c3v1sav1.pdf

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Chapter One: Student Orientation AIRMAN

LEADERSHIP

DISTANCE

LEARNING

COURSE

COURSE FOUNDATION COURSE FOUNDATION

AIRMAN

LEADERSHIP

DISTANCE

LEARNING

COURSE

Thomas N. Barnes Center for

Enlisted Education

Maxwell-Gunter AFB, Alabama

Air University

"Learning how to learn is life's most important skill."

- Anonymous

Course 00003, Version 01, Edition 2

Chapter One: Student Orientation ................ 6

Managing Your Course ............................... 8 Shipping List .......... Error! Bookmark not

defined. Changes ..................................................... 8 Course Examinations................................. 8 Course Time Limit .................................... 9 AFRES and ANG ...................................... 9 College Credit ........................................... 9 Records ...................................................... 9 Mandatory/Voluntary Enrollees ................ 9 Course Organization and Content ............. 9 Course Breakout ........................................ 9 Learning Aids .......................................... 10 Formative Exercises ................................ 12 References ............................................... 12 Student Responsibilities .......................... 12

Course Completion Criteria ..................... 13 Elements of Force Development ............. 13 EPME Pillars ........................................... 14 PME Objectives....................................... 16 ALS Mission Statement .......................... 16

ALDLC Curriculum Graduate Attributes

..................................................................... 17 Expeditionary Airman ............................. 17 Professional Airman ................................ 18 Supervisor of Airmen .............................. 19 Supervisory Communicator ..................... 21

Chapter Two: Successful Learning ............. 24 Concepts of Successful Learning .............. 26

Time Management’s Role in Successful

Learning .................................................. 26 Keys to Successful Learning ................... 30 Levels of Learning .................................. 44 Teaching Methods ................................... 49 Air Force Institutional Competencies...... 56 Airman Leadership Distance Learning

Course Modules....................................... 61 Student Learning Outcomes, Objectives,

and Samples of Behavior ........................... 65 Student Learning Outcome ...................... 65 Objectives and Samples of Behavior....... 65 Activity Statements ................................. 67

IDDP Structured Thinking Process ......... 67 Using the IDDP Structured Thinking

Process ..................................................... 68 Leadership Profile Measure Assessment . 78

Chapter Three: Critical Thinking ............... 87 The Critical Thinker ................................. 89

Characteristics That Embody A Proficient

Critical Thinker ....................................... 90 Approaches for Evaluating Information . 93 System Thinking Approaches to Decision

Making .................................................... 93 Hindrances To Critical Thinking ............. 95

Basic Human Limitations ....................... 95 The Use of Language .............................. 96 Faulty Logic or Perception ...................... 98 Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls .. 99

Questions Critical Thinkers Ask ............ 102 Questions Using Elements of Thought . 102 Questions Focused on Intellectual

Standards ............................................... 103 Facione’s Scoring Rubic With Exercise 106

Facione’s Scoring Rubric ...................... 106 Chapter Four: Full Range Leadership

Development ................................................. 117 The Evolution of Leadership Theory..... 120

Trait Theory .......................................... 120 Skills Theory ......................................... 120 Situational Leadership Theory .............. 120 Contingency Theory .............................. 121

Motivational Theories ............................. 124 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

.............................................................. 127 McClelland’s Need Theory ................... 128 Contemporary Motivation ..................... 129 Supervisor’s Responsibilities for Rewards

.............................................................. 131 Full Range Leadership Model ................ 133

Passive Leadership ................................ 135 Transactional Leadership ...................... 136 Transformational Leadership ................ 137

Transactional vs. Transformational

Leadership................................................ 141 Leadership Profile Measure Self-

Assessment ............................................... 142 Chapter Five: Four Lenses ........................ 149

Introduction: The Four Lenses ............. 151 The Four Temperaments ........................ 152

Green ..................................................... 152 Blue ....................................................... 154 Gold ...................................................... 156 Orange ................................................... 157

Blind Spots ............................................... 160 Communicating Through the “Lenses” 163 Maturity ................................................... 169

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Real-life Guidelines and Strategies of

Colors ........................................................ 170

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Chapter One: Student Orientation

Inside this chapter:

- MANAGING YOUR COURSE

-- Shipping List

-- Changes

-- Course Examination

-- Course Time Limit

-- AFRES and ANG

-- College Credit

-- Records

-- Course Organization and Content

-- Course Breakout

-- Learning Aids

--- Definition Boxes

--- Reference Boxes

--- Self-Reflection Opportunities

--- Emphasis Box

--- Knowledge Checks

--- Scenarios

-- Formative Exercises

-- References

-- Student Responsibilities

-- Course Completion Criteria

- Elements of Force Development

-- EPME Pillars

-- PME Objectives

-- ALS Mission Statement

- ALDLC Curriculum Graduate

Attributes

-- Expeditionary Airman

-- Professional Airman

-- Supervisor of Airmen

-- Supervisory Communicator

If your commander told you that she was going to promote you today, would you be ready? Do you have all the knowledge you need to lead your subordinates in today’s expeditionary environment? If you answered “no” to either of these questions, don’t worry. You’re about to embark on a profound educational experience that will help you develop the skills you need to be an effective supervisor and leader.

“Learning is like rowing upstream: not to advance is to drop

back”

- Chinese Proverb

Henry Ford

Figure 1

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Figure 2

On behalf of the Thomas N. Barnes Center for

Enlisted Education, welcome to your first level

of enlisted Professional Military Education!

You have proven that you’re ready for

increased responsibility confirmed by your

leaders selecting you to complete this course.

You’re about to begin an intense and rigorous

journey. Not only will you be challenged to

complete the reading assignments and

activities, you’ll also be challenged to take

time to think about how this course relates to

you and your future subordinates. Knowing

what to expect and what’s expected of you will

be good starting points to being successful in

the Airman Leadership Distance Learning

Course (ALDLC).

This chapter begins with tools to help you

manage this course such as course time limits

and information about the course

examinations. You’ll also get a brief

orientation on the course organization so

you’re better prepared to navigate through

each volume. Then, you’ll move on to cover

your responsibilities as they relate to

completing this course. Upon completion of

this chapter, you should know the expectations

of completing the Airman Leadership Distance

Learning Course.

“Learning without thought is labor lost.”

- Confucius

Upon completion of this chapter learners

should be able to:

Activity Statement:

Read and become familiar with all aspects of

the ALDLC.

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Managing Your Course

Before you get started in this course, it’s vital that you understand some important items first.

The following information will help you manage your educational experience better.

If you’re taking the online version, all the volumes of this course are available to you at any

time. However, you must follow the predetermined order of the volumes! When you access this

course, the material available to you will be the most up to date material. There’s no need to

worry about making changes.

Changes

If you received “supplements” and “change pages,” insert them in the appropriate places before

beginning your studies.

Course Examinations

To receive credit for your course, you’ll be required to pass two course exams. The first exam

covers the Course Foundation, Professional Airmen and Expeditionary Airman volumes. After

you successfully complete the course exam for this set, you’ll start the second set, Supervisory

Communicator and Supervisor of Airmen, and then take your second course exam. You must

successfully pass both course exams before you receive credit for the entire course.

You have two tries to complete each examination, but you must pass the first examination before

taking the second examination. Please note that you MUST pass both course examinations

before your enrollment time in the course has expired. This applies to both mandatory and

voluntary enrollees. Here are a few test-taking tips to help you on the day of your course

examinations:

Don’t forget to schedule each exam with your Test Control Facility

Bring your ID card with you

Arrive early on the day you test

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Course Time Limit

You will be given 12 months to complete this course; however, you may request a 4-month

initial extension prior to your projected course expiration date. You must make this request

BEFORE the course expiration date.

AFR and ANG

You must pass both course examinations to receive retirement point credit. HQ Air Reserve

Personnel Center (ARPC) is notified of the point credit when you complete the entire volume. If

you have any questions on standards or credits awarded, contact ARPC.

College Credit

To determine whether credit can be awarded, have your “college of choice” review your Air

University transcript and consult the Guide to the Evaluation of Educational Experiences in the

Armed Services (http://militaryguides.acenet.edu/).

Records

You may request a transcript of courses you have completed from the Community College of the

Air Force (CCAF) Registrar’s Office.

Mandatory/Voluntary Enrollees

If you need assistance, contact your supervisor who will work with the military personnel flight

(MPFOJT section). If you’re a voluntary enrollee, contact your ESO.

For voluntary enrollees, contact your ESO.

Course Organization and Content

This course, where possible, mirrors the in-resident Airman Leadership School course.

Course Breakout

The Airman Leadership Distance Learning Course is divided into two sets, consisting of five

volumes total. See Table 1 for the Volumes for each set.

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SET A SET B

Volume 1 - Course Foundation Volume 1 - Supervisor of Airmen

Volume 2 – Expeditionary Airman Volume 2 - Supervisory Communicator

Volume 3 - Professional Airman

Table 1

As stated previously, you’ll take a course examination after the first set before you can move on

to the second set.

Learning Aids

Since this is a challenging course, the ALPT has incorporated learning aids in each chapter to

help you better understand the material. The learning aids consist of the following:

Definition Boxes (see figure 3)

Change sponsors are the people

responsible for initiating change within

an organization.

These boxes contain key terms and definitions. It is

important that you review these terms since they aren’t

defined in the content. You must have an understanding of

these terms in order to grasp the concepts and principles.

Figure 3, Sample Definition Box

Reference Boxes (see figure 4)

These boxes contain additional information from

core documents such as: AFI 36-2618, Enlisted

Force Structure, AF Core Values Booklet, and

AFDD1-1, Leadership and Force Development.

Other AFIs and regulations are also included that are

pertinent to the specific chapter material. They are

also used to compare/contrast. Reference boxes

located throughout the chapters and are a vital step

to understanding and valuing the chapter concepts

and principles.

Figure 4, Sample Reference Box

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Self-Reflection Opportunities (see figure 5)

These boxes will provide you with an opportunity to stop and think about how the chapter

material directly impacts you and your Airmen. When you see one of these boxes, take the time

to pause and take an honest look at yourself. The goal of this course is to help you become a

better Airman, supervisor, and leader. Reading the material and answering questions isn’t

enough. You must internalize the information.

