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https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048519833515

Framing the migration: A study of news photographs showing people fleeing war and persecution

Keith Greenwood JournalismStudiesandPhotojournalism,MissouriSchoolofJournalism,MO,USA

TJ Thomson DigitalJournalism,SchoolofCommunication,CreativeIndustriesFaculty,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Australia

Abstract Human migration due to political upheaval is rapidly accelerating, yet scholarly attention to refugees’ visual news representations has lagged. Using a visual analysis informed by the transnational writings of Yuval-Davis related to the politics of belonging and the peace/conflict frame literature, 811 images primarily depicting migration from Turkey into Europe in 2015 and submitted to the Pictures of the Year International competition were examined. Analysis determined that, despite billions of dollars in aid and millions of migrants who have benefited from food assistance and other development opportu- nities, the photographers overwhelmingly highlighted the migrants’ transitory nature, vulnerability and differences while minimizing any attempt to depict the shared connec- tions or integrations that were occurring. As media are orienting devices, this has profound implications for how migrants are regarded on both the individual as well as the collective levels.

Keywords Migration, peace and conflict framing, photojournalism, pictures of the year, politics of belonging, poy, refugee representation, visual analysis, visual framing, visual symbols

Introduction

Humanmigration has existed formillennia, yet advances in technology and thecapacityforwide‐scaleviolencehavetransformedtheprocess(MarsellaandRing,2003).Whatoncemighthavebeenindividualsorasmallgroupofpeopleseekingnewopportunitieshasbeenjoinedbymovementsoflargegroupsofpeoplefleeingnaturalorpoliticalevents.Asthescopeofmigrationhasgrowninresponsetoworldevents, so too has the ability of a worldwide public to see and respond tothechallenges faced by those migrating (Horsti, 2016). Such is the case with theEuropeanrefugeecrisis,whichspikedin2015andhasleftnearly60millionpeopleforciblydisplaced in levelsunseensinceSecondWorldWar(BBC,2016;BoehlerandPecanha,2015).Althoughitreceivedinternationalattentionin2015,thecrisisbeganslowlyin

2011with7,000Syrianswhofledtoavoidtheircountry’sburgeoningcivilwar.Thefollowingyear,200,000moreSyriansleft,andby2013,twomillionSyrianshadlefttheircountry.Ofthose,halfwerechildren(Navarroetal.,2014).Thepaceincreasedin2014asatleast1.2millionIraqis(Dickinson,2014)fledestablishmentofanISISCaliphate in addition to the Syrian refugees that had been a consistent focus ofcoverage. As the refugeesmoved fromTurkey into eastern European countries,newscoveragefocusedonthescopeofthemigrationand,eventually,reactionsinEurope. Citizens raised questions about the influx of new people into theircountries, and borders were officially closed, causing refugees to seek riskiermethodsofleavingTurkey.ThesituationreceivedgreaterinternationalattentioninSeptember2015whenathree‐year‐oldSyrianboydrownedduringhisfamily’sattempt to reach Greece from Turkey. The news raised the migration’s inter‐nationalprofileandattractedmoreintensemediascrutiny(Fry,2015).Overall,in2015,morethanamillionSyriansfledthecountry,andmorethan440,000ofthemarrivedinEuropebysea.ByDecember2018,morethan5.6millionSyrianshadfledthecountryandbecomerefugeessincetheSyrianCivilWarbeganin2011(UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees,2018).Europeanmediarepresentationofrefugeestendstodepictmigrantslargelyin

oneoftwoways:aseitherthreatsorvictims(Erjavec,2003;Innes2010;Leudaretal., 2008; Lynch et al., 2012; Moore, 2013). Within the first category, mediadepictionsoftenfocusonmigrants intermsofthephysical,economicorculturalthreat theymight pose to a host country (Innes, 2010; Zhang and Hellmueller,2017).These representations tend toportraymigrantsasothers,highlight theirdifferences and strip the depicted of their human rights and dignity (Dal Lago,1999).Whenmediadepictionsfocusonthesecondbroadcategory–thatofmigrantas

victim–refugeesareshownasundeservingoftheircircumstancesduetofactors,suchaswar,crime,orgovernmentcorruption,thatareoftenbeyondtheircontrol.Thesedepictionsarenotuniform,however.Onlycertaintypesofpeopleareselect‐ivelyrepresentedasvictims(Horsti,2013),andfactorssuchasbygeography,cul‐tural similarity, ethnic heritage, religious beliefs, etc. can influence whethermigrantsare framed in termsof threatsorvictims.

WhiletheworldwidepublichasseennewsphotographsofSyriansfleeingintoTurkeyandthenEurope,scholarlyattentiontorefugees’visualnewsrepresenta‐tionhaslagged(LenetteandCleland,2016).Somestudieshaveexaminedframingoftheissueinspecificcountries,suchasGermany(HolmesandCastan ̃eda,2016)and Italy (Musaro ̀ , 2017), in public affairs magazines (Greenwood and Jenkins,2015)orwithlimited,keyexemplars(LenetteandCleland,2016);however,asys‐tematic evaluation and analysis of the crisis from the selectedwork of photog‐raphersoutsideofthepublicationprocesshasnotbeenattempted.AnopportunitytodosobecameavailablewhentheadministratoroftheannualPicturesoftheYearInternational(POYi)competitionestablishedacategoryforthe2016com‐petitionspecificallyforphotographsdepictingrefugees.Titled‘Impact2015–Exodus’,thecategoryspecificallyidentifiedphotographs‘depictingthedesperatemigrationofindividualsandfamiliesfromtheirnativehomesseekingsanctuaryfrom politicalorreligiouspersecution’(Shaw,2015).Thisstudyexploreshowinternationalphotographersvisuallyframedtherefugee

