c annabi 2005 from individual learning to organizational learning hala annabi...

c Annabi 2005

From Individual Learning to Organizational Learning

Hala [email protected]

c Annabi 2005

Learning Objectives Critique the conceptual foundations to

organizational learning Distinguish between individual level and

organizational level learning Identify steps in the organizational learning process Identify steps in the organizational learning process Identify factors that enhance or impede Identify factors that enhance or impede

organizational learning organizational learning Critique the conceptual foundation of the concept of

CoP Explain how organizations may cultivate CoPExplain how organizations may cultivate CoP Identify effective practices within CoPIdentify effective practices within CoP Explain how organizations may organize CoP to

align with business objectives

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Overview

Organizational Learning Theoretical Foundation Individual vs. organizational learning OSS Example

Break Communities of Practice

Presenting the case Working on the case and Discussion Research Recommendations

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Organizational learning in light of knowledge-based view of the firmKnowledge-based view“the primary role of the firm [is] integrating the

specialized knowledge resident in individuals into goods and services. The primary task of management is establishing the coordination necessary for this knowledge integration.”

Knowledge integration: organizational learning

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Why Organizational Learning? (Argyris & Schön, 1996; Argyris, 1999)

adapting to the environment avoiding stability traps experimenting rethinking means and ends correcting for error innovating realizing human potential for learning in the service

of organizational purposes creating organizational settings as contexts for

human development

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Theoretical Orientations to Learning in Psychology

Theorist View of the Learning Process Locus of Learning

Behaviorist Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner

Change in behavior Stimuli in external environment

Cognitive Lewin, Piaget, Bruner

Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception)

Internal cognitive structuring

Humanist Maslow, Rogers

A personal act to fulfill potential Affective and cognitive needs

Social and Situational

Lave and Wenger, Handura

Interaction and observation in social contexts. Movement from the periphery to the center of a community of practice

Learning is a relationship between people and environment

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Questions of Organizational Learning?

What does Organizational Learning mean?

Who is learning?

What is being learned?

When does learning take place?

What results does learning yield?

How does learning take place?

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What is Organizational Learning?Reference Definition

Cyert and March (1963) Is adaptive behavior of organizations over time

Cangelosi and Dill (1965) A series of interactions between adaptation at the individual, or subgroup level and adaptation at the organizational level

Argyris and Schön (1978) The process by which organizational members detect errors or anomalies and correct them by restructuring organizational theory in use

Duncan and Weiss (1979) The process within the organization by which knowledge about action-outcome relationships and the effect of the environment on these relationships is developed

Fiol and Lyles (1985) The process of improving actions through better knowledge and understanding

Levitt and March (1988) Organizations are seen as learning by encoding inferences from history into routine behavior

Huber (1991) An entity learns if, through the processing of information, the range of its potential behaviors is changed…

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Who is learning?

Individual Group Organization

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In groups of 3-4, please address the following questions? Who learns in organizations?

Individuals Groups Organizations

What are the indicators of that learning?

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What is being learned?

Rules and standard operating procedures (Cyert & March, 1963; Levitt & March, 1988)

Decisions reached (Cangelosi & Dill, 1965), cognitive and behavioral changes (M. C. Fiol & Lyles,

1985)

Theories-in-use (Argyris & Schön, 1978) Organizational knowledge (Duncan & Weiss, 1979; Huber,

1991).

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When does learning take place?

Slack in resources (Cyert & March, 1963; Duncan & Weiss, 1979)

Stress or tension (Cangelosi & Dill, 1965; M. C. Fiol & Lyles, 1985) Error or mismatch of expectations (Argyris & Schön,

1978; Levitt & March, 1988)

Innovation (Annabi, 2005)

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What results does learning yield?

Improved performance better adaptation and alignment to the

environment (Cyert & March, 1963; Duncan & Weiss, 1979; M. C. Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Levitt & March, 1988)

reduction of stress (Cangelosi & Dill, 1965)

better range of action strategies of potential behaviors (Argyris & Schön, 1978; Huber, 1991)

Does all Learning Lead to Improvement?