Self-Reflection Opportunity: Have you ever had to implement a change you didn’t agree with?

How did you handle it? Did you support it with a positive attitude? If not, what would you do

differently?

Figure 5, Example of a self-reflection opportunity

Emphasis Box (see figure 6)

Emphasis boxes focus your attention on important

information located throughout the chapters. These

boxes contain additional information on the topic. They

serve to summarize information through bulleted lists or

highlight pertinent passages of supplemental information.

Consider the Following Tips

Don’t Depend on Messages Left

No More Telephone Tag

Figure 6, Sample Emphasis Box

Knowledge Checks

As you progress through the chapters, you’ll find knowledge checks along the way. Take these

opportunities to evaluate how well you understand the chapter material. They are located at the

end of each major section throughout the course. The answers for the knowledge checks are

located at the end of each chapter; however, in order to make this learning experience as

valuable as possible, try to answer the questions before looking up the answers!

Scenarios (see figure 7)

Scenario boxes may be used at the beginning of a chapter and serve as the attention/motivation.

Throughout the course, you’ll be presented with mini real-world scenarios to help you practice

making effective decisions based on the chapter content. In most cases, there will be a few

questions following the scenarios you’ll have to answer based on what you’ve learned. The

scenario box may also be used for key notes.

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Figure 7, Sample scenario box

Formative Exercises

As you progress through each chapter, you might ask yourself, “How can I possibly know what

the course examination is going to be like?” The formative exercise at the end of each chapter

can help you! They’re written in the same format as the course examinations and will allow you

to practice the critical thinking skills you’ll need to be successful on the course examination.

The only difference is the answers to the formative exercises are included at the end of each

chapter. In order to give yourself an accurate assessment of how well you know the material,

don’t check the answers in the back until you’ve read the chapter and completed all activities

associated with that chapter (including the formative exercises).

If you check the answers to the formative exercises and find that you’ve missed one or two, go

back to the reading and try to find the section associated with the question(s) that you missed.

Review it again and see if you can figure out the mistake you made.

References

At the end of each chapter, you’ll find a reference section. In most cases, this is a list of the

material the ALPT used in order to design the chapter. It also contains additional references that

may augment what you’ve already read. If you require additional information about the

concepts and principles covered in each chapter, you should be able to find these references at

your local library or the internet.

Student Responsibilities

You will have responsibilities while completing this course and your readiness to accept these

responsibilities will not only help you to be successful, but will also help you grow as a

supervisor and a leader.

Adhere to all enrollment guidelines

Establish a schedule to finish the course on time

TSgt Elm, the NCOIC of a maintenance workcenter, has identified a more

efficient maintenance procedure. After informing everyone of the new

procedure, he asked SSgt Pine to implement it throughout the shop.

All technicians, including SSgt Pine, have to train on and perform the new

procedure.

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Engage in the learning process complete all progress checks, reflective opportunities,

scenarios, case studies, and formative exercises.

Ensure you understand the lesson and course objectives.

Gain deeper understanding by discussing lesson concepts and principles with peers,

supervisors and others in your chain of command.

Adhere to the highest standards of academic integrity. Do NOT engaging in plagiarism,

cheating, misrepresentation, or any other act constituting a lack of academic or military

integrity. Violating this directive subjects you to adverse administrative and/or punitive

actions.

Stay attuned to current and future issues by familiarizing yourself with readings from

senior Air Force leaders that outline their goals, visions, and directions. This not only

helps you with this course, it also helps you fulfill your responsibilities according to AFI

36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure. Access reading materials at:

www.af.mil/information/viewpoints/

Secretary of the Air Force

Chief of Staff of the Air Force

Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force

Course Completion Criteria

You must achieve at least 70% on both course examinations to demonstrate an acceptable level

of mastery of course material.

Elements of Force Development

In May 2010, USAF Chief of Staff General Schwartz stated at the Senior Enlisted Leader

Summit:

“The bottom line is, deliberate development must occur from basic training through the

full term of rich and rewarding career experiences for the Airman, their families, and the

Air Force; and, it must be relevant from all perspectives—technological, operational,

and cultural.1

The NCOADLC curriculum supports deliberate development via the EPME pillars.

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EPME Pillars

Figure 8, EPME Pillars

The Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education is responsible for developing enlisted

education programs for the Airman Leadership School (ALS), Noncommissioned Officer

Academy (NCOA), Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy (SNCOA), and Chief Master

Sergeant Leadership Course (CLC). The following source documents, also called the EPME

pillars, contain standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors for Airmen as well as

desirable levels of expertise in different areas of the Profession of Arms (POA).

The Unitied States Air Force Core Values

The core values booklet explains the ethical and moral obligations of Air Force employees,

provides the foundation for professional character, and guides Airmen’s personal and

professional conduct. You can use the core values to evaluate your own behavior and actions of

those around you. There will be many opportunities during this course to cover the core values.

Available for viewing/download at: http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/

AFI 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure

This document details the responsibilities of all enlisted Airmen. It provides great insight into

both the standards and methods used to accomplish individual duties. The purpose of this pillar

is to ensure that all enlisted Airmen understand what the Air Force expects from them at each

rank.

Available for viewing/download at:

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/shared/media/epubs/AFI36-2618.pdf

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CJCS 1805.01A, Enlisted Professional Military Education

This document defines Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) objectives and policies

regarding the educational and training institutions that comprise the Enlisted Professional

Military Education (EPME) and Enlisted Joint Professional Military Education (EJPME)

programs. The Enlisted Professional Military Education Program (EPMEP) provides guidance

to military education and training institutions regarding Joint Learning Areas (JLAs) and Joint

Learning Objectives (JLOs) that should be included into EPME curricula in order to achieve the

goal of expanding “jointness” to all appropriate levels of the U.S. Armed Forces.

Available for viewing/download at: www.dtic.mil/cjcs_directives/cdata/unlimit/1805_01.pdf

The four EPME pillars form the foundation of the course; however, there are addition influences

on the curriculum:

Air Force Learning Council

Headquarters Air Force

Air Force Instructions

Chief of Staff of the Air Force

Chief master Sergeant of the Air Force

Air Force Learning Council

The Air Force Learning Council (AFLC) meets twice a year to discuss emerging leadership

issues and to decide which issues should be covered in EPME.

Headquarters Air Force

At times, headquarters will insert a priority leadership issues into PME. Two recent examples

are resiliency and sexual assault prevention and response.

Air Force Instructions

Various AFIs direct EPME to cover specific subjects. Current topics include the Alcohol

Prevention Program, Suicide and Violence Prevention, Sexual Assault Prevention and Response

Program, OPSEC, and Military Equal Opportunity for Military and Civilian.

Now that you have a basic understanding for what drives the curriculum, it’s time to look at the

PME objectives.

http://www.dtic.mil/cjcs_directives/cdata/unlimit/1805_01.pdf

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PME Objectives

The PME objectives identify the specific skills that will be developed at all officer and enlisted

PME schools. According to AFI 36-2301, Developmental Education, Professional military

education (PME) is that portion of military education that:

Provides the nation with personnel skilled in the employment of air, space, and

cyberspace power in the conduct of war and small-scale contingencies (peacekeeping,

humanitarian assistance, crisis response, and so forth).

Provides Air Force personnel with the skills and knowledge to make strategic decisions

in progressively more demanding leadership positions within the national security

environment.

Develops strategic thinkers, planners, and warfighters.

Strengthens the ability and skill of Air Force personnel to lead, manage, and supervise.

These objectives promote the development of officer and enlisted leaders who are proficient in

their jobs; who understand air, space, and cyberspace power and Air Force doctrine; and who

can apply critical thinking skills to solve complex problems.

ALS Mission Statement

“Prepare Senior Airmen to be professional, war fighting Airmen who can supervise and

lead Air Force work teams to support the employment of air, space, and cyberspace

power.”

In support of this mission, the ALS curriculum, in-resident and distance learning, is developed to

address challenges NCOs face as expeditionary Airmen and to present knowledge that helps

NCOs perform as effectively as possible as a leader at the tactical level.

Now, it is time to explore the graduate attributes.

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ALDLC Curriculum Graduate Attributes

Expeditionary Airman

The objective of the Expeditionary Airman attribute is to develop Expeditionary Airmen and

combat leaders who:

are highly skilled technicians and critical

thinkers who understand and are committed to

the profession of arms.

are trained, organized, and motivated to lead

and accomplish mission objectives and are

ready to answer our Nation’s call, whenever,

wherever.

understand military strategies, joint military

structures, military missions, and doctrines.

are warriors with expeditionary mindsets

prepared to deploy and employ by attaining the skills necessary to survive, fight, and lead

in dynamic situations across the spectrum of conflict.

embody the warrior ethos, understand the global environment, and are ready to support a

combatant commander.

drive performance through sharing visions, adhering to core values, and promoting

teamwork.

take war fighting to the highest possible level of success in support of our national

security objectives.

The Expeditionary Airman volume contains the following chapters:

1. Introduction to Culture—The Air Force discovered that although the enlisted force

always gets the job done, NCOs find it very challenging and frustrating when it involves

cross-cultural situations. This chapter begins with cross-cultural competence and the Air

Force’s 3C model. It then covers culture and behavior, beliefs, and values. From there

the chapter covers building a cultural perspective and wraps-up with cross cultural

communication.

2. Joint Organization—As a leader, you need to understand the joint environment and be

able to explain how it is organized to accomplish missions. This chapter focuses on the

roles, relationships, functions, and areas of responsibility of the national military

command structure. It also examines how combatant commands are organized, the roles

and functions of sister services, and the fundamentals of Joint Task Force organizations.

Figure 9

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3. Joint Warfighter—As an expeditionary Airman, you are deploying more and more and

engaging in a host of conflicts and contingencies worldwide. In this chapter, you will

learn about military theory and shift to the principles of war. It examines doctrine and

how air, space, and cyberspace are used to meet National Security objectives. Finally, it

addresses the many strategies employed by the United States and concludes with a look

at the range of military operations (ROMO) to include those related to non-conflict crisis

response.