crisisthroughtheimagesthatweresubmittedtothespecialcategoryofPOYiduringthe year when the number of European asylum applications peaked (Eurostat,2017). Building on previous research into depictions of published images, thisexaminationof811imagesrepresentstheviewsidentifiedasrepresen‐tativeofthephotographers’bestworkatcommunicatingthescopeandpersonalimpactsofthemigration. In addition, as the photographers represented in the categorywereinternational in scope, their perspectives do not reflect an exclusively Westernperspectiveandshouldthereforeprovideforamorenuancedandholisticviewonthis topic. Considering that ‘human experience is never immediate, but ratheralways configured and organized by different forms of material and technicalmediation thatchange throughouthistory’ (Somaini,2016), scholarsunderstandmediaasorientingdevicesthathelppeoplemakesenseoftheirlivesandprocesscomplex and often conflicting information (Benjamin, 2008). Thus, this study –informedbyliteratureonframing,visualsymbolismandthepoliticsofbelonging–canhelpidentifywhetheraudiencesseethoseinvolvedwiththeEuropeanrefugeecrisisasidle,powerlessandparasiticorasactive,empoweredandsymbiotic.

Literature review

Framingcanbeaverybroadinquiryarea,andframesaresubjecttoinfluencebydifferent external factors, such as the personal views of a photographer or thepolitical orientation of an organization forwhich the photographerworks. Thisstudyproceedsfromvisualframingasafoundationandthenexplorestheareasofconflictandpeaceframes,visualsymbolsandthepoliticsofbelonging.

Framing

Framingreferstothewaypeopleorganizetheworldtheyexperienceandhowtheycommunicatethatworldtoothers.SociologistErvingGoffmanbuiltonthetermto

describehowpeopleorganizeanddefinetheirsubjectiveexperiencesofreality(1974).Framesaremental schemes throughwhichpeoplemakesenseof the issuesandeventstheyencounter(Gitlin,1980;Lyombe,1999;PanandKosicki,1993;Reese,2001).Similartometaphortheory(LowandCameron,1999), framinghighlightssomeaspectsofasituation,sceneorperson,makingthemmoresalientinthemes‐sage,whilehidingorminimizingothersinordertocommunicateadesiredinterpret‐ationtothosewhoreceivethemessage(Entman,1993;Goffman,1974;Schudson,2003).Thisprocessof identifyingandhighlightingspecificaspectsofan issueorevent is a routinepart ofnewswork (FrielandandMangbai, 1996;Gitlin, 1980;Lyombe, 1999; McQuail, 2010; Pan and Kosicki, 1993; Reese, 2001; Schudson,2003). Journalistsevaluatedifferent featuresofastoryagainstan institutionallydefinedlistofcharacteristicsthatmakeastory ‘newsworthy’andthenconfigurethestoryfromthatperspectiveinawaythatwillmeetperceivedexpectationsoftheaudience.Becausethereadersdonotinterpretnewsstoriesassocialconstruc‐tions but insteadgenerally accept themasdescriptionsof reality (Gamson et al.,1992),framesareeffective communicationdevices.Thesametendencytoacceptthecontentofthemessageappliestophotographs.

Peoplegenerallyacceptthemasbeingclosertotruththanotherformsofcommu‐nication because of the perceived mechanical recording ability of the camera(Adatto, 1993; Messaris and Abraham, 2001; Perlmutter, 1998; Sontag, 1977).Thus, photographs frame in a less obtrusive manner than text. However, moreattentionhasbeenfocusedonframingintextratherthaninphotographs(Coleman,2010).Visualframesarepowerfulbecausetheycarry‘excessmeaning’(RodriguezandDimitrova,2011:50).Thatis,theyactivaterelatedexperiencesandmemoriesmorestronglythandowordsalone,andthereactionstophotographsare longerlasting (Vaidya and Gabrieli, 2000). Photographs do require less cognitiveprocessing power thanwords to understand, and the content of photographs ismore readily familiar toviewers than the contentof text (Gefter,2006),makingphotographsmoreaccessibleandinfluentialtoanaudience.Whilethecameramaybeperceivedasaneutralrecordingdevice,itrestsinthe

handsofaphotographerwhomakessubjectivedecisionsaboutwhattoincludeintheimageframeandhowtoapplytoolsandtechniquestofocustheviewer’satten‐tiononthemostsalientfeatures(Newton,2013).Externalfactorsmaydeterminewhenandwhereaphotographercanmakeimages,butwithinthoserestrictions,thephotographermakeschoicesaboutthecontentandframingofthemessageitcon‐veys.Priorresearchindicatesthoughthatwhilepublishedimagesmayfocusonanarrow range of frames (Fahmy, 2007; Kim, 2003), photographers may have abroadervisionofthescopeofaninternationalstory(Greenwood,2012).

Conflict and peace frames

Thenatureofnews is largely to reportonout‐of‐the‐ordinaryevents.For inter‐nationalstories,thistypicallymeansepisodesofconflictordisaster(Graber,2001).Newsphotographs,especiallythoserecognizedasamongthebest,typicallyreflect

thispattern(GreenwoodandSmith,2007;KimandSmith,2005).Galtung(1986)proposedanalternativeperspectivetoreducethefocusonnegative,oversimplifiedreporting.This‘peace’orientationwouldrecognizethatnewsconsumersarecap‐ableofunderstandingcomplexstories(Galtung,1986).Peace journalism highlights similarities, minimizes differences and promotes

conflict resolution. In contrast,war journalism highlights differences,minimizessimilaritiesandurgesresolutionthroughviolence(Galtung,1969).SinceGaltung’spioneering work in the 1960s, many scholars have applied his war and peaceconceptstothestudyofframing.Anumberoftheseresearchershavealsoexaminedpeaceandwarframesinvisualmediaduringtimesofwarandconflict(FahmyandNeumann,2011;GreenwoodandJenkins,2015;NeumannandFahmy,2012;Parry,2010;Schwalbe,2006).Whereafocusoncivilianswithrespect toconflictcanbeevidenceofapeace‐orientedframe(incontrasttophotographsofmilitary),thewaytheciviliansaredepictedcanreflect theconflict rather thaneffortsofapositiveoutcome.PhotographsofrefugeesmigratingtoEurope toescapewarorreligiouspersecutionmay exhibitmore of awar framewithcivilians as victims enduringhardship than a peace frame where the refugees have estab‐ lished a positiveoutcomefor themselves.