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How does learning take place?Framework Approach Orientation Learning

Cyter and March (1963)

Explanatory Behavioral development Explicit

Argyris and Schon (1978)

Normative Single-loop vs. double-loop learning

Lower vs. higher level cognition

Explicit

Fiol and Lyles (1985) Explanatory Lower and higher-level cognition

Explicit

Levitt and March (1988)

Explanatory Behavioral development and cognitive development

Explicit and implicit

Huber (1991) Explanatory Behavioral development and cognitive development

Explicit and implicit

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From Individual Learning to Group Learning: The Case of Apache Web Server Project

Annabi 2005

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The Issue OSS groups are distributed Rely on contributions from volunteers Many contributions come from outside the

core

Core development challenge: how to minimize the challenges of being distributed and manage large contributions from inside and outside of the core

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OSS Development Challenge ExploredDifficult because of potential for: Miscommunication Misunderstanding Problems in product and process

management Coordination difficulties Limited availability of expert knowledge

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Group Learning is Needed

Integrate the knowledge of developers and users into an effective product through effective processes

Need to understand the learning process in OSS groups

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Research Questions

RQ1: What are the characteristics of the group-learning process in a distributed environment?

RQ1a: How do distributed groups change rules and procedures?

RQ1b: How do distributed groups change shared mental models?

RQ2: What are the factors that impede or enhance group learning?

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Research Design Naturalistic setting Single embedded case study design

Apache Web Server Learning opportunity episode

Data Sources Observation of email interactions Documentation E-mail interviews (limited)

Content Analysis Three content analytic schemes

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Theoretical Framework for Learning Process in Distributed Groups (Annabi 2005)

Organizational ContextCorporate participation

Group DesignCompositionTask

Task ManagementDiscussion of strategyCritical analysisDeveloping shared mental models

Group Learning:Rules, procedures or guidelinesShared mental models

Facilitators and BarriersResourcesIndividual ContributionLeadershipGroup InteractionCore Developers’ Interest

Input

Learning Process

Output

Triggers:ExternalInternal

Group StructureSMMRules, ProceduresRole Structure

Individual LearningGroup MaintenanceInteractionCohesionConflict resolution

Learning Episode

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Content Analytic Schemes

Episode Level (e.g.) Focus (product, process, or both) Type of Learning Opportunity Learning outcome

Learning Process Task Management Group Maintenance Individual Contribution

Learning Triggers Internal External

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Overview of Learning Opportunity Episodes Focus and Learning Outcomes

Focus of Episode

(Process or Product)

Learning OutcomeTotal of focus of episodeNo

Learning

Shared Mental Models

Rule

Both Rules and Shared

Mental Models

Process 16 10 10 14 50

Product 9 63 2 5 79

Product and Process 3 20 2 24 49

Total Learning Outcome 28 93 14 43 178

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Finding 1: Group learning requires interaction

Individual contributions are important to group learning but are not sufficient

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Nu

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er o

f P

osti

ng

s

Activity

Learning

Alpha1st Public eleaseApache 0.62

BetaApache Rewrite

Public Release of (rewrite) Apache 0.8

StableApache1.0

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Findings 2: Development of shared mental models is central to the group learning process

91% of learning episodes resulted in developing shared mental models

9% of learning episodes led only to developing rules and guidelines

Shared mental model indicators were pervasive in all types of learning opportunity episodes

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Finding 3: A majority of learning opportunities had a product focus Outcome Number

Percentage of Total

Number of Episodes

Percentage of Episodes that

Led to Learning

No learning 28 16% 0%

Change in shared mental model 93 51% 62%

Change in rule 14 8% 9%

Change in both rule and shared mental model 43 25% 29%

178

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Finding 4: Product-focused episodes produce different learning than process-focused episodes

Focus of Episode

(Process or Product)