4. Nuclear Enterprise—Airmen play an extremely important part in today’s nuclear

enterprise. The purpose of this chapter is to expand your knowledge, awareness,

understanding, and appreciation of the nuclear enterprise and its role in U.S. national

security strategy. It also stresses the importance of personal responsibility,

accountability, compliance, and discipline regardless of rank when engaged or indirectly

supporting the U.S. nuclear weapons program.

Professional Airman

The objective of the Professional Airman Graduate Attribute is

to develop Military Professionals who:

inspire trust by epitomizing character, discipline,

integrity, courage, and selflessness.

are fit, ready, and able to perform and lead under

pressure to accomplish the mission.

are critical-thinking warriors who understand the high

expectations, commitment, and heritage required with

membership in the profession of arms.

continue to refine their understanding of leadership

principles and military standards and uphold traditional

customs and courtesies.

lead courageously as they mold themselves and develop subordinates to carry on the

distinct culture of the USAF and model USAF Core Values that bond Airmen together.

The Professional Airman volume contains the following chapters:

1. Airmanship—it requires a unique and courageous mentality and spirit to accept and fulfill

all the responsibilities associated with membership into this demanding profession. This

chapter focuses on the American Airman, aspects of the Air Force culture, and Warrior

Ethos, and you will examine the “Airman Nation Oration” to see how you and your

subordinates contribute to the global military mission.

Figure 10

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2. Customs and Courtesies—The Customs and Courtesies chapter focuses on the military

professional. The overall objective of this lesson is to strengthen the student’s

commitment to the profession of arms through a better understanding of and appreciation

for Air Force Customs and Courtesies. Students discuss the value of the Airman’s Creed,

the AF Symbol, AF Customs and Courtesies, and dress and appearance.

3. Ethical Leadership—The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand why ethical

leadership is important for all military professionals, and how ethics can influence the

military professional. You will examine the issue of ethics and the military professional.

4. Emergent Leadership Issues—This chapter contains Air Force high interest items and

covers many of the NCO responsibilities as prescribed in AFI 36-2618. Topics covered

include the Wingman Concept/Philosophy including the four dimensions of wellness,

substance abuse intervention, stress management, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),

equal opportunity/human relations, sexual assault response and prevention, workplace

violence intervention and prevention, and suicide awareness and prevention.

Supervisor of Airmen

The objective of the Supervisor of Airmen attribute is to develop supervisors of Airmen who:

are professionals who understand and effectively apply leadership and management

concepts to train and develop their people.

manage human resources by

providing ethical guidance and

assisting to resolve personal and

professional issues.

adhere to the United States Air

Force Core Values and apply an

understanding of human behavior

to mold their people into a

cohesive team capable of meeting

any challenge.

oversee various programs,

ensuring their sections or

workcenters can adapt to an ever-changing global environment.

possess strong interpersonal skills to lead their people, manage change, promote

transformation, and execute directions.

are committed to the profession of arms, inspire a willingness to do what’s right, and

manage processes that will ensure the Air Force remains the world’s premier air, space,

and cyberspace force.

Figure 11

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The Supervisor of Airmen volume contains the following chapters:

1. Standards & Discipline—As a supervisor, you must ensure that not only the job is being

accomplished, but that the people are adhering to specific guidance governing

performance and behavior. This chapter defines how creating standards and maintaining

discipline impact workcenter performance.

2. Perfomance Evaluation—Evaluating performance is an integral part of being a

supervisor. This chapter is designed to teach you the logical process of effective

performance evaluations. The goal here is for you to understand how big of an impact

you’ll have on your subordinates when it comes to their development.

3. Team Leader— This chapter examines the difference between a team and a group, team

mission and vision including a mission statement writing exercise. You will learn team

roles and responsibilities, team dynamics, and the stages of team development.

4. Diversity—The intent of this chapter is to expand your existing knowledge of diversity

and consider other less-obvious elements that contribute to overall organizational

performance. You’ll learn to identify how similarities and differences help define you as

an individual and you as a valuable member of the Air Force team. Then you’ll learn

about the six Socio-Behavioral Tendencies (SBTs) and the FAIR way strategy

(Feedback, Assistance, Inclusion, and Respect).

5. Leader Influence—The chapter helps students understand their influence as leaders.

Directly or indirectly, you have some influence on Airmen in your unit or organization.

In this chapter, you will learn about the leaders skills of diagnose, adapt, and

communicate (DAC). You will explore the traits and guidelines of effective leadership

and followership and the two types of power leaders possess, position and personal, and

its connection to influence. You will come to understand that followers also have power

as well and can influence their leaders. From here, the chapter shifts to Developing

Others, focusing on deliberate development.

6. Introduction to Negotiating—Whether for personal reasons or organizational goals, you

negotiate all the time. Granted, some are better at it than others. There is no denying it;

negotiating is a part of everyday life. This chapter covers key terms associated with

negotiating, examines the fundamentals of the negotiation environment and negotiation

preferences and styles chart.

7. Resource Stewardship—What can you do to assist your leadership make sure the people,

materials, and funds are available to keep the Air Force mission moving forward? In this

chapter, you will learn the definition of Resource Stewardship and then examine some of

the key elements of the Air Force financial management program. This chapter may be

your first introduction to organizational budget activities. Topics concentrate on the

budget process, budget cycle, Budget Execution Review (BER), the Financial Execution

Plan (FEP), and the Anti-Deficiency Act (ADA). The importance the NCO has on

effective Resource Stewardship is emphasized throughout the discussion. This chapter

also covers the four competencies associated with manpower.

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8. Continuous Improvement—The purpose of this chapter is to expand your existing

knowledge of continuous improvement concepts and to embrace the AFSO21 mindset

for continuous process improvement. You will learn about the intent of AFSO21 and

continuous improvement in the workcenter. This is followed by the responsibilities,

roles, stages, cycles and phases of the change management process.

Supervisory Communicator

The objective of the Supervisory Communicator is to develop supervisory communicators who:

develop and display effective written, spoken, and interpersonal communication skills

that influence and direct people in order to facilitate mission accomplishment.

are committed to the profession of arms and understand the critical role communication

plays in accomplishing the

assigned mission.

continuously seek opportunities to

improve their communication

skills.

draw upon their communication

knowledge and experience and

focus it downward to their

personnel.

communicators support and explain

policies, decisions, and direction,

and motivate and inspire others to

achieve common goals.

encourage a free flow of information up, down, across, and within an organization and

provide counseling and feedback to improve individual and organizational effectiveness

and efficiency.

have a professional obligation to the persons they lead and follow to convey a tone of

confidence and optimism.

are also strategic communicators.

The Supervisory Communicator volume contains the following chapters:

1. Communicator Skills—As an NCO, you must have excellent communication skills in

order to successfully accomplish your unit’s mission. During this chapter, you will learn

the communication process, the proper flow of communication, barriers to

communication, and the phase of effective communication.

Figure 12

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2. Culture of Engagement—You must remember that you have a responsibility to be a

worldwide ambassador for the Air Force and particularly the American public by actively

engaging in communication. During this chapter, you will come to understand culture of

engagement and its impact. You will learn what strategic communication is and what

your role is in it. This chapter also covers media engagement and the new media.

3. Supervisory Writing—During this chapter, you will learn the use, types, and

characteristics of bullet statements. You will also learn how to write accomplishment-

impact bullet statements. You will learn the types of narrative writing and various

formats you may use.

4. Interpersonal Communication—In this chapter, you will begin by defining the concept of

interpersonal communication. With that definition in mind, you will learn how to

develop interpersonal skills and explore how to apply them when they counsel their

subordinates. This chapter also covers feedback, counseling, and the various types of

counseling sessions.

This chapter covered information about how to manage the course and the expectations of you as

a student.

As you can see, you have a long road ahead of you. If you feel overwhelmed right now, don’t

panic. The course is designed to present you this information in a logical manner, and your

supervisors are here to guide you through the entire process. Although you’ll be evaluated on

your comprehension of the material, keep in mind that your willingness to engage in this

learning process will help you retain and apply everything presented during the course.

23

Chapter Two: Successful Learning

Summarize and Reflect

You covered a great deal of information in this chapter. You learned how to manage your

course, the elements of force development, and the ALDLC curriculum graduate attributes.

This course will give you the foundation to reach beyond your current capability in order to

better serve this nation, the Air Force, and those who serve with you. Understanding the

“why” of the material in this course will help you reach a deeper understanding of the material

and, hopefully, an appreciation of it.

As a professional Airman, you play key roles in taking the fight to the enemy. This course is

an important piece of the puzzle in your professional development. It will be intense. Stay

focused so you can broaden your arsenal of leadership tools as you continue to face new

challenges. Fly—Fight—Win! The Air Force expects nothing less of you

Key Terms

ALS mission statement, 15

EPME pillars, 13

Graduate Attributes, 16

PME objectives, 15

24




- CONCEPTS OF SUCCESSFUL

LEARNING

-- Time Management’s Role in

Successful Learning

-- Keys to Successful Learning

-- Learning Strategies

-- Levels of Learning

-- Teaching Methods

-- Air Force Institutional

Competencies

-- ALDLC Modules

- STUDENT LEARNING

OUTCOMES, OBJECTIVES, AND

SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR

-- Student Learning Outcome

-- Objectives and Samples of

Behavior

- IDDP STRUCTURED THINKING

PROCESS

- LEADERSHIP PROFILE

MEASURE ASSESSMENT

It's a month before your end of course

examination, and you feel awful. You're tense

and worried. While wondering if you will pass

the test, you start to sweat. Of course, since

you don't know how to prepare, you are

concerned, and with good reason. You've

barely touched your course materials since

they arrived five months ago.

What can you do? How can you make the most

of the time you have left and successfully

complete the course?

“Learning is not attained by chance. It must be sought for with

ardor and attended to with diligence.”

- Abigail Adams (1744-1818), First Lady of the United States

Figure 1

25


Why should you want to improve your mental

ability to learn or remember? Why should you

try to learn something you think you will never

use again? Why? Because no one has a crystal

ball to see what future challenges may arise or a

magic wand to use when faced with those

challenges. If you want to be successful when

facing unknown challenges, you must be able to

understand and apply facts, concepts, and ideas

that increase your effectiveness in this course.