Visual symbolism

Symbolswithinanimagecanbeamechanismforcommunicatingframes.Informalsemioticterms,symbolsareoneofthreetypesofsigns,alongsideindicesandicons(Aiello, 2006; Peirce, 1998).While indexical images and icons have somedirectconnectiontoorsimilaritywiththesubjectstheydepict,‘symbolicrelationsarenotreal representations’ (Jewitt and Oyama, 2001: 135). Symbols stand in forsomethingelse.Theirmeaningispurelyconventionalandmustbelearned,andthemeaningsdependontheviewerandhowtheirpersonalcharacteristicsandexperi‐ences shape the ‘reading’ of the visual. Themeaning potential of images can bemapped similarly to how sentence structure can be diagrammed in a linguisticcontext.Acountry’s100,000thor500,000thregisteredrefugeedoesnotinherentlyrep‐

resentmigrationortherefugeecrisis;however,heorsheisaconvenientsymbolthatjournalistsandgovernmentssometimesuse(Cheregi,2015)topromoteaware‐nessandbolstersupportforthecause.Blanketsare,perhaps,symbolsofcomfortandsecurity,but,whenitcomestothereflectivethermalblanketsbeingusedtoprotectrefugeescrossingtheMediterranean,theyalsosymbolicallyrepresentthemigrantsandtheirstruggleforsurvival.Artistshavecapitalizedonthisassociationbymakingpublicartdisplaysoutoftheseblanketsandimbuingfunctionalobjectswith ideologicalmeaning.Whether symbols stem frompeople,places,objectsoractions,theyareattractivebecauseoftheirutility,accessibilityandstayingpower.Images retain meaning through their position within a larger social system(Gamsonetal.,1992).Theproductionaswellasthe‘reading’ofimagesarebothactivetasksthatdrawoncontext,social locationandpriorexperience.

The politics of belonging

Apotentialresultofframingtherefugeesistocommunicateanassessmentoftheirbelongingwithinaparticulargrouporculture.Yuval‐Davis(2006)sug‐gests‘belonging’ as a concept should be studied from three analytical levels: sociallocations, identifications and emotional attachments and ethical and polit‐ icalvalues.Belonging insocial locations includesgender,race,class,nationality,age,ethnicityandprofessions.Someofthesequalitiesaresocialconstruc‐tionswhileothers are economic ones. These characteristics represent not only differentcategoriesofsociallocation,butalsodifferentpositioningonanaxisofpower.Assessingbelonging in termsof identification and emotional attachment con‐

siders the tension between being and becoming (Fortier, 2000). It is a strugglebetweenwhopeopleare,howtheybelongcurrently,whotheywanttobecomeandhowthosefactorsimpacttheiremotionalattachments.Theemotionalelementsofhowpeopleconstructtheiridentitiestakescentralstagewhentheyfeelthreatenedandlesssecure.Thisiswhypeoplearesometimeswillingtorisktheirlives–orthelivesorwellbeingofothers–topreservetheiridentitiesoremotionalattachments.Belonging also has performative qualities (Bell, 1999). Certainrepeti‐ tive andsociallyorculturallysignificantpractices,suchasthefivedailyprayersMuslimsperform,are fundamental to theconstructionand reproductionofone’s identityandemotionalattachment constructs.Finally, belonging encompasses not only social locations, identities and emo‐

tionalattachments,butalsohoweachofthesequalitiesarepoliticizedandjudgedbyothers.Socialgroupsare,bynature,exclusionary.Theyalmostalwaysrequiresome affiliation, characteristic or experience to join or feel kinship. Yuval‐Davis(2011)alsoarguesadistinctionexistsbetweenbelongingandthepoliticsofbelong‐ing.Theformerconceptconcernssociallocationsandidentities,sometimestiedtoaphysicalplaceorenvironment,whilethelatterinvolvesnotonlyboundariesbutalso inclusions and exclusions of people with certain traits, characteristics orexperienceswithintheseboundaries.Citizenshipisconceivedasareciprocalrela‐tionshipofrightsandresponsibilitiesbetweenindividualsandthestateinaliberalmodel.Inrepublicanmodels,thepoliticalcommunitymediatesbetweentheindi‐vidualandthestate,whileincommunitarianmodels,theroleofthestateisreducedorentirelyabsent.Otherformsofcitizenship,suchasculturalcitizenship(Rosaldo,1994),standasalternativestocitizenshipdefinedonlyintermsofindividualsandnations. Insuchacitizenshipmodel, communityactivism is themainsignifierofbelonging.Theissueofbelongingdoesnotstopwhencitizenshiphasbeengranted(Castles

and Davidson, 2000). Rather, such citizens are required to undergo formal orinformalculturalassimilationsotheycanbelong.Discriminationcanalsoaffectfullcitizens,sothepoliticsofbelongingismoreofanongoingnegotiationratherthanalineartrajectory.Theseissuesarecomplicatedbyglobalization,whichincreasestheheterogeneityofculturalvaluesandpracticeswhilealsolesseningtheefficacyofassimilation.

