C I M M Y TMRInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

Tailoring Conservation Agriculture to the Needs of Smallholder Farmers in

Developing Countries: An Analysis of Issues.

Patrick C. Wall

What is Conservation Agriculture?

Comprises two basic components Surface crop residue retention Minimal soil movement

What is Conservation Agriculture?

Plus other components essential to overcome problems that emerge once crop residues are retained:

• Crop rotation

• (Green manure cover crops)

Benefits of Conservation Agriculture

Increased water infiltration Reduced moisture evaporation Less water run-off and soil erosion Reduction in labor and energy use Less turn-around time between crops Reduction in production costs * Increases in soil organic matter * Increases in nutrient availability * Greater biological pest control *

* Slower, cumulative benefits

Problems with Conservation Agriculture

Mind-set. The paradigm of the plow!

Weeds

Nitrogen mineralization and fertilization

Not adapted to soils with poor drainage

Very dry areas?

Adoption of Conservation Agriculture

Worldwide – estimated 95 million hectares (Derpsch, 2005)

Mostly on large, mechanised farms

Over 90% in the Americas and Australia

Adoption of Conservation Agriculture on Small Farms

China?

Indo-Gangetic Plains. 2 million ha of wheat in the rice-wheat system.

Brazil – approx 100,000 ha

Ghana – 200,000 small farmers

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Some Characteristics of Small Farmers

Little access to financial capital Prioritize production of family food needs, with sale of

produce in excess of these requirements. Risk averse Manage mixed crop/livestock systems Limited land resources (although this is often not their

primary limiting factor) Rely on manual labor, animal traction and/or small

tractors for draught power, although they may contract service providers (with larger equipment) for some activities

Some Characteristics of Small Farmers (contd.)

Rely to a large degree on family members for hand labor.

Have close community linkages with weaker links outside the community.

Have less formal education than large-scale commercial farmers

Often are situated in marginal areas with respect to rainfall and topography

Often have precarious land tenure

An analysis of the patterns of adoption of zero tillage in six cases:

•Brazil

•Paraguay

•Bolivia

•Mexico

•Indo-Gangetic plains

•Ghana

Factors that Influence the Spread of Conservation Agriculture

Mind-set Knowledge Research and extension systems Access to inputs and equipment Competition for crop residues Labor requirements Crop productivity Political issues

Mind-set

Doing away with the culture of the plough

Peer and community pressure

Knowledge - Management of CA Technologies

Conservation Agriculture is more knowledge-intensive than input-intensive

Success depends more on what the farmer does than on the inputs s/he applies

Smallholder farmers have little access to knowledge systems outside the community

Often their source of new agricultural information is from sporadic contact with extension agents

Extension agents in developing countries are often poorly linked to knowledge and information systems

Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (1)

Research and Extension Systems in the developing countries generally follow a linear model of knowledge development and flow

Researchers conducting formal research in established institutions

Basic research

Strategic research

Applied research

ResearchersExtension agents

Farmers

Technology transfer

Adoption

Knowledge flow

Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (2)

Although the principles of CA appear to have very wide applicability, the techniques and technologies to apply the principles are very site specific

CA is a complex “technology” that involves changes in many aspects of the production system

Research and extension systems cannot develop “packages” for all conditions.

Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (3)

For Complex Technologies, Multi-Agent Innovation Systems are required.

Participation of stakeholders is essential.

InnovativeFarmers

Input Suppliers

Equipment Developers

Extension(Change) Agents

MachineryManu-

facturers

Researchers

InnovativeFarmers

Input Suppliers

Equipment Developers

Extension(Change) Agents

MachineryManu-

facturers

Researchers

InnovativeFarmers

Input Suppliers

Equipment Developers

Extension(Change) Agents

MachineryManu-

facturers

Researchers

Limited Access to Inputs

CA may require more investment in purchased inputs, especially in the first years

Smallholder farmers are willing to purchase and apply inputs if the risks are low - CA generally reduces the risk associated with crop production, especially due to drought

Due to low volumes of demand and production, coverage of input and output markets may be poor

Programs that help support and develop input and output markets are necessary

Access to Equipment

Adequate equipment, especially for direct seeding, is a prerequisite for successful application of CA

There is little private investment in the development of equipment for smallholder farmer

Access to Equipment (2)

Dissemination of available equipment

Participatory evaluation and modification

Stimulation (support) of local manufacture

Competition for Crop Residues

Competition is mainly for animal feed

Animals are generally very important components of the production system

Communal grazing rights often apply

Competition for Crop Residues (2)

But surface crop residue retention is essential for the success of CA

How much residue must be kept?

20 40 60 80

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Cover %

Relative Erosion %

Residue t/ha

Erenstein, 1997.Based on data of Shaxon et al., 1989, Tripp and Barreto, 1993, and Kok and Thien, 1994.

Based on Sain, 1997

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Competition for Crop Residues (3)

Based on Sain, 1997

M 1C

R 0

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R 1

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Competition for Crop Residues (3)

Based on Sain, 1997

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Competition for Crop Residues (3)

Competition for Crop Residues (4)

Leave part or all of the low quality forage on the land

Community awareness of the problems of land degradation

Possible solutions Concentrate inputs (progressively) on part of the farm

Intensify the production system to include better quality forage

Competition for Crop Residues (5)

Grain Yield (kg/ha)

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Data of K. Sayre from central Mexico

Labor use and labor productivity

The most important factor that has driven adoption on small farms

In many cases crop productivity per unit of labor is more important than per unit of land

Especially important where family size or health is declining

100 km/ha (Ethiopia, Bolivia) 140,000 hoe strokes/ha/yr (Malawi)

Crop Productivity

Under equal conditions CA may not give yield benefits

CA allows more timely seeding – often a critical factor in achieving high yields

Downside risk is generally lower with CA

Policy Aspects

Land tenure

Subsidies

Land stewardship payments and environmental services

Facilitating the spread of CA in E&S Africa