One of ALDLC’s most important

responsibilities is to deliver course material in a

manner that facilitates learning. One of your

most important responsibilities is to learn all

you can in order to become an effective leader.

While attending an Enlisted Professional

Military Education (EPME) course, your

success depends on the effort you put forth.

Therefore, what follows is information designed

to help you have a positive and rewarding

learning experience.

This Successful Learning chapter explains the

educational process used to achieve desired

levels of learning. Begin by reading about

Concepts of Successful Learning. Take the

Adult Learning Style Profile to see what type of

learner you are. Then read about the learning

outcomes, objectives, samples of behavior, and

test questions. You will be introduced to the

EPME structured thinking process called IDDP,

which stands for Identify, Differentiate,

Determine, and Predict. You will then cover

the institutional competencies the Air Force

uses to develop EPME lesson plans. Finally,

you will be given instructions for future online

assignments.

Upon completion of this chapter learners should

be able to:

Terminal Cognitive Objective:

Comprehend Successful Learning.

Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior:

1. Define Successful Learning.

2. Explain Successful Learning and/or its

impact on student effectiveness.

3. Give examples of Successful Learning

and/or its impact on student effectiveness.

4. Predict the impact of Successful Learning

on student effectiveness.

Enabling Samples of Behavior:

Explain:

a. One’s own Adult Learning Style

b. Time Management’s Role in

Successful Learning

c. Keys to Successful Learning

d. Level of Learning

e. Objectives and Samples of

Behavior

f. Teaching Methods

g. IDDP structured thinking process

Affective Objective: Value Successful Learning.

Affective Samples of Behavior:

1. Read about Successful Learning

concepts with an open mind and

remember new information

(receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress

checks, adult learning profile, IDDP

exercises, and self-reflection), and

question concepts, models, etc. in

order to fully understand them

(responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use of

Successful Learning concepts

positively impacts individual, unit,

and mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for

using Successful Learning concepts to

enhance individual, unit, and mission

effectiveness (value).

5. Commit to using Successful Learning

concepts to enhance individual, unit,

and mission effectiveness (value).

26


STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME: Students who complete the Successful Learning

chapter are better prepared to accomplish all cognitive assignments during their Airman

Leadership Distance Learning Course as evidenced by their comprehending the concepts of

Successful Learning.

Concepts of Successful Learning

Time Management’s Role in Successful Learning

In this topic, you will see how time management impacts the

learning process. As a student, your focus should be on

understanding the demands of time during this course and your

ability to apply proper time management techniques in an academic

environment. Most students find the course emotionally and

mentally rigorous, quickly discovering that time is their most

precious resource. The pace is very demanding due to the myriad of

exercises and required reading. Students can experience moderate

to severe stress throughout the course and they say that it takes good

time management to cope with the stress.

Use Your Time Wisely

As the saying goes, “those who fail to plan, plan to fail”’ so in order to be successful at learning

you need to prepare to manage your time. Keys to successfully managing your time include:

Scheduling

Probably the first and foremost prerequisite to successful learning is your ability to manage your

time properly. One of the great things about distance learning is the fact that you can study when

it is convenient for you.

However, this freedom also means that you’ll have to be adept at managing your time if you

want to successfully complete your course work. One way you can use your time wisely and

promote successful learning is by setting and scheduling goals for yourself.

To do this, you’ll need to familiarize yourself with everything that is expected of you to

complete the course and come up with a realistic amount of time necessary to complete each

task. Then you can create a schedule of goals, breaking them down into weekly or daily tasks as

necessary.

Figure 2

27


Figure 3

Self Discipline

To complete a course successfully, you’ll need to draw upon your power of self discipline. The

independence you have with distance learning means that you’ll not have face-to-face meetings

with an instructor or fellow classmates and therefore no constant reminders of assignments or

deadlines. This means that you’ll need to have the self discipline to complete required course

readings, exercises, and examinations.

“In reading the lives of great men, I found that the first victory they won was over

themselves...self-discipline with all of them came first.”

- Harry S Truman

Dealing with Distractions

In the same realm as self discipline is the ability to deal with distractions. You’ll probably be

doing most of the work at your home computer, which is a wonderful convenience. However,

your home can also be a source of distraction. Whether it be your children, spouse, household

projects and chores, or the television, make sure that when you are working on the task at hand

you are focused on that and nothing else.

“By prevailing over all obstacles and distractions, one may unfailingly arrive at his

chosen goal or destination.”

- Christopher Columbus

28


Overcoming Procrastination

Procrastination results from any number of

attitudes or situations. It may be a symptom of

fear and confusion, or it could be caused by lack

of proper analysis, planning, prioritizing, and

control of the situation. Some procrastinate when

they are fatigued, depressed, or uncertain of their

capabilities. If you tend to procrastinate, you

must modify your behavior, or you will never be

successful! Successful learning won't happen if

you keep putting things off. If you delay things

for fear of failure, you have to consider that

your achievements will be delayed as well.

“The secret of getting ahead is getting started. The secret of getting started is breaking

your complex overwhelming tasks into small manageable tasks, and then starting on the

first one."

- Mark Twain

You also have to deal with any anxiety that may be causing your procrastination. Try to

determine the source of your anxiety. If it stems from a lack of preparation on your part, your

anxiety is considered a rational response. However, if you believe that you are prepared for the

lesson and exercises, but are still panicking, this may be an irrational response.

Regardless of source, it can be very helpful to know the many ways to address procrastination.

Some are easy to do, while others require intense concentration and commitment. If you suffer

from this problem, you’ve got to settle it now.

Figure 4

29


Benefits of Time Management

Some of the advantages of time management include reduced anxiety, gained time, reduced

avoidance, improved opportunities for reviews and eliminated cramming. Managing time also

helps you to stay motivated while avoiding procrastination. The secret to successful time

management is acknowledging, setting up,

and prioritizing goals that work – by doing

so, you’ll find that you can get a measure

of control over your life. Even if you are

an extremely organized person, it is

inevitable for some unscheduled events to

pop up. Once you start practicing proper

time management skills, you’ll know how

to better prioritize and plan your day so

that even these unexpected issues get dealt

with.

When you don't know how to manage your

time properly, your tasks seldom get done.

When you utilize proper time management

skills, you learn how to write down all

your tasks at hand, attach time lines to

each, and stay within these time lines.

This enables you to always be finishing at least some projects, instead of drowning in an ever-

growing sea of unfinished ones.

There are certain tasks that need to be completed in order to achieve goals. If you want to be

able to get to any of those tasks done, you must effectively manage your time. Reaching your

goals and time management are closely connected, so if you master time management then

you’ll be able to master goal attainment. Time management benefits are powerful and extend

beyond successful learning, reaching far into various parts of your life. Now that you know the

potential to affect your life, you can start working on developing some effective time

management techniques, and building the life you've always wanted.

Figure 5

30


Keys to Successful Learning

Though the academic world has many definitions of

learning, EPME defines learning as the process that changes

the way people think, feel, or behave.

You know learning has occurred when students miss

questions on pretests but correctly answer similar questions

on final exams.

So, you know when learning occurs, but how does it happen?

The answer depends on what type of learner you are. You

receive information through sensory channels or pathways

called learning modalities. The modalities, or senses,

described below include visual, auditory, and

tactile/kinesthetic.

Elements of the EPME Learning Process

Chapters of the NCOADLC comprise of reading assignments intended to prepare you to

understand the questions and formulate answers. The following study tips will prepare you as

you proceed through the chapters.

Take Notes

Given the amount of material covered, and the fact that no one can memorize several hundred

complex leadership, management, and communication concepts, it is paramount that you

develop a solid method for taking notes as you read through the chapters. A good, solid method

for taking notes follows:

Be prepared to take notes.

Look at the overview/outline and include main ideas and enough supporting details to

make the main idea clear.

Watch for transitions to signal new main points—identify topic sentences

Identify points in introduction and conclusion

Write bulleted lists and/or steps

Highlight keywords

Make an outline of significant points

Figure 6

31


Study

Keep in mind that effective reading and note taking are keys, but to learn effectively, you will

have to study your reading assignments and notes. Your reading assignments are designed to

give you knowledge-level background material on the course subjects. The reading assignment

is a building block. The progress checks, self-reflection opportunities, scenarios, and case study

analysis will expand above and beyond the reading assignment. Completion of all reading

assignments is a must! Failure to complete them will limit your knowledge base and could

prove detrimental to satisfactory performance on evaluations.

Listed below are some proven study tips:

Be systematic in your studying.

o Check your notes for accuracy. (You cannot study bad notes and expect to do well.)

o Build a realistic study schedule and stick to it.

Use your time wisely.

o Take study breaks. (Two 30- to 45-minute study sessions are more productive than

a marathon study session.)

o Instead of memorizing, seek to understand.

o Briefly review material from previous chapter to reinforce what you already know.

Concentrate on studying, and eliminate distractions.

Use the case study while studying. Look for how the lesson principles you have just

learned are used in the case study. Read the case study again after each chapter for the

same study exercise. This will reinforce the principles learned; familiarize you with the

case study’s content.

The bottom line on studying: Have a system, and stick to it; make studying a habit.

Practice

Practice, practice, and more practice will be your recipe for success. Practice reinforces

knowledge, helps measure learning outcomes, and builds self-confidence, so be sure to take

advantage of and accomplish all exercises presented throughout this course of instruction.

Practice will also prove to be important as you work on improving your managerial interpersonal

skills. Through application, you will learn to identify counseling skills. You will learn to adapt

your mentoring skills as you practice applying mentoring techniques in different situations.

Practice will also prove to be important as you work on improving your managerial interpersonal

skills. Through application, you will learn to identify counseling skills. You will learn to adapt

your mentoring skills as you practice applying mentoring techniques in different situations.

Practice will also benefit you in improving your application of profession of arms skills.

32


Formative Exercise

The formative exercise is part of the learning process and is not part of the evaluation process.