Learning Outcome

Total of focus of episode

No Learning

Shared Mental Models

Rule

Both Rules and Shared

Mental Models

Process 16 10 10 14 50

Product 9 63 2 5 79

Product and Process 3 20 2 24 49

Total Learning Outcome 28 93 14 43 178

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Findings 5: Core-developers are the main contributors to group learning Contributors to learning episodes are

predominantly core-developers 75% of Learning triggers in Apache were

generated from core-developers, and 25% of learning triggers are generated from external sources

Internal learning triggers generate more complex learning episodes (88%)

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Findings 6: The group devised their own learning mechanism Sharing information on code status

made up 20% of all learning triggers triggered 35% of complex episodes

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Findings 6: Examplesharing information on code statusExample (hyperreal 3/18/1995):

I've put apache-0.2.tar.Z into http://www.hyperreal.com/httpd/dist/It's based on the votes I read before sending this mail, which included Roy's which killed off some but revived others. Included are, B01_CERT_security.txt B02_linger.txt B06_log-no-stdio.txt [omitted due to space limitation]

All remaining patches should now be replaced with new patches which are relative to apache-0.2. Drop them in http://www.hyperreal.com/httpd/patches/for_Apache_0.2/...then we can start discussing them. All votes collected so far have now expired.

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Factors affecting group learning Member contribution Levels of group interaction Task constraints and focus Leadership behavior to facilitate the process Resources Conflict resolution

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Closing

“Knowledge about the process, or the know how, of learning facilitates corrections that simulate or accelerate learning” (Maier, et al. 2001, pg. 16).

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Questions?

Break 10 mins

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Communities of Practice

Hala Annabi

Paul Arnold and Chris Rivinus

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The Issue

Complex Organizations Predominance of specialized knowledge work Focus on core capabilities distributed pockets

of knowledge Management challenge: coordination of

knowledge sources for business objectives

University of Washington

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Management Challenge Explored..

Coordination of knowledge sources is problematic due to difficulties in: Identifying sources of knowledge Connecting disparate sources of knowledge Protecting against knowledge loss Applying knowledge towards business ends


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Solution: Learning Organization Identify knowledge sources Create mechanisms to connect across

geographical and disciplinary boundaries Integrate individual knowledge and

experience into organizational procedures, routines, product and services, norms and culture


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How to Harness the Power of CoPs for Business Objectives? CoPs have been used to help manage

knowledge in organizations… Issues

Focus on knowledge exchange between individuals

Knowledge resides within single CoP- not across Limited integration


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The Research How to utilize CoPs to leverage knowledge towards

business objectives? Instances in PB PANs

Human Resources Knowledge exchange across PANs Knowledge repository Global integration Increase efficiency Business development Innovation Disseminate cutting edge knowledge

Do these systematically in alignment with business strategy


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Presentation Agenda

Background PB and Practice Area Networks

Discussion Overview of Research Project Preliminary Research Results Discussion


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Parson Brinkerhoff Practice Area Networks (PANs)

PB History and StructurePANs History and StructureKnowledge Exchange at PB


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History and Structure of PB 125 Year Old Firm Barclay Parsons & Klapp Over 9,000 Employees in over 200 Offices Project-Based Entrepreneurial Business Model Growth Through Project wins and Acquisition Accelerated Growth in the 90’s


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Geographic Distribution: North America

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Geographic Distribution: Europe

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Geographic Distribution: Middle East

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Geographic Distribution: Asia

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Geographic Distribution: Australia/New Zealand

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Practice Area Network = PAN PANs Created in 1994 Leadership: Voluntary Membership: Voluntary

History and Structure of PB


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Knowledge Exchange at PB

PAN Requestor

PAN Coordinator

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Broadcast Request to PAN Members Around the Globe

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Responses Routed through Coordinator to Requestor

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Overview of Research Project

Research Questions

Study Approach

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The Question:

How do we utilize CoPs to leverage knowledge towards business objectives?

What are the challenges? What should we do?