Research question and hypotheses

Consideringthatpastresearch(Erjavec,2003;Innes,2010;Moore,2013)identifiedrefugeesasprimarilyeitherthreatsorvictims,thequestionofagencyisessentialanddeservesfurtheranalysis.Thosewhoposethreats,whetherphysical,economicorcultural,areactiveandcanbeseeninvisualrepresentationsassuch.Thosewhoarevictimshavetheiragencystrippedfromthemandshownaspassivelywaitingormovingalongasystemthathasbeenpredetermined.Tothatend,thisstudyfirstexplores:

RQ1A:Whatthemesarepresentintheimagesofmassmigrationssubmittedtothe2016POYi‘Exodus’category?

RQ1B:Ofthethemespresentintheimagesofmassmigrationssubmittedtothe2016POYi ‘Exodus’ category,which depictmigrants as active andwhich depict them aspassive?

Recognizingthatpastresearchonmediarepresentationsofrefugeeshas,inisolatedexemplarsorinspecificcountries,foundthecoveragetobenegative,thisresearchattempts to uncover whether such valenced framing extends across geographicboundaries,culturalcontextsandamonglocationswithdiverseracialandreligiousgroups.Itpredicts,informedbypeaceandwarliteratureandthepoliticsofbelong‐ings, that:

H1:Theidentifiedphotographicthemeswillreflectaconflictframebyemphasizingthehardshipandchallengeof the journeyratherthananypositivereactionorwel‐comethemigrantsreceive.

H2:Theidentifiedphotographicthemeswillfocusoncharacteristicsthatemphasizethemigrants’lackofbelongingwithinalocation.

Method

ThePOYi(2019)competitionstylesitselfas‘theoldestandmostprestigiousphoto‐journalismprogramandcompetitionintheworld’.Thecompetitionoccursannu‐allyandoffersentrantsopportunitiesforinternationalexposure,prestigeandcashprizes.Throughitsarchiveofmorethan38,000photographshighlighting‘themostevocativeimageseverrecorded’(Shaw,2016),theorganizationalsosparkscom‐mentary and provides a rich pool of visual data for researchers to explore andanalyze.Photographsneednothavebeenpublishedprior toentry into thePOYicompetition.Theviewthepublicseesinnewsmediaisshapedbytheinitialselec‐tionbythephotographer,takingintoaccounttherequirementsofthepublic,andthenbytheeditor,makingfinaldeterminationonwhichimagesarepublishedandhowtheyarepresented(Newton,2013).Priortosubmission,entrantsarefreeto

select images theybelievebest represent theirworkand thatwill resonatewithjudges,whichmaynotmatchthoseselectedforpublication.Photographershaveanincentive to submit their best work since winning an international photojour‐nalism award can help a photographer receive a raise or promotion (Cookman,2009;Hagaman,1993).ThePOYiExoduscategorywaslimitedtosingle imagesthatcouldincludebut

werenotlimitedtomigrationsfromtheSyrian,AfghanorIraqirefugeecrisesacrosstheMediterraneanSeaintosoutheastEurope.Domesticandinternationalfreelanceandstaffphotojournalistssubmitted811imagestothecategory.Allphotographswere entered into the competition as digital files and copies of all enteredphotographswere obtained from the competition director for analysis. As thestudy focused on visual framing, only the visual content of the imageswasexamined.Captions,whileusefulforprovidingdetailandcontext,wereomitted.Tofacilitatetheexclusionoftextualinformation,thephotographswereeachprintedfourtoapageonletter‐sizedpaperandcuttoindividualimagesforexamination.The photographs were first sorted using an inductive approach (Glaser and

Strauss,1965)toidentifythethemes,groupsandpatternsthatemergedorganicallyamongtheimages.Thesethemesarerepresentedinanat‐a‐glanceviewinTable1.Next,usingadeductive,theory‐drivenapproach,theimagesweresortedaccordingtowhethertheydepictedthemigrantsasactiveorpassiveandthen,whethertheyillustratedapeaceorconflictorientationandwhethertheyhighlightedtherefugees’belongingorlackthereof.Thesharpdivisionsamongthematiccategoriesoriginatedinthecodingprocess

andarereflected in thefindings.Thisapproachmirrors thatof thePOYicontestitself,whichhad13categoriesinitsstillphotographydivisionin2016.Whilesomeentries,suchasFigures1and2,bothfeaturelifejacketsandcouldeachtechnicallyresideinthe‘lifevests’symbolicimagescodingcategory,becauseofelementslikescale,scope,repetition,andmovement,Figure1ismostappropriatelygroupedinthe‘watertransit’categorywhileFigure2pairsismostappropriatelygroupedinthe‘lifevests’category.

Findings

Thestudy’sfirstresearchquestionexploredwhatthemeswerepresentintheworkof the photojournalists who entered the POYi Exodus category. Six overarchingthemesand22subthemesorganicallyemergedfromthefirst, inductiveroundofcoding.Thefirstofthesethemes,transit,comprisedthelargestgroupofimages–280–andfocusedonpeopletraveling,whetherbyfoot,bike,car,bus,train,boatorship. The second most prevalent theme, interaction, contained 180 images thatdepicted interactions between people. Such interactions were generally eitherbetweenfamilymembers,authorityfigures,suchaspoliceormilitaryofficers,orwithaidworkers.Thethirdmostprevalenttheme,waiting,contained123photo‐graphs.Peopleintheseimageswerenotengagedinaspecificactivitybutinstead

Table 1. POYi Exodus photos by theme, organized by frequency and percent.