The formative exercise is designed to provide feedback to you on your strengths and

weaknesses. It is given under the exact conditions as the summative evaluation and provides an

opportunity to prepare for the summative evaluation. Thus, formative exercises are

considered exercises in learning, and passing them is NOT a requirement for graduation;

however, you should prepare for formative exercises the same way you prepare for summative

evaluations, i.e., give them the same weight or seriousness when studying, reviewing, etc. That

way, the formative exercises will serve their purpose, which is to give you a clear indication of

where you stand for the summative evaluations. The summative evaluations determine whether

you possess the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform as a military professional in

the US Air Force. They will be the measuring stick to determine whether you have met the

learning objectives of the ALDLC.

Test Taking (Summative Evaluation)

The summative evaluation is the measuring stick to determine whether you have met the

learning objectives of the ALDLC curriculum. All test questions come from the learning

objectives and samples of behavior which you will learn about later in this reading. The scores

you receive on your summative evaluations are FINAL. The effective preparation you do at the

beginning of the learning process will lead to success on the summative evaluation.

Lifelong Learning

You’ve probably had a teacher tell you “Learning is a lifelong process.” at one point in your life.

Focus on becoming a more effective leader and supervisor by doing your best to comprehend

lesson concepts and principles. Test scores are important; however, they are secondary to the

expectation your leaders have of you. Your leaders expect you to apply what you learned at

ALDLC when you begin to supervise Airmen back at your duty section.

Do not make your primary concern a test score, but rather focus on becoming a more effective

leader by doing your best to comprehend lesson concepts and principles. With this in mind,

analyze your test results and use the information to improve. Your true goal should be to apply

the information after graduation. Graduation should not mark the end of your learning, but

rather the continuation of your experience as a supervisor, leader, and professional Airman.

Students’ use of one or more of these elements enhances their effectiveness. However, use of all

of them combined with an understanding of what kind of a learner you are will greatly improve

your chances of successfully completing this course.

33


The Learning Style Profile

Auditory Learners

Auditory learners primarily use hearing to process information. When given a choice, strong

auditory learners will sit where they can easily hear the speaker and where outside sounds will

not interfere.

Some auditory learners will sit to one side, on the side

of their strongest ear. Many times, these are the people

who can find it easier to understand the words from

songs on the radio and announcements on public

address systems.

Characteristics

Prefers to hear information

Has difficulty following written directions

Has difficulty with reading and writing

May not look speakers in the eye, instead may turn eyes away in order to focus more on

listening

Learning Tips

Use audio cassettes or CDs for reading and lectures (when available)

Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information

Summarize or paraphrase written material and record the information

Talk to yourself—review the material

Discuss the material with someone else

Visual Learners

Visual learners need to see the big picture. They may choose a seat where they can see the

whole stage or the whole screen. They may like the back seat so everything is out in front, and

they can see it all. These are the people who survey the scene, who like to sightsee, and who see

the forest despite the trees.

Figure 7

http://www.virginstamps.com/images/63402325/scans/BEETLEBAILEY.jpg

34


Characteristics

Needs to see it to learn it—must have mental picture

Has strong sense of color

Has artistic ability

Has difficulty with spoken directions

Overreacts to sounds

Has trouble following lectures

May misinterpret words

Learning Tips

Use visuals (graphics, films, slides, illustrations, charts, etc.) to reinforce learning

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes

Write directions down

Visualize words, phrases, sentences to be memorized

Write everything down; review often

Tactile Learners/Kinesthetic

Tactile/kinesthetic learners have the need to touch and feel things. That is, they want to feel or

experience the lesson themselves. Given a choice, strong kinesthetic learners will be right in the

middle of the action. These are the people who tear things apart to see how they work and then

put them back together without the directions. Tactile learners are the ones who immediately

adjust the seat, mirror, radio, and temperature in the car.

Characteristics

Prefers hands-on learning/training

Can put a bicycle together without the directions

Has difficulty sitting still

Learns better when involved

May be coordinated and have athletic ability

Figure 8

35


Learning tips

Figure 9

Make a model, do lab work, role play, “be the ball”

Take frequent breaks

Copy letters and words to learn how to spell and remember facts

Use a computer

Write facts and figures over and over

Read and walk, talk and walk, repeat

The Adult learning style profile is an instrument used to indicate the type of learner you are:

visual, auditory, tactile/kinesthetic, or any combination of the three. No one modality is better or

worse than the other, but it is important that you discover what works best for you and then do it.

So, see what type of learner you are.

36


ADULT LEARNING STYLE PROFILE INSTRUMENT

(Adapted from Learning Style Form, developed by Dr. Ray Barsch)

Directions: Read each statement and then circle the number in the appropriate box to indicate

your feelings. Work quickly—do not sit and ponder. THERE IS NO RIGHT OR WRONG

ANSWER. When finished, follow the instructions for scoring (Figure 10). Answers to each

statement helps determine your learning style (visual, auditory, or tactile/kinesthetic). There is

no one best learning style; however, each style does have its advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 10, Learning Style Profile

COMMENTS Often Some-

times Seldom

1. I remember things better when people tell them to me rather than when I read them. 5 3 1

2. I follow written directions better than oral directions. 5 3 1

3. I like to write things down or take notes for visual review. 5 3 1

4. I bear down extremely hard with pen or pencil when writing. 5 3 1

5. I require oral explanations of diagrams, graphs, or visual directions. 5 3 1

6. I enjoy working with tools (cooking, woodworking, mechanical). 5 3 1

7. I am skillful and enjoy developing and making graphs and charts. 5 3 1

8. I like to learn something new by talking rather than reading about it. 5 3 1

9. I remember best by writing things down several times. 5 3 1

10. I can understand and follow directions using maps. 5 3 1

11. I do better at academic subjects by listening to lectures and tapes. 5 3 1

12. I handle objects (coins, keys, pencils) while studying, reading, and conversing. 5 3 1

13. I learn to spell better by repeating the letters aloud, not by writing them. 5 3 1

14. I understand a news article better by reading it than by listening to the radio. 5 3 1

15. I chew gum, smoke, eat, or drink while studying/working. 5 3 1

16. I remember something best by picturing it in my head. 5 3 1

17. I like to make, build, or create things as I learn. 5 3 1

18. I would rather listen to a good lecture or speech than read about the subject. 5 3 1

19. I am good at working and solving jigsaw puzzles and mazes. 5 3 1

20. I prefer listening to news on the radio or TV rather than reading about it. 5 3 1

21. I like to learn most by building, making, or doing things. 5 3 1

22. I enjoy researching an interesting subject by reading relevant material. 5 3 1

23. I feel comfortable touching others, hugging, handshaking, etc. 5 3 1

24. I follow oral directions better than written directions. 5 3 1

25. I enjoy learning by going places and seeing things. 5 3 1

26. I like to draw, color, sketch, and paint things. 5 3 1

27. I doodle during meetings, lectures, or while listening on the phone. 5 3 1

28. I enjoy listening to music. 5 3 1

29. I like to shape or make things with my hands (clay, ceramics, dough, etc.). 5 3 1

30. I read aloud (or whisper) to myself when trying to understand new written material. 5 3 1

37


SCORING PROCEDURES Adult Learning Style Profile

Figure 11, Scoring Procedures

If your score reads something like: Auditory = 30 Visual = 27 Tactile = 20, it indicates you

are an auditory learner first, a visual learner second, and a tactile learner last. Put another way,

you learn best by hearing and/or verbalizing what it is you are trying to learn. When you cannot

hear and verbalize what you hear, your BEST mode of learning is being denied you, but you can

still learn through the VISUAL and TACTILE modes.

1. Place the point value on the line next to its corresponding item number:

OFTEN = 5 Points SOMETIMES = 3 Points SELDOM = 1 Point

AUDITORY VISUAL TACTILE

Question # Points Question # Points Question # Points

1 2 4

5 3 6

8 7 12

11 9 15

13 10 17

18 14 21

20 16 23

24 19 25

28 22 27

30 26 29

Profile Score

Total

Profile Score

Total

Profile Score

Total

2. Total each column to arrive at your profile score total under each heading.

3. Write your profile scores (highest, middle, and lowest) on the appropriate lines below.

Highest Score:_______

Middle Score: ________

Lowest Score:__________

38


If your score reads something like: Visual = 33 Auditory = 24 Tactile = 19, it indicates you

are a visual learner first, an auditory learner second, and a tactile learner last. Put another way,

you learn best by seeing what’s going on. When you cannot see what’s going on, your BEST

mode of learning is being denied you, but you can still learn through the AUDITORY and

TACTILE modes.

If your score reads something like this: Tactile = 34 Visual = 27 Auditory = 27, it indicates

you are a tactile learner first, a visual learner second, and an auditory learner last. Put another

way, you learn best by doing. You take notes during class, but rarely have to look at them

afterwards. It helps you to recall information when you are moving around or have something in

your hand.

Figure 12

“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

- Confucius

Learning Strategies

Chapters of the ALDLC comprise reading assignments intended to prepare you to understand the

questions and formulate answers. The following study tips will prepare you as you proceed

through the chapters.

Scores Indication Learn best by:

Auditory = 30

Visual = 27

Tactile = 20

auditory learner first, a visual learner

second, and a tactile learner last hearing and/or verbalizing

Visual = 33

Auditory = 24

Tactile = 19

visual learner first, an auditory learner

second, and a tactile learner last seeing what’s going on

Tactile = 34

Visual = 27

Auditory = 27

tactile learner first, a visual learner

second, and an auditory learner last by doing

39


Read for Comprehension

In a broad sense, reading for comprehension is interpretation, understanding, and recollection of

written concepts. In other words, how you read affects how you learn. There are techniques that

will help improve your reading comprehension, and they include:

Inference Strategy is a set of procedures readers use to comprehend written passages and

answer inferential questions (questions that are not answered directly in the text).

Paraphrasing Strategy is designed to help students focus on the most important

information in a passage. Students read short passages of materials, identify the main

idea and details, and rephrase the content in their own words.

Self-Questioning Strategy helps students create their own motivation for reading.