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Specific Research Questions To what extent do exchanges in the PAN

contribute to business objectives? What are the characteristics of the learning

process in the PANs? What are the factors that impede or enhance

organizational learning process?


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Approach: Two Phase Study

Exploratory Interview Phase Understanding the nature of the PANs and their

activities Determine the extent to which Organizational

Learning is taking place in the PANs Interview all PAN coordinators and some active

members

Investigation of Organizational Learning Episodes In-depth analysis of learning episodes in several

PANs


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Study Preliminary Results

Do PANs Contribute to Business Objectives?

How do PANs contribute to business objectives?

How to Best Harness the PANs for Business Objectives?


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Do PANs Contribute to Business Objectives? Yes

Contingent on PAN coordinator and steering committee efforts


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How do PANs contribute to business objectives? Business Objectives

Human Resources Knowledge exchange across PANs Knowledge repository Global integration Increase efficiency Business development Innovation Disseminate cutting edge knowledge


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How to Best Harness the PANs for Business Objectives?

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How to Best Harness the PANs for Business Objectives? Align PANs to business strategy Design each PAN to fit its specific objectives

and disciplinary nature Create Proper alignments between the PANs Empower PANs Prepare and empower PAN leadership


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Align PANs with Organizational Strategy Determine where PANs reside within organizational

structure Determine the role/roles of the PANs in contributing

to strategy Communicate the roles of PANs

Business Development Land Use Resource Center 1999 Facilitators

PAN Initiative Support


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Design PANs for Specific Objectives and Disciplinary Nature Diverse expertise and activities within PB Design to fit various roles

Global Integration Interdisciplinary and far reaching topics

(e.g. Environmental Planning) Transferring advanced practice around the

globe Facilitators

Supportive culture Individual willingness


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Create Proper Alignments between the PANs Align PANs - related objectives and focus Facilitate interactions across PANs- creative

collaborations

Knowledge Exchange across PANs & HR: Transfer from IT PAN to CADD PAN to

Project Administration PAN Facilitator

Alignment with CIO Collaboration between PANS OPP support


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PAN Informal Collaboration

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Empower PANs Create supportive structure

Resources Reward Systems Authority and capabilities Flexible tools

Increased Efficiency Create a central processing for software

purchases Facilitators

Collaboration with corporate Initiative of PAN leadership Supportive culture


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Prepare and Empower PAN Leadership Articulate the Role of PAN leadership Time allocation Training and support

Innovation: PB CommentSense Created New tool Facilitators

Initiative Awareness of PAN members’ needs OPP support


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Take Away


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The Learning Organization

Move from organizational learning to the learning organization

A system approach Align all organizational learning and

knowledge management efforts to business strategy


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How to Harness the Power of CoPs for Business Objectives?

Align CoPs to organizational strategy Design each CoP to fit its specific objectives

and disciplinary nature Create Proper alignments between the CoPs Empower CoPs Prepare and empower CoPs leadership


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Questions and Discussion

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Episode Level Scheme Characteristic

Date

Topic

Focus (product, process, or both)

Type of Learning(shared mental models, rules, or both)

Trigger

Member initiating the episode

Learning outcome(no learning, shared mental models, rules, both)

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Refined Learning Triggers SchemeLearning Trigger Indicator

External User need*

New technology*

External influences*

Offer to contribution or new member (Grant 1996)

User identified error(Argyris & Schön, 1978)

Internal Misrepresentations or gaps in understanding*

Conflict (Gladstein)

Lack of resources (Hackman)

Error (Argyris & Schön, 1978)

Summarize/update/share information of code and product status*

Efficacy of the process (Anderson et. al.)

Innovation in the process*

Innovation in the product*

Member identified error (Argyris & Schön, 1978)

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Group Learning Process Scheme

Process Old Construct

Group maintenance

Interaction

Cohesion

Conflict

Task management Discussion of strategy

Critical Analysis

Shared mental models

Individual contribution

Level of effort brought to bear on the task

Amount of knowledge and skills applied

c annabi 2005 from individual learning to organizational learning hala annabi...

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