Theme Instances Percent of total

Transit 280 34.5

Foot transit 111 13.7

Water transit 104 12.8

Public transit 65 8

Interaction images 180 22.2

Parent–child interactions 91 11.2

Interactions with military/police 69 8.5

Interactions with foreign aid 20 2.5

Waiting 123 15.1

Waiting in generic locations 57 6.9

Waiting in temporary shelters/camping 38 4.6

Sleeping 28 3.5

Symbolic images 122 15.0

Fences/barriers/checkpoints 67 8.2

Heat blankets 27 3.3

Lifevests 22 2.7

Death 6 .07

Action images 56 6.9

Interacting with digital technology 16 2

Praying 14 1.7

Signs 9 1.1

Eating or foraging for food 7 0.9

Playing/recreation 5 0.6

Hygiene 4 0.5

Education 1 .01

Portraits 39 4.8

Mugshots 20 2.5

Environmental portraits 19 2.3

Other 11 1.4

Note: Percentages were rounded to the nearest tenth decimal place.

wereresting,eitherawakeorasleep,or simplybidingtheir timeattemporarycampsitesorinestablishedrefugeecamps.Thefourthmostdominanttheme,sym- bols, contained 122 photographs that prominently featured visualmarkers thattypified theexodus.Examples includedepictionsof lifevests,heatblankets, andbarbedwire.Thefifththeme,action,contained56photographsthatdepictedpeopleengaged in some activity, generally within a camp setting of some sort. Suchactivities includedpeopleusingdigital technology,engaging inprayer,

Figure 1. This photograph of a man swimming to shore reflects the ‘water transit’ category. Photograph by Santi Palacios. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

Figure 2. This photograph of life rafts, inner tubes and rubber boats on the shore reflects the ‘lifevests’ category. Photograph by Sandra Hoyn. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

participatinginpoliticaldemonstrations,eating,tendingtothedead,playing,deal‐ingwithadverseweather,attendingtopersonalhygieneorreceivingeducation.Thesixthandsmallesttheme,portrait,contained39images,abouthalfofwhichweremugshots.Eleven imagesdisplayed littlecommonalitywithanyothersandwereclassifiedas‘Other’.Examplesoftheseincludeamanexitingaclothingstore;youngpeopleinanurbansettingatnight;anabandonedbicycleframe;apersonwalkingonacitystreet;balloonsreleasedintothenightsky;peoplerummaginginrubbleandaclose‐up imageofapairofhandsholdingsomecoins.

Transit images

Transitwasthelargestthemecategory.The280photographsinitaccountforalittlemore thana third (34.5%)of the total numberof imagesentered in the contestcategory.Thesephotographsshowedpeopleonthemove,whetherbyfoot,wheelorwater.AstheExoduscategoryfocusedonmigrationandalargepartofthestoryin late 2015was the danger ofwater crossing, the dominance of this theme is,perhaps,notsurprising.Amongthetransitphotographs,themostcommonmodeoftravelwason foot, depicted in 111photographsof peoplewalking. Someof thephotographs focused on one or two people, but nearly two‐thirds (62.4%) con‐veyedthescaleofthemigration,showinglargegroupsofpeoplewalkingonroadsor train tracksoracrossfields.Watertransitwasthesecondmostcommonlyshowntypeoftransitimagewith

104occurrences.Again, theprevalenceof thesephotographswasnot surprisinggiventhefocusinnewscoverageontherisksassociatedwithcrossingfromTurkeyto Greece. The risk aspect was apparent inmany of these photographs as theydepictedsmall,oftenovercrowdedboatsthatsometimescapsizedattheshoreorjust short of it. These images also frequently showed people reaching for help.Severalphotographsalsodepictedmigrants’apparentreliefaftersafelyreachingtheshore.Whiletheselatterimagesdonotexplicitlyshowtheriskinvolvedwiththewatercrossing,suchriskisstillevidentinthemigrants’visiblereliefatasafearrival.Aformofpublictransportationforcarryinggroupsofmigrantswasapparentin

65ofthephotographs.Trainswerethemostdominantform,with54photographsshowing people on trains or at stations to board them. Bus transportationwasapparentinsixphotographs,withanotherthreeshowingpeoplelineduptoboardships.Onlytwophotographsfocusedonpeopletravelingbycar,furtherhighlight‐ingthelackofresourcesthemigrantscouldaccess.

Interaction images

Thesecondlargestcategoryofphotographsfocusedonsomeformofinteraction.These180imagesaccountedfornearlyaquarter(22.2%)oftheentries.Halfofthedepictedinteractionswerebetweenparentsandchildren.Ofthose91photographs,49focusedonmaleadultsandchildren,conveyingaculturalroleofmentoprotect

Figure 3. Half of the photographs showing interactions focused on parent/child relationships, such as this one of a mother and her two children. Photograph by Liam Maloney, Polaris Images. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

andcareforfamily.Femaleadultswerethefocusofinteractionswithchildrenin33photographs (Figure3),withamixofmenandwomen shown in the remainingimages.Thesecondmostprevalentformofinteractionwasbetweenmigrantsandmili‐

taryorpoliceofficials.Inmostofthese69images,themilitaryorpoliceofficialsaredepictedasabarrier to themigrants’movement.Thesephotographswereoftenmadefromasideangleorfrombehindtheofficialswheretheirsymbolsofauthor‐itywerevisiblealongsidethemigrants’reactions(Figure4).Theremaininginter‐actions within this group were between migrants and aid workers, includinginteractionsrelatedtomedicalhelpanddonatedfood,clothingortoys.