Students create questions in their minds or in writing, predict the answers to those

questions, search for the answers to those questions as they read, and paraphrase the

answers to themselves.

Visual Imagery Strategy is a reading comprehension strategy for creating mental movies

of narrative passages. Students visualize the scenery, characters, and action and describe

the scenes to themselves.

Word Identification Strategy provides a functional and efficient strategy to help

challenged readers successfully decode and identify unknown words in their reading

materials. The strategy is based on the premise that most words in the English language

can be pronounced by identifying prefixes, suffixes, and stems and by following short

syllabication (dividing words into syllables) rules.

Strategies Related to Storing and Remembering Information

FIRST-Letter Mnemonic Strategy is a strategy for independently studying large bodies

of information that must be mastered. Specifically, students identify lists of information

that are important to learn, generate an appropriate title or label for each set of

information, select a mnemonic device for each set of information, create study cards,

and use the study cards to learn the information.

LINCS Vocabulary Strategy helps students learn a meaning of new vocabulary words

using powerful memory enhancement techniques. Strategy steps cue students to use

visual imagery, associations with prior knowledge, and key-word mnemonic devices to

create study cards and to study the cards to enhance comprehension and recall the

concept. See Figure 13 for the strategy steps.

40


Figure 13, LINCS Vocabulary Strategy

41


Paired Associates Strategy is designed to help students learn pairs of informational

items, such as names and events, places and events, or names and accomplishments.

Students identify pairs of items, create mnemonic devices, create study cards, and use the

study cards to learn the information.

Word Mapping involves breaking words into their structural parts (any of the minimal

grammatical units of a language, each constituting a word or meaningful part of a word,

that cannot be divided into smaller independent grammatical parts such as the prefix,

suffix or root); attaching meaning to each word part; making a prediction about the

meaning of the unknown word based upon the meaning of each part; and checking the

dictionary for the definition (see Figure 14).

Figure 14, Word Mapping

42


Test-Taking Strategy

The true test of learning, note taking, and studying comes after you graduate; however, one

indicator of how well you have learned is evident on test day.

The Test-Taking Strategy is designed to be used while taking classroom tests. Students allocate

time and priority to each section/question on the test, they carefully read and focus on important

elements in the test instructions, recall information by accessing mnemonic devices,

systematically and quickly progress through the test, make well informed guesses, check their

work, and take control of the testing situation. EPME tests are purposely designed to test your

comprehension of course material in a way that clearly separates students who know and

comprehend the material from students who do not know the material. Test design also

eliminates the usefulness of many non-value Test-Taking Strategies that students, who do not

know the material, depend on to pass exams.

Two examples of these strategies are:

Word Association: This strategy involves matching words, statements, and phrases

from the scenario/problem statement with one of the alternatives. Students who rely on

this strategy will usually select the wrong answer because EPME tests use word-

association to describe the right answer and to distract. Therefore, only students who

truly comprehend the concept will be able to differentiate between the correct answer and

the plausible distracters.

Grammar/Spelling: This strategy involves looking for grammar and/or spelling errors.

Here is an example:

SrA Sheldon’s actions BEST describe an:

a. Initial feedback

b. Performance feedback

c. Corrective feedback

Did you catch the mistake? Proper grammar requires use of “an” before words that begin with a

vowel and the use of “a” before words that begin with a consonant. Given this rule, and

assuming the institution demands proper grammar, the only possible answer to this question is

alternative ‘a’.

Sample Test Questions

All test questions in the ALDLC are patterned after the following test questions. For practice,

answer the following sample questions. The answers and rationale will be covered later in the

chapter.

43


1. SrA Shelby listens as the ALS instructor says, “The course is rigorous so you’ll want to

manage your time wisely because your achievements depend entirely on the effort you put

forth. Invest time in reviewing lesson objectives and samples of behavior because they help

you prepare for exams. Although we use various teaching methods to appeal to all learning

styles, most students find it takes effective study habits, critical thinking, and effective use of

EPME’s structured thinking process to make it through the course.”

The instructor’s comments BEST explain ________ concepts and how they contribute to

individual success.

a. time management

b. successful learning

c. teaching methods and effective study habits

2. The day before graduating, SrA Hill is showing her dad, a military retiree, around the

campus when he asks, “What was the hardest part of the course?” Hill replies, “The

schedule was hard at first because I was juggling reading, writing, and homework

assignments plus marathon study sessions with my flight. I finally settled into a routine that

helped me pay attention in class, take good notes, and actively participate in classroom

discussions. However, I would have to say the hardest part for me was the public speaking.

Thank goodness, my flight came together to practice all the time.

SrA Hill’s actions BEST illustrate __________ and its impact on her effectiveness.

a. time managements concepts

b. study and practice habits

c. elements of the learning process

3. While talking with another instructor, TSgt Bright says, “I’m concerned about SrA Tall, one

of my students. She completes all assignments and I know she takes notes because she

shares them with the flight, but she barely passed her briefing evaluations, which I believe is

due to the flight helping her practice so much. Although I have seen her study with the

flight, most of the time she studies alone. This morning she failed the formative exercise, by

one question, and failed to meet the academic standard. I counseled her about additional

study but I’m not sure she can pass the summative.”

SrA Tall’s use of ____________ will MOST LIKELY earn her _______________.

a. effective use of the elements of the Learning Process; enhance

b. ineffective use of the elements of the Learning Process; hinder

c. effective use of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process; enhance

d. ineffective use of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process; enhance

44


Levels of Learning

All Professional Military Education (PME) courses include cognitive and affective objectives

and both types target three levels of learning.

Affective Domain Levels of Learning

The affective domain includes the manner in which you deal with things emotionally, such as

feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. There are five major

categories, but for the purpose of this course, only three will be covered (receiving, responding,

and valuing).

The affective domain is the feeling or internalization component of learning. This means

learners assign personal value to the content of the chapter. Knowing the various levels of

affective learning and the affective learning objectives in the ALDLC curriculum will help you

understand what the Air Force expects of professional Airmen that complete the course.

Receiving

Receiving is the affective domain’s first level of learning. At this level, learners pay attention

and actively receive. They display awareness and willingness to receive. Learners may employ

selective attending by making an effort to filter out other messages or distractions that threaten

to interrupt their reception of chapter material. The receiving of stimuli in these chapters are not

simply through the reading of the words. There are various forms of visual stimuli that aid in

solidifying the concepts and principles that are presented.

Responding

Responding is the affective domain’s second level of learning. For deeper levels of learning to

occur, simply receiving a message is not enough. After receiving the intended message, you

must do something with it. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding,

willingness to act/respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Therefore, responding

involves some sort of action or response, such as complying with an Air Force directive or

performing some voluntary action and obtaining satisfaction from it. Responding behaviors, at

the highest level, reflect interests and activities that bring personal satisfaction.

Valuing

Valuing is the affective domain’s third level of learning. This ranges from simple acceptance to

the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of

specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are

often identifiable. A person at the valuing level responds to a message or action by assigning

some worth or value to them. For example, at first you accept, later prefer, and finally commit

yourself to something because of its perceived worth or value. When you value something, you

have a deep appreciation for it. Commonly used terms associated with valuing are attitudes and

appreciation.

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Figure 15

Nearly all lessons in the ALDLC curriculum have an affective (attitude) component at the

VALUING level. Achieving the affective learning objectives requires a great deal of

involvement on your part. Just acquiring the comprehension and application levels of learning is

tough, but you may need to privately confront your own perceptions and feelings about ideals

the Air Force expects you to value to reach the third level.

Ultimately, you need to be willing to confront your reservations or reluctance as well as your

acceptance and promotion of Air Force policies, both before and after graduation. Failure to do

so will hold you back from working through critical issues that are foundational to becoming an

effective leader. This aspect of internal transformation and development as a leader is expected.

46


Affective Levels of Learning

Level Description Example Key Words

Receiving Awareness, willingness to

hear, selected attention

Listen to others with

respect

Listen for and remember

the name of newly

introduced people

asks, chooses, describes,

follows, gives, holds,

identifies, locates, names,

points to, selects, sits,

replies, uses

Responding Active participation on

the part of the learners

Attends and reacts to a

particular event

Learning outcomes may

emphasize willingness to

respond (motivation)

Participates in class

discussions

Gives a presentation

Questions new ideals,

concepts, models, etc., in

order to fully understand

them

Know the safety rules and

practices them

answers, assists, aids,

complies, conforms,

discusses, greets, helps,

labels, performs,

practices, presents, reads,

recites, reports, selects,

tells, writes

Valuing The worth or value

attached to a specific

object, event, or behavior

Ranges from simple

acceptance to the more

complex state of

commitment

Based on internalizing a

set of specified values

while clues to these

values are often

identifiable

Demonstrates belief in the

democratic process

Is sensitive towards

individual and cultural

differences (value

diversity)

Shows the ability to solve

problems

Proposes a plan to social

improvement and follows

through with commitment

Informs management on

matters that one feels

strongly about

completes, demonstrates,

differentiates, explains,

follows, forms, initiates,

invites, joins, justifies,

proposes, reads, reports,

selects, shares, studies,

works

Table 1

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Cognitive Domain Levels of Learning

The cognitive domain is the thinking or reasoning

component of learning. In this type of learning, students

acquire knowledge by using their mental faculties. This is

the type of learning required to become a critical thinker.

Understanding the levels of cognitive learning and the

cognitive learning objectives used in the ALDLC

curriculum will help you understand what the Air Force

expects of all graduates. The ALDLC only deals with the

first three levels of cognitive development.

Knowledge

Knowledge is the cognitive domain’s first level of learning and is very basic. It only requires

you to keep, remember, recall, label, recognize, and repeat information you have read. Although

you already possess much knowledge about the subjects covered, your reading assignments

provide further information to bolster your knowledge level.

Comprehension

Comprehension is the cognitive domain’s second level of learning. There are three levels of

leaning within this domain:

1. Translation: Putting things in your own words.

2. Interpretation: Answers the questions “what was the main idea…?” “can you distinguish

between…?” and “what is the relationship between…?”

3. Extrapolation: Answers the questions “what do you think could have happened next...?”

and “what can you predict…?”

