarse iists of yellowish or grey gravel and boulders. In ,e sand and the soil varies subsoil is variable but is

an the surface soil. The contains little or no lime is, for the most part, low difficult on account of the

and are confined largely y have a total area of 54

tr uneven and is naturally rous character of much of scessively drained and is

is more compact and ly affected by drouth.

t are used for the manu- ed brick. They have also ment a t the works of the

Bricks are manufactured Ma and Hull. Two brick- 'helsea road north of Hull rr Broadview. Three are r near Billings Bridge, and \au canal near Hogsback. of tK<b;ick-at the brick- i by J. Keele in the "Pre- )f the province of Quebgc, " i3. The clay deposits and :kyards near Ottawa have -t of the Bureau of Mines, 1 1 industry of Ontario," pp. I

i 'zed for the manufacture 01 lespread occurrence in the on the map which accom-

panies this report. Their general character is very similar in most of the sections exposed. The upper portion, usually to a depth of 5 to 10 feet, I consists of a uniformly fine-grained, plastic clay, the top 1 to 3 feet being somewhat oxidized. In places the upper clay is overlain by a , greater or less thickness of sand. The upper clay is underlain by 2 to 10 feet and in places by a greater thickness of sandy clay or sand and silt which passes downwards into l&es&+Ay usually of considerable thickness. The three clays are referred to by the brickmakers as the strong, the mild, and the blue. The upper "strongV clay is too unl- formly fine-grained and plastic to be utilized alone for the manufacture of brick and a mixture of the three clays is commonly used or the upper clay is mixed with sand. The marine clays burn to a red brick. They are impure and readily fusible, so that no higher grade of structural wares than common brick or field drain tile can be made from them. -- I

Numerous localities a t which the clays are available for the manufacture of brick and tile occur in the Ottawa district. The following is a report by J. Keele of this department on a typical sample of the upper clay from one locality a t the foot of Graham bay. At this locality 5 to 10 feet of the upper strong clay is exposed and is underlain by the lower silty clay.

"Lab. No. 387. Grey clay from section a t Graham bay, 2 mile east of mouth of Stillwater creek and 13 miles southwest of Boat Club wharf a t Britannia. This material requires 30 per cent water to bring it to the best working consistency, and in this condition is very plastic and smooth, inclined to be pasty, but otherwise has good working qualities. This clay must be dried slowly after moulding to prevent it from cracking. The shrinkage in drying is excessive, being about 10 per cent, but the addition of sand would reduce this, and also help in drying. When burned to cone 010 the clay has a good red colour and hard body, with an absorption of 15 per cent. If burned to cone 06 a better red colour and harder body is obtained, but the shrinkage is increased. If burned to still higher temperature the shrinkage becomes excessive and the material overfired and probably softened. This clay is suitable for the manufacture of common building brick or field drain tile. In practice, i t will be necessary to add from 20 to 30 per cent sand. The commercial limits of burning vary between cone 010 and 07 (1742 to 1850 degrees F)."

Sands and Gravels.

Sands and gravels used for ballast and for various structural purposes occur in the river gravel and alluvial deposits along Ottawa river and in the beach, marine sand, and fluvioglacial deposits a t various places throughout the district. The largest ballast pit in the district is that worked by the Canadian Northern railway near Bowesville. At, this

locality the upper 1 to 4 feet of the deposit is composed of marine sands and gravel, the gravel being mostly coarse and containing in places large boulders. The marine gravels are underlain by sands and gravels of fluvioglacial origin which are extremely variable in character. The greater part of the deposit consists of fine to coarse sand. In places irregularly-shaped lenses of gravel occur and, occasionally, masses of boulder clay, silty clay, and boulders. In places, also, coarse to fine gravel forms a considerable part of the deposit but the gravel deposits are irregularly distributed. Material of this general character, overlain by a greater or less thickness of marine sands and gravels, appears to form the greater part of the ridge extending southeastward from near Bowesville. No other large deposit of gravels of similar origin are known to occar in the district except, possibly, in the case of the irregularly- shaped hills one-half mile east of Gatineau river near Wright's bridge, which, from the evidence of a few small test pits, appear to be composed largely of sand and gravel. A large deposit of river gravels composed chiefly of very coarse gravel occurs in the city of Hull, and numerous small deposits of various origin occur throughout the district.

Sands used for various structural purposes are obtained chiefly from the marine sands which are found in large quantity, and are easy of access, along the east bank of Rideau river between Rideau junction and Black rapids. These sands are yellowish or yellowish-grey in colour and in places contain numerous fossil shells. Sands are also obtained, as at the sand pits south of Rideau river one-fourth mile east of Bank street, Ottawa, and a t various localities in the district, from the fluvioglacial sands which are in places overlain by a small thickness of boulder, clay. These sands are somewhat variable in character, varying from\ coarse to fine, and are usually grey in colour. Sand is also obtained from the alluvial sand deposits on the islands and sand bars of the lower portion of Ottawa river. These sands are more uniformly fine-grained than the sands of the other deposits.