Waiting images

Asignificantamountof themigrants’timeappearedtohavebeenspentstoppedsomewhere,eithertorestorjustwaitingforthenextdevelopmentintheirmigra‐tion.These123photographs–15.1%ofthetotal–oftenshowedpeoplein largegroupswaitingforsomedevelopmentthatwoulddeterminewhetherorwhentheycouldmoveon.Somesortoftemporaryshelterorcampsitewasapparentin38ofthephotographs,butmoreoften,aspecifictypeoflocationwasnotapparent(57photographs).Themigrantscouldhavebeenonthemoveaspartofagroup

Figure 4. Photographs depicting interactions with police showed them as a barrier to travel with visible symbols of authority, reflected in this image made on the Macedonian border. Photograph by Robert Atanasovski. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

or simply in a section of an established migrant camp. Moments of rest wereapparent in thewaiting themeas28photographsspecifically focusedonpeoplesleeping.

Symbol-laden images

As noted in the literature review, symbolswithin an image can be a vehicle forframinganissue.Symbolshaveaspecificconnectiontoanitembutalsostandforanideaorconceptandwerethefocusof122photographs,accountingfor15%of‘Exodus’categorysubmissions.Themostcommonsymbolwasabarrier,commu‐nicated through 67 photographs featuring fences, barbed wire, barricades andcheckpoints meant to contain, restrict or limit access. The remaining symbolsrelatedcloselytothewatercrossingsmigrantsmadetoEurope.Reflectivethermalblanketswerethesecondmostcommonvisualmotif.Migrantsoftenwerewrappedin these heat blankets after a water arrival. The blankets were the focus in 27photographs, followed closely by another water‐related symbol in 22 imagesfocusedonlifevests.Manyoftheimagesshowedmigrantswearingthevests,butsomephotographsfeaturedpilesofvestsstrewnacrossbeachesorhillsidesnearwater.Thesmallestsub‐categoryinthismeta‐categorywas‘Death’,whichincludedsixphotos–fouroflifelessbodieslyingonbeachesandtwoofrefugees

tendingtheirdead.Altogether,thesymbolsusedinthesephotographsconveyrisksandimpedimentstothemigrants.Risksareshownintheneedforlifejacketsandblanketstomaintainlifeandhealth,whilethebarriersindicatethatarrivingontheEuropeancontinentisonlyonepartoftheprocessandthatfurtherhurdlesawaitthemigrantsbeforearrivingatapermanent location.

Action images

Incontrasttophotographsdepictingwaiting,migrantswerealsodepictedactivelyengaged in some form of activity in 56 photographs (6.9%). These images aredistinctfromtheactivityinvolvedintransitinthattheactivitytookplaceinastaticlocation. Themost common activitywas engagementwith some form of digitaltechnology,mostoftenusingorchargingacellphone,thoughtelevisionsandlaptopcomputers were included among these 16 photographs as well. People wereengaged in prayer in 14 photographs. Identification with religion is one of thecharacteristicsofthepoliticsofbelonging.Depictingthemigrantsactivelyengagedinreligiousactivityreinforcestheirculturalidentity,movingtheviewerbeyondageneric representationasamigrant.Otheractivitiesrelatedtobelongingorciti‐zenshipisparticipationinpoliticaldialogandeducation.Migrantsweredepictedinnine of the photographs using handmade signs or their bodies to communicatepolitical messages, while only a single image showedmigrants in an educationsetting.Furtheractivitiesinthiscategorywerefocusedoneverydayaspectsofhuman

existence.Migrantswereshownsearchingfororeatingfoodinsevenphotographs,participatinginsomesortofplayorrecreationinfivephotographsandattendingtopersonalhygiene in four images.

Portraits

Whilemostofthesubmittedphotographscommunicatedeithermigrants’collectiveactionsorconditions,asmallsubsetoftheimagesfocusedsolelyonindividuals.Inthese39images–4.8%ofthetotal–thephotographersfocusedonpeopleratherthanevents,contributingahumanisticperspectivetothecoverage. Inhalfoftheportraits,thesubjectisshownwithinthesurroundinglocation.Theseenvironmen‐talportraitsaddcontexttothesubject’sindividualsituation.Theremainingphoto‐graphsaremoreakintomugshots,whereonlythesubject’sheadandshoulderscanbeseen.ThedifferencebetweenthetwostylesishighlightedinFigures5and6.Thesubjectoftheportraitlooksdirectlyintothecamerain24ofthe39images.

The interaction with the photographer extends to interaction with the viewer,forcingtheviewertoencounterthesubjectasanindividualratherthanmaintainingdistanceasanobserver.Thesubjectsinteractwiththeviewerinboththeenviron‐mentalportraitsandthemugshot images.Thestudy’ssecondresearchquestionfocusedonthemigrants’agencybyassess‐

ingwhichofthethemesdepictedthemasactiveandwhichdepictedthemas

Figure 5. Some photographs focused on individuals in their surroundings, such as this envir- onmental portrait of an unidentified Syrian woman. Photograph by Hermann Bredehorst, Polaris Images. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

passive.Morethan600images(75.7%)depictedthemigrantsaspassivelyfollow‐ingmigrationpaths,dependingonforeignaid,orbeingstopped,detained,ordeniedentry in their attempts to reach better conditions. Theminority of 186 imagesdepictrefugeeswithagencyandshowsthemmakingtheirowndecisionsandcaringforthemselvesthrough,forexample,foragingorbathing.Thefirsthypothesissuggestedthattheidentifiedthemesamongthephotographs

wouldemphasizethehardshipandchallengesofthejourney,reflectingaconflictframe rather than a positive reaction or welcome offered to the migrants. Thephotographs in the study do not overtly depict armed conflict, though some docapturemomentsof confrontationbetweenmigrants andpolice ormilitary offi‐cials.Astheliteraturepointsout,however,thesituationsinwhichindividualsaredepicted can reflect conflict rather than resolution. Photographs of migrantsmoving intopermanent homes,working at jobsorparticipating in apermanentcommunityconveyapositive,peacefuloutcomewhilephotographsthatemphasizehardship, risk and confrontation reflect a conflict frame. Excluding the imagesclassifiedas‘other’,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthe800remainingimagescom‐municateaspectsofthephysicalactsofmigrationortheuncertaintyoftemporarylivingsituations.Noimagesdepictmigrantssettledintonewhomesorassimilatingintoanewcommunity.Agenerousinterpretationwouldconsiderthesubcategoryofmugshotsaspotentiallyrelatedtoapeaceframeastheimagesprovideno