At this level, you see relationships, concepts, and abstracts beyond the simple remembering of

material. It requires you to demonstrate an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing,

comparing, translating, interpreting, describing, and summarizing in order to draw conclusions

and solve problems using those facts and ideas. To demonstrate the comprehension-level of

learning, students are usually required to describe a relationship between two related concepts.

The combining of two or more concepts results in what is referred to as a lesson principle. One

example of demonstrating comprehension is being able to explain in your own words the steps

for performing a complex task.

Figure 16

48


Application

Application is the cognitive domain’s third level of learning. To demonstrate this level of

learning, you must identify lesson concepts from among other lesson concepts in simulated

situations. After identifying the concepts, you must then apply your knowledge and

comprehension of those concepts to solve the problem or deal with the issue appropriately and

effectively.

The levels of learning build upon each other. You must know a subject before you can

comprehend it. You must know and comprehend lesson concepts before you can apply them.

ALL ALDLC chapters follow this same basic pattern: the student develops foundational

knowledge by reading the content and accomplishing the formative exercises. The reading

generally provides definitions and examples of concepts so you are better prepared to

comprehend lesson principles. Comprehension of lesson principles allows you to apply them in

simulated situations and in your duty capacity. See Table 2 for additional information on the

cognitive levels of learning.

Cognitive Levels of Learning

Level Description Example Key Words

Knowledge

Recall data or

information

Recite a policy

Quote prices from

memory to a customer

Knows the safety rules

defines, describes, identifies,

knows, labels, lists, matches,

names, outlines, recalls,

recognizes, reproduces,

selects, states

Comprehension

Understand the meaning,

translation, interpolation,

and interpretation of

instructions and problems

State a problem in one's

own words

Rewrites the principles

of test writing

Explain in one's own

words the steps for

performing a complex

task

Translates an equation

into a computer

spreadsheet

comprehends, converts,

defends, distinguishes,

estimates, explains, extends,

generalizes, gives an

example, infers, interprets,

paraphrases, predicts,

rewrites, summarizes,

translates

Application

Use a concept in a new

situation or use an

abstraction without

prompt

Applies what was learned

in the classroom into

novel situations in the

work place

Use a manual to

calculate an employee's

vacation time

Apply laws of statistics

to evaluate the

reliability of a written

test

applies, changes, computes,

constructs, demonstrates,

discovers, manipulates,

modifies, operates, predicts,

prepares, produces, relates,

shows, solves, uses

Table 2

49


Teaching Methods

Asynchronous

The ALDLC uses an asynchronous teaching methodology. Asynchronous teaching is a non-

facilitated, self-paced, student-centered teaching method that uses online learning resources to

facilitate information sharing outside the normal constraints of time and location to effectively

deliver course content. This approach uses self-study to promote distance learning.

Asynchronous learning gives you the freedom to access the course and its instructional material

at any time, from any location - allowing accessibility for diverse student populations.

Knowledge Checks/Self-Reflection Opportunities

You will interact with data, as necessary to reinforce, and gauge your grasp of the lesson

principles presented. An important aspect of your progress is feedback intended to identify areas

that need improvement.

Scenarios and Case Study Analysis

Case studies help bridge the gap between course theory and practice. They provide

opportunities to apply previously learned concepts and principles to simulated situations. In the

case study, students analyze a simulated, but realistic, situation to achieve an educational

objective.

Case studies and scenarios contain common problems encountered by military members. Its

greatest value is that it presents opportunities for students to apply previously learned concepts

and principles to first identify the problem and then solve it. However, gaining the most value

from a case study or scenario requires careful reading, full attention to the content of the case

study, and a high degree of maturity on your part.

Case studies and scenarios also help develop critical thinking skills. Diane Halpern, professor of

psychology and author of Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking says

that “critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability

of a desirable outcome.”2 Critical thinking is described as thinking that is purposeful, reasoned,

and goal directed. It is the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences,

calculating likelihoods, and making decisions by using skills that are thoughtful and effective for

the particular context and type of thinking task.

Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking process—the reasoning that went into a

conclusion and the kinds of factors considered in making a decision. Critical thinking is

valuable to the learning process, and is also a characteristic of effective leadership.

50


Appropriate vs. Effective and Most Effective

While processing case studies and scenarios, you should ask yourself the following three

questions:

1. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors appropriate or inappropriate?

2. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors effective or ineffective?

3. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors most effective?

Many people use appropriate and effective

interchangeably. However, when dealing with leadership

and management principles, the words mean two very

different things.

Appropriate means suitable for a particular

person, place or condition.

Appropriate and inappropriate equate to right and wrong, or if you prefer, correct and incorrect.

The main thing to remember is there is no degree of right or wrong; no sliding scale. Depending

on the lesson principle being presented, actions, decisions, and behaviors are either appropriate

(right) or inappropriate (wrong).

On the other hand, a sliding scale accurately describes degrees of effectiveness. That is, actions,

decisions, and behaviors can be ineffective, least effective, mostly effective, and most effective.

For example, you observe an Airman in uniform outdoors who is not wearing a hat. According

to the lesson principles (enforcing discipline), you must correct the Airman. Choosing to correct

the Airman is the appropriate (correct) decision. This also makes choosing not to correct the

Airman an inappropriate decision. There is no degree of right or wrong. In other words, you

cannot be more right or more wrong in making the decision to correct or not correct the Airman.

However, in the above scenario, when actually correcting the Airman (corrective counseling),

your behavior can range from least effective (a very public verbal reprimand) to most effective

(correcting the Airman in private). Note that both behaviors are effective. That is, the Airman

puts his hat on. However, in most cases, public verbal reprimands are less effective than private

corrections. Thus, you see a sliding scale of effectiveness.

You can also be ineffective. For example, when conducting corrective counseling, you should

ensure the counselee completely understands what is expected. Suppose you reprimand the

Airman for not wearing his hat, but never actually state you expect him to immediately get his

hat and wear it. The Airman could walk away without realizing you want him to get his hat and

put it on, thus the counseling is ineffective. How many times have you been in a counseling

session where the expected behavior is never actually stated?

Guide to Chapter/Lessons

The Student Orientation chapter covered the different learning aids found in the ALDLC. Please

refer to it for any questions you may have.

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Formative Exercise and Summative Exercises

Although this information was previously covered, it bears repeating. The ALDLC course

employs a formative exercise and summative evaluation system. The formative exercise is part

of the learning process and is not part of the evaluation process. The formative exercise is

designed to provide feedback to you on your strengths and weaknesses. It is given under the

exact conditions as the summative evaluation and provides an opportunity to prepare for the

summative evaluation. Thus, formative exercises are considered exercises in learning, and

passing them is NOT a requirement for graduation; however, you should prepare for

formative exercises the same way you prepare for summative evaluations, i.e., give them the

same weight or seriousness when studying, reviewing, etc. That way, the formative exercises

will serve their purpose, which is to give you a clear indication of where you stand for the

summative evaluations. The summative evaluations determine whether you possess the requisite

knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform as a military professional in the US Air Force. They

will be the measuring stick to determine whether you have met the learning objectives of the

ALDLC course.

Remember the sample test questions you answered earlier? Let’s go over them now.

All questions on the formative and summative examinations are assessed at the comprehension

level. For example:

1. SrA Shelby listens as the ALS instructor says, “The course is rigorous so you’ll want to

manage your time wisely because your achievements depend entirely on the effort you put

forth. Invest time in reviewing lesson objectives and samples of behavior because they help

you prepare for in class sessions as well as exams. Although we use various teaching

methods to appeal to all learning styles, most students find it takes effective study habits,

critical thinking, and effective use of EPME’s structured thinking process to make it

through the course.”

The instructor’s comments BEST explain ________ concepts and how they contribute to

individual success.

a. time management

b. successful learning

c. teaching methods and effective study habits

With few exceptions, all questions will have a four to seven line scenario, one line problem

statement/question; three alternatives for explain and illustrate questions and four alternatives for

predict questions. Every word in the scenario is there for a reason. Do Not let the length of the

scenario fool you. Length does not equate to how easy or hard the question is.

52


Expect scenarios to include key terms and definitions associated with the concept of the correct

answer, along with terms and definitions associated with the concepts used in the plausible

distracters. To be successful on a test at ALS, students must be able to differentiate between the

correct answer and the plausible distracters. ALS tests clearly separate those who know the

material from those who do not.

Let’s break down the first test question example. The following lines in the scenario are the key

terms associated with successful learning: manage your time wisely, reviewing lesson objectives

and samples of behavior, various teaching methods to appeal to all learning styles, effective

study habits, critical thinking, and effective use of EPME’s structured thinking process.

At first glance, it looks like ‘a’ and ‘c’ are correct answers because of the phrases “manage your

time wisely” and “various teaching methods,” and “effective study habits.’ However, the

instructor in this scenario is not explaining the concepts of time management, teaching methods,

or study habits. The instructor is explaining the key concepts of successful learning.

Time Management: To explain this concept according to the lesson, the instructor would have to

say things such as don’t be caught off guard, seek clarification early, know and follow the

schedule, prioritize, and/or get organized, budget your time, and don’t procrastinate.

Teaching Methods : The instructor would have to say things such as informal lecture, guided

discussion, individual projects, and case study analysis for teaching methods to be correct.

Effective Study Habits: Then the instructor would have to say things such as eliminate

distractions, take advantage of study groups, study the capstone case study regularly, and take

good notes for this concept to be correct.

Students who know the concepts will immediately recognize the key terms in the scenario as

successful learning concepts and will be able to eliminate the two plausible distracters as

possible answers. These plausible distracters may be partially correct according to lesson

concepts…however, plausible distracters are not the BEST or MOST likely answer. The

challenge is to know the lesson concepts well enough to identify the answer that is BEST or

MOST likely correct.

An “explain” question is just above the knowledge level of learning and test developers use the

SOBs to write test questions. To get these questions correct, you need to properly recognize key

terms, phrases, and words (including synonyms).