.omposed of marine sands and containing in places lain by sands and gravels riable in character. The 1 coarse sand. In places , occasionally, masses of laces, also, coarse to fine t but the gravel deposits eneral character, overlain s and gravels, appears to southeastward from near )f similar origin are known e case of the irregularly- rer near Wright's bridge, 3, appear to be composed )f river gravels composed y of Hull, and numerous ~t the district. )ses are obtained chiefly :e quantity, and are easy between Rideau junction Ir yellowish-grey in colour Sands are also obtained, -fourth mile east of Bank district, from the fluvio-

;mall thickness of boulder character, varying from\

-. Sand is also obtained .nd sand bars of the lower I ,re uniformly fine-grained

INDEX . PAGE

Aeolian soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Alluvial sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

soils ............................................................. 42 Alluvium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Ami.H.M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 25. 35 Analyses. mechanical. of alluvial fine sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

u 11 gravelly. fine. sandy loam 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u u marine clay loam and clay 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II u marine fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 U u u u U sandy loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Anrep. A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Astarte compressa Mont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27. 28

B . Baker.M.B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Beachsoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IS. 17. 32. 34 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Black rapids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21. 41 Borings. well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. 20 Botlder clay . See till .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ridges 2 Bowesville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 48 Brickyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Br6gger.W.C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Bur1ing.L.D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

C . Canada Cement Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Canadian Northern railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

............................................ Pacific Railway bridge 25 Capelin (Mallotus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 25 Carpriver ........................................................... 8. 19. 40 Chalmers. R ............................................................ 2. 34 Champlainclays ........................................................ 2

U ................................................. source of 32 (maripe) deppsits ............................................. 16 orgamc remamns ................................................ 25

........................................................ sands 2. 22 sea ....................................................... .7. 11. 12

Chaudiere falls .......................................................... 5. 8 Chelsea brook ........................................................... 6 Chipmunk fossil ......................................................... 25 C 4 y ................................................................... 7

loar? and clay ...................................................... 45 a manne ............................................................. 19

..................................................... Clay:. brick and tile 48 ....................................................... Champlain 18

colour of ......................................................... 22 Leda .......................................................... 2. 18. 28 lower ............................................................ 20

Clays. upper ............................................................ 22. 49 Climate ................................................................ 28 Coleman. A . P ........................................................... 3

8

Concretions. See nodules. Constance lake.. ........................................................

.................. Cottus.. ............................................ Cuestas. ............................................................... Cylichna alba Brown.. ..................................................

D. Daly, R. A.. ........................................................... Davis, C. A . . ........................................................... Dawson, .18, ...................................................... " bW.. ........................................................ De Geer, Gerard.. ...................................................... Delta sands.. ........................................................... DeschCnes lake. .................................................. .6, 21, Dramage. ..............................................................

" pre-Glacial. ..................................................... Dune sands.. ........................................................... Dunes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E. East Templeton.. 24 ....................................................... Ells, R. W.. .2,25,35 .......................................................... Erosion.. 7, 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Escarpments, Palaeowic.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

.............................................. Pre-Cambrian 8

F. Fairy lake.. 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Faults.. .7, 14, 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluvial deposits.. 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluvio lacial sand and gravel soils.. ....................................... 48 g sands and gravels.. 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fossil fish.. 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

" shells 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fossils.. . :. .2, 24, 33, 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,25

G . Gatineau p i n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ,8 ,14 ,19 ,22 ,24 ,25 ,42 ,45 Geology, general. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Glacial deposits.. 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

till soils.. 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glaciation, stage of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Glaciers.. 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gloucester station.. 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graham bay.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 49 Gravels.. 1, 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fluvioglacial 14 river.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greely 40

Greens creek.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2, 6, 13, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29

H. Hemlock lake. See Mackay lake. Hogan, P 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hull 43, 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. Ice movements, directions of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Ice-sheets.. 6, 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isostacy.. 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jock river.

Kames. .................. Keele, J;. ................

report by.. ...... Kindle, E. M. . ........... Kingsmere. ...............

............ .......

lake mountain

Labradorean glacier.. ...... Lacustrine deposits. .......

........... sands Lakes. ................... Leamy lake. ..............

............... Leda clay. Loam, clay.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......... fine, sandy [' gravelly, fine, sandy.

..... a sandy .............. " shale

. . . . . . . . . . . . stony.. .................. Location.

Lowland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lump-sucker (Cyclopterus) .

............. Mackay lake.. Mac:ma Balt!ica.. ........

. . . . . . Lin . . . . . . . . . . . calcarea Chemn .....

Mallotus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marine deposits. See Cham

" soils .......... Marl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mer Bleue peat bog.. Moraine, ground. .... Moraines, terminal. . . Muck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . M F l u s eiulis. Lin ....

. . . . . . . . . . . . Natica affinis.. Gmel ..........

Neptunea despecta Lin. ..... .................. Nodules.