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Figure 6. Some photographs focused on individuals in isolation of other context, such as this image of a man who was migrating to Norway. Photograph by Pete Kiehart. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

contextforlocation.Likewise,thephotographsofmigrantsinteractingwithdigitaltechnology,engagedinprayer,playingorparticipatingineducationwouldbemostcloselyrelatedtoapeaceframe,eventhoughthespecificlocationsshownmaynotreinforcetheidea.Thesecategoriesaccountforonly56ofthe811enteredphoto‐graphs.Achi‐squaretestforgoodnessoffitconfirmsthedifferenceindistributionissignificant(x2589.96,p< .0001),supportingthehypothesisthatthesecate‐goriesofphotographsreinforceaconflictframeregardingthemigration.Thesecondhypothesisstatedthattheidentifiedthemesamongthephotographs

would emphasize characteristics that communicated a lack of belonging for themigrants.Theliteraturesuggestsbelongingcanbereflectedinsocialandphysicallocations aswell as through culturally significant practices, such as prayer. Theliteraturealsoindicatesapoliticalelementtobelonging,communicatedthroughthepresence or lack of boundaries; inclusion with or separation from others orevidenceofassimilationintoasociety.Inasense,belongingcouldbeevidencedinthe photographs throughportrayals of security, autonomyor the ability to par‐ticipateinpubliclife.Fromthisperspective,agenerousinterpretationofthethemeswouldindicate

someofthemdoconveyasenseofbelonging.Thephotographsshowingmigrantsengaged inprayer, forexample, reinforcea cultural identitywhile the imagesofmigrantsinteractingwithdigitaltechnologyorengaginginpolitical

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communicationsuggestasenseofautonomyandparticipationinpublicdiscourse.Theabilitytotakeadvantageofpublic transportationoptionsalsocouldsuggestsomeautonomyonthepartofthemigrantstotakeadvantageofpublicservices.Othersubcategories,suchasfamilyinteraction,recreation,takingcareofpersonalhygiene and education, reinforce the interpretation of themigrants as having asenseofbelongingwithinacommunity.Giventhelackofcontextwithinthemug‐shotpictures,thesealsocouldreinforceasubject’scontroloverhisorheridentity.Despitetheseinfrequentportrayals,amajorityoftheimagessuggestsanabsenceofbelonging. Themes associated with belonging contained 225 photographs.Excludingtheimagesclassifiedas‘other’,575photographsremainthatreinforcethe transitory nature of the migrants, emphasizing movement, risk, barriers,dependenceonothersandtemporarylocations.Achi‐squaretestforgoodnessoffit confirms the difference in distribution is significant (x2 152.26, p < .0001),supportingthehypothesisthatthecategoriesofphotographsemphasizetheviewthatthemigrantsareintransit,havingleftoneplacewheretheybelongedandnotyethavingreachedanewone.

Discussion

Thisstudyexaminedthevisualframingofphotographsrelatedtorefugeemigra‐tionin2015thatwereenteredintoaspecialcategoryoftheannualPOYicompe‐tition and reflected their selection as exemplars of photographers’ bestwork incoveringtheissue.Studyingsuchimagesisworthwhilebecause‘Mediarepresen‐tationsareimbricatedwithpowerrelations; likemaps,theyuselanguage,visualimagery, andother symbols to represent theworld; and likemaps, theyhelp toorientustooursurroundings’(Durham,2015:177).Suchorientationisnotwith‐outconsequences,as itcan influenceperception,attitudesandbehavioronbothindividualandcollective levels (Durham,2015).Suchdepictionsmight influenceindividualinteractionswithmigrants,forexample,or,onamoremacrolevel,affectimmigrationlegislationandpolicy.Thisstudydrewonthe transnationalwritingsofYuval‐Davis (2006,2011) to

betterunderstandhowtheissuesofmobility,libertyandsafetywereconnectedtospace(Durham,2015)andhowmigrants’attemptsatnavigatingsuchissueswerevisuallyframed.Thephotosstudiedareeclecticintheircreatorsandcontentandyet,bydocumenting‘howpeoplemingleandregroupthemselves’theyrevealthe‘microculture’ of a group that allows ‘an understanding of social structure inmotion’(CollierandCollier,1986:93).Overall,thephotographsexaminedrevealasocialstructureofmarkedhierarchy

where themigrantsare largelydepictedasvulnerable, inneedof (Western)aid,unwelcome and unable to integrate into a new society or geopolitical space. Byemphasizing the migration’s scale and highlighting the migrants’ extraordinaryefforts to escape conditions in their home countries and achieve a safer, moresecure life, the photos illustrate more differences than similarities and visually‘other’thosedepicted.Anexampleofthisisthesmallnumberof‘everydayactivity’

picturesthatmightprovideahumanistic,comparativereading.Byfocusinginsteadonactivities–suchaslackofwork,constantmigration,andtheabsenceofsecurityand shelter – any similarities the migrants’ shared with the viewer are over‐shadowedbytheobviousdifferencesthephotographershighlighted.