........ " concretionary Nucula tenuis Mont.. . . . . . . Nystrom, E.. ..............

Orleans station.. ........... .... Oscillations of sea-level..

O t t a ~ a bfickyard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . river . . . . . . . . . . . . . valley

PAGE J .

Jock river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. 19

K . Kames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 16 Keele. J; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

U reportby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Kind1e.E.M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kingsmere 17 " lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 5

L . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Labradorean glacier 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lacustrine deposits 12

" sands 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lakes 6,9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leamy lake 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ledaclay 2, 18, 28

Loam, clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 " fine, sandy ....................................................... 44

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " gravelly, fine, sandy 47 u " sandy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 " stony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lowland 4,7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lump-sucker (Cyclopterus) 2

M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mackay lake .9, 28, 35

Mac:maBalt!jca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,27, 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lln 29

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " calcarea 26, 27 I< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " Chemn 25, 28

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mallotus 2 , 2 5 Marine deposits . See Champlain .

ti soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marl 28, 35

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mer Bleuepeatbog 19,35, 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moraine, ground 12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moraines, terminal 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muck 40

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M e l u s eiulis 27, Y30 Lin ........................................................ 30

N . ........................................................... Natica affinis 26

U Gmel ....................................................... 25. 28 ................................................... Neptunea despecta Lin 26. 28 Nodules ............................................................... 29

..................................................... " concretionary 2. 25 ..................................................... NuculatenuisMont 25. 28

Nystrom. E ............................................................. 35

.......................................................... Orleans station 25 .................................................. Oscillations of sea.leve1 28

....................................................... Ottauwabyickyard 26 .......................................... nver .5,8, 19.33.34.42.f43..45 .......................................................... valley 7... 10

P . PAGE

.......................................................... Parliament hill 5 Peat ................................................................... 35. 40

marshes ......................................................... 40 Peerless brickyards ...................................................... 21, 26 Penck. Mr .............................................................. 31 Phyzical features ........................................................ 4

mode of origin ............................................ 6 Pleistocene deposits ...................................................... 12 Plunge pools ............................................................ 9 Portla;ndia .............................................................. 29

arctica .................................................... .25, 26, 27 Portltndia arctica Gray ( =Leda glacialis) .................................. 25

(Yoldia) arctica Gray = (Leda glacialis) .......................... 28 ........................................................... Pre-Cambrian 4

Pre-Glacial land surface .................................................. 6 Previous work .......................................................... 2

R . Recent deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Relief .................................................................. 4 Rideau river ............................. .6, 8, 13, 19, 21, 23, 24, 34, 41, 42. 43, 45

U U section along ................................................ 26 Ripple-marks ........................................................... 21 Rlver gravel soils. ........................................................ 42

gravels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 " sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

s . Sand, alluvial ........................................................... 24

" beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 dune ........................................................... 34, 41

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fine 42, 43 l' gravelly, coarse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stony 42 Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l, 7, 49

andgravels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " delta 24

" Champlain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 " fluvioglacial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

lacustrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 U . r~ver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Saxicava rugosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 26, 27, 29 " Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

11 " var . Arctics.. ......................................... .26, 27, 28 " sands ........................................................... 2, 22

..................................................... Scarp. Pre.Cambrian 4 Section along Rideau river ............................................... 26 Shale, loam ............................................................. 46 Shore.line, marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Silt 7 Soils ................................................................... 37

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " aeolian 41

............................................................. alluvial 42 beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 character of ........................................................ 38 classification of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 description of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 distributionof ...................................................... 39 fluvioglacial sand and gravel .......................................... 48

" glacial till . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . manne 43

........................................................ it river gravel 42 swamp ............................................................ 40

South Gloucester ........... Stickleback (Gasterosteus) ... Stria ..................... ............... Swamp soils

Terraces .................. Tile clays ................. Till .......................

soils ...................

United States Bureau of So& U p p d .. : .................

mnor .............. Uplift .....................

Valleys .................... ............. bedrock .............. stream

Wisconsin atage of glaciation ............ Woodworth. Mr

Wright. W . B .............. Wright's bridge ............

PAGE South Gloucester ........................................................ 40 ................................................ Stickleback (Gasterosteus) 2 Striae ................................................................ .7. 16. 32 Swamp soils ............................................................ 40

Terraces ..................................................... .6.9.15.17.23. 32 Tileclays .............................................................. 1,48 Till ................................................................... 12, 2 1

soils ................................................................ 46

............................................. United States Bureau of Soils 37 ................................................................. Upland 4

" minor ........................................................... 7 Uplift .................................................................. 31

v . VaFys ................................................................ .4. 7. 9

bedrock. ......................................................... 8 stream ........................................................... 19

.............................................. Wisconsin stage of glaciation 16 Woodworth. Mr ......................................................... 31 ........................................................... Wright.W.B 30

......................................................... Wright'sbridge 50

c 84, pleistocene and recent deposits in the vicinity of · pdf file ·...

Documents