Visual framing and the politics of belonging

Visualframingisalargeconcept,butitwasfocusedthroughspecificlenses,suchasthewritingofYuval‐Davisandtheconstructsofpeaceandwarframes.Belongingandthepoliticsofbelongingwillbediscussedfirst,followedbyadiscussionofpeaceandconflictframes.Becausethemigrantswereoverwhelminglyshownin transit,in temporary facilities or shelters, or prevented entirely from moving on, thephotographersdepictedtheminaliminalstate,negotiatingthetransitionbetweenbeingandbecoming(Fortier,2000).Inadditiontovisualcuesrelatedtophysicalbelonging,thephotosalsoallowareadingofsocioculturalbelongingthroughthemigrants’expressions.Theimagesshowarangeofemotions,fromelationatasafearrival on shore to fatigue and dismay at barriers that prevent their furtheradvancement.Overall,however,fewpositiveemotionsweredepicted.Asenseofresignationtothesituationismoreapparentamongthesubjectsasthemigrantsinthesephotographsdonotyethaveaplacetobelong.Thislackofbelongingisfurtherreinforcedthroughtheinclusionofaconsistent

setofsymbolsamongtheimages.Theinclusionoflifevestsandreflectivethermalblanketsemphasizesriskandaneedformechanismstopreservehealthandlife.Lackofsecurityreinforcesthelackofbelongingasdoestheinclusionofphysicalbarriers,oftenintheformoffencesbetweenthesubjectsandthecamera.Certainrepetitive, significant practices, such as cultural or identity‐based rituals andactions,cansustainanindividual’sidentity(Bell,1999),andwhileintheextrememinority,somephotographersdidcapturemomentsofthosepractices,themajor‐itydidnot.

Peace and conflict frames

Thefindingsareconsistentwithsomepriorresearchrelatedtopeaceandconflictframes. Focusing on civilians, for example, can be ameans to promote a peace‐orientedperspectiveonthe issue,butthe focusof these images isclearlyontheupheavalandhardshipexperiencedbythemigrantsratherthanontheirintegrationor interactionwithhostcultures.Eventhougharmedconflict isnotasignificantaspectoftheseimages,theimpactoftheconflictslieswithinthescaleofthemigra‐tionandthevulnerabilityof thosedepicted(Figure7).Missingamongthephotographsisgreaterattentiontothehumanisticapproach

identifiedbyCookman(2009)asanongoingcharacteristicofphotojournalism.Thephotographsinthestudydonotemphasizepositiveinteractionsbetweenmigrantsand host countries or peoplewhomay be trying to provide assistance to them.Thereareafewimagesofwhatappeartobemedicalclinicsandoneimagerelated

Figure 7. A Syrian child injured from a chemical attack, according to her father. This photo- graph is typical of those that highlighted migrants’ vulnerability and displacement. Photograph by Dimitar Dilkoff, AFP. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

toeducation.Othermedicalassistanceison‐the‐spot,similartoemergencymedicalcare that might be encountered anywhere. Otherwise, the migrants are largelydepictedasbeingontheirownto improvetheircondition.Photographerscanbelimitedbywhattheyhaveaccesstophotograph,soifaid

ordevelopmentwasnotoccurring,thiscouldbeafairrepresentationofthestory.However,thisisnotthecase.Bytheendof2015,morethan2millionindividualswerereceivingfoodassistance,889,873childrenhadbeenenrolledinprimaryorsecondaryschools, and2.65millionprimaryhealthcareconsultationshadbeen provided. Additionally, 57,259 people outside of camps received shelterassistanceorupgrades,1.07million received improvedaccess tosafewaterand15,150 individuals gained access to wage employment opportunities (UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees,2015).Thus,whilemillionswerereceiv‐ingfoodassistance,thephotographersshowedmigrantseatingorforagingforfoodin only seven images and though hundreds of thousands of children had beenenrolledinschools,thisdevelopmentwasreflectedinonlyasingleimage(Figure8).Suchframingdepictsthemigrantslargelyasparasitichobos,devastat‐ingthelandandbeingidle,ratherthantryingtobetterthemselvesandthelivesoftheirfamilies.Limitationsofthisstudyincludethattheimageswereself‐selectedbyphotog‐

raphersandthatcomprehensivedemographicdataabouttheentrantswas

Figure 8. Migrants practice the alphabet with the help of a volunteer at a temporary shelter. This was the sole image among the entries that depicted the migrants in an educational setting. Photograph by Kai Oliver Pfarrenback, Reuters. Provided by Pictures of the Year.

unavailableatthetimeofanalysis.Theimages,therefore,donotrepresentacom‐prehensive view of all photojournalism related to the migration into Europe,though,sincetheyareimagesthatphotographersand/oreditorshaveidentifiedas representing their best work, and from which a handful were selected forawards(communicatingtotherestofthephotojournalismcommunityastandardfor which to aim), they deserve scholarly attention and systematic ana‐ lysis.Demographic information about the individual photographers would haveallowedexplorationofhowaffiliationaffectscoverageand,forexample,whetherdifferencesinframingareapparentbetweenphotographerswhoregularlyworkintheaffectedregionandunderstandthepoliticalissuescomparedtophotographerswho may have been assigned to short‐term coverage by organiza‐ tions fromoutsidetheregion.Thisisacharacteristicthatcouldbeexploredwithfurtherstudy.Additionally, by focusing on a textual level (i.e., on the content that the pho‐

tographersproducedandenteredintothe2016POYicompetition),otherpotentialavenuesofexploration,suchastheunderlyingproductionfactorsorlargersocietalinfluences thatdetermined the framing,wereminimized in this study.However,nowthatthelandscapeofhownewsphotographerstendtoportrayrefugeeshasbeenrenderedmoreclearly,futurestudiescanaddresshowphotographers’newsroutines,organizationalforcesandideological influencesshapesuchcontentandthe impact ithasonaudiencereception.

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