53


2. The day before graduating, SrA Hill is showing her dad, a military retiree, around the

campus when he asks, “What was the hardest part of the course?” Hill replies, “The

schedule was hard at first because I was juggling reading, writing, and homework

assignments plus marathon study sessions with my flight. I finally settled into a routine that

helped me pay attention in class, take good notes, and actively participate in classroom

discussions. However, I would have to say the hardest part for me was the public speaking.

Thank goodness, my flight came together to practice all the time.

SrA Hill’s actions BEST illustrate __________ and its impact on her effectiveness.

a. time management concepts

b. study and practice habits

c. elements of the learning process

Question two is more difficult for three reasons:

First, it is more than just a simple explanation of a concept because, although the scenario still

contains key words, terms and phrases, students must be able to recognize “how the concept is

used” (i.e. interpret).

Second, questions that include the phrase “BEST illustrates” are written using the Give Example

SOBs in the student guides. Unlike most K-12 and college tests, they only contain some

elements or steps of a concept. This scenario contains only three of the eight steps of the

learning process. This is why simply memorizing steps is not enough; students must understand

the supporting information for each concept. Additionally, you must know whether the actions,

decisions, or behaviors portrayed are appropriate/inappropriate and/or effective/ineffective.

Third, understanding the supporting information for concepts is also important because these test

questions use supporting information in the scenario. The words and phrases used in the

scenarios are usually written differently than in the student guides, i.e. “Study and Practice” is

said as “marathon study sessions and practice all the time.”

The third question is a Predict level question. These types of questions use the words MOST

likely in the question. Test developers write these questions using the predict SOBs in the

student guides.

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3. While talking with another instructor, TSgt Bright says, “I’m concerned about SrA Tall, one

of my students. She completes all assignments and I know she takes notes because she

shares them with the flight, but she barely passed her briefing evaluations, which I believe is

due to the flight helping her practice so much. Although I have seen her study with the

flight, most of the time she studies alone. This morning she failed the formative exercise,

by one question, and failed to meet the academic standard. I counseled her about additional

study but I’m not sure she can pass the summative.”

SrA Tall’s ____________ will MOST likely _______________ her effectiveness.

a. effective use of the elements of the Learning Process; enhance

b. ineffective use of the elements of the Learning Process; hinder

c. effective use of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process; enhance

d. ineffective use of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process; enhance

Question three is more difficult than question two. To get question three correct, students must

know all eight elements of the Learning Process, along with key words, phrases and supporting

information for the concepts. Only then can students identify the concept that SrA Tall is using.

Finally, students must determine if SrA Tall’s actions would hinder/enhance her effectiveness.

Hinder/enhance are one combination of words that students could see on a test question. Others

include, but are not limited to, appropriate/inappropriate or effective/ineffective.

To separate students who know the material/concepts from those who do not…test developers

write Predict questions by incorporating either a positive or a negative connotation. For

example, SrA Shelby’s instructor indicates concern throughout the scenario along with personal

values, while at the same time describing SrA Shelby’s use of the elements of the Learning

Process. Students must differentiate between the instructor’s personal values (which could lead

them to a negative prediction) and SrA Tall’s use of the Learning Process. If you step through

each of the bold, italicized areas in the scenario above, you can see that:

(1) She completes all assignments.

(2) Takes notes.

(3) The flight helps her practice. The wording that “she barely passed” and “practice so

much” are more of the instructor’s values and are intentional distractors; the fact is

she did pass and she did practice.

(4) She studies with the flight. Again, the wording the instructor uses is intentionally

written with a personal value attached “Although I have seen her study with the

flight…”

(5) She failed the formative exercise. Taking a formative exercise (not passing it) is the

step here.

(6) Additional study.

55


NOTE: Although SrA Tall may not have used all of elements of the Learning Process in

the scenario, you can extrapolate (i.e. predict) that her use of these elements are effective

and will most likely enhance her effectiveness.

1. All test questions are patterned after these sample test questions.

2. All questions on the formative, summative, and retest assess you at the knowledge and

comprehension level. For example:

a. Question 1 assesses the lowest level of comprehension as evidenced by the word

“BEST explains” in the problem statement. Because these types of questions are

slightly above the knowledge level (memorization), we use exact words, synonyms,

or both to “explain” concepts. If you study and learn the terms and definitions

associated with major concepts well enough, the concept should jump off the page for

explain type questions. Remember, “Explain” is one of the words used in the

terminal samples of behavior.

b. Question 2 assesses the second level of comprehension as evidenced by the word

“BEST illustrates” in the problem statement. These questions are harder because

they usually involve a scenario that does not directly describe the concept but offers

an example of the concept in use. Therefore, just knowing terms and definitions is

not enough. You must know all of key elements of a concept well enough to identify

its use. These questions typically include the impact or result in the scenario, but

sometimes impact is implied.

c. Question 3 assesses the highest level of comprehension as evidenced by the use of

the phrase “MOST likely” or similar phrases. These questions not only require you

to know all of key elements of a concept well enough to identify it and to know

whether its use is appropriate/inappropriate or effective/ineffective, you must be able

to predict the outcome of the actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the

scenario.

By now, you have probably figured out that predict level questions are the most difficult, give

example questions are slightly difficult, and explain questions are moderately easy. The

ALDLC course tests include a mix of all three types of questions.

You may have gotten through K-12 and maybe even many college courses by memorizing terms

and definitions. That method will not work here. Memorization will only get you past the

knowledge and low-level comprehension questions. To be truly successful, you must learn all of

the elements of all of the concepts, know how they are supposed to be used and why, and know

what happens when concepts are and are not applied appropriately and/or effectively.

Remember, to show mastery of the terminal cognitive objective, you must successfully

demonstrate comprehension of concepts associated with the terminal samples of behavior.

56


Air Force Institutional Competencies

Several years ago, SNCOs, NCOs, officers, and civilians from around the Air Force met in

Washington DC for the purpose of developing a set of competencies that apply to Airmen at all

levels. This think tank invested thousands of hours in developing the Institutional Competency

List (ICL) by drawing from various documents such as AFI 36-2618, Enlisted Force Structure,

Air Force Doctrine Document 1-1, the Air Force Core Values, and the CJCSI 1805.01. This

effort resulted in the ICL. This list identifies three broad categories (organizational,

people/team, and personal) and includes eight specific competencies and 24 sub competencies

(see Table 3 below).

ORGANIZATIONAL PEOPLE/TEAM PERSONAL

1. Employing Military Capabilities

a. Operational and Strategic Art

b. Unit, Air Force Joint and Coalition

Capabilities

c. Non-adversarial Crisis Response

5. Leading People

a. Develops and Inspires Others

b. Takes Care of People

c. Diversity

7. Embodies Airman Culture

a. Ethical Leadership

b. Followership

c. Warrior Ethos

d. Develops Self

2. Enterprise Perspective

a. Enterprise Structure and

Relationships

b. Government Organization and Processes

c. Global, Regional and Cultural

Awareness

d. Strategic Communication

6. Fostering Collaborative Relationships

a. Builds Teams and Coalitions

b. Negotiating

8. Communicating

a. Speaking and Writing

b. Active listening

3. Managing Organizations and Resources

a. Resource Stewardship

b. Change Management

c. Continuous Improvement

4. Strategic Thinking

a. Vision

b. Decision-making

c. Adaptability

Table 3, Institutional Competencies

57


Institutional Competencies – A Detailed Examination

Given the fact that the institutional competency list is the EPME foundational document that

drives all EPME curricula, let’s take a closer look at each competency and its corresponding sub-

competencies. Keep in mind the descriptions provided are very broad and designed to include

all ranks from SrA to General. Put another way, ALS, NCOA and AFSNCOA teach only those

knowledge, skills, and attitudes required at their respective levels.

Organizational (broad category)

1. Employing Military Capabilities (competency)

a. Operational and Strategic Art: This sub-competency requires an understanding of

operational and strategic art in conventional, peacekeeping, and homeland defense

operations along with an understanding of doctrine and an understanding of the use of

innovation and technology in the employment of lethal and non-lethal force.

b. Unit, Air Force, Joint and Coalition Capabilities: This sub-competency requires an

understanding of the capabilities of the Air Force across air, space, and cyberspace and

how Air Force capabilities relate to and complement other service capabilities. It also

requires an understanding of interdependencies and interoperability across services,

agencies, departments, and coalition partners.

c. Non-adversarial Crisis Response: This sub-competency requires knowledge of the

national security implications of peacekeeping operations, humanitarian relief operations,

and support to civil authorities, both foreign and domestic. It also requires an

understanding of the need for engagement before and after warfighting and crisis

response, along with the need for integrated involvement with interagency and

multinational partners and the need for multipurpose capabilities that can be applied

across the range of military operations.

2. Enterprise Perspective (competency)

a. Enterprise Structure and Relationships: This sub-competency requires an understanding

of the organizational structure and relationships between the Air Force, the Department

of Defense, Joint Staff, the joint commands, the defense agencies, and other elements of

the defense structure. It also requires an understanding of how one’s function or unit fits

into its parent organization and how one’s parent organization relates to its external

environment, e.g. supporting and supported organizations, the public, Congress, etc.

b. Government Organization and Processes: This sub-competency requires an

understanding of the essential operating features and functions of the Air Force, DoD, the

national security structure, other related executive branch functions, and Congress, to

include: leadership and organization; roles of members/committees/staffs; authorization,

appropriation and budget processes; acquisition policy and procedures; and

interdependencies and relationships.

58


c. Global, Regional and Cultural Awareness: This sub-competency requires an awareness

of regional and other factors influencing defense, domestic, and foreign policy. It also

requires an understanding of foreign cultural, religious, political, organizational, and

societal norms and customs.

d. Strategic Communication: This sub-competency requires the ability to inform and

appropriately influence key audiences by synchronizing and integrating communication

efforts to deliver truthful, timely, accurate, and credible information. It also requires the

ability to formulate institutional messages to tell the Air Force story.

3. Managing Organizations and Resources (competency)

a. Resource Stewardship: This sub-competency requires the ability to identify, acquire,

administer, and conserve financial, informational, technological, material, warfare, and

human resources needed to accomplish the mission. It also requires the ability to

implement “best practice” management techniques throughout an organization.

b. Change Management: This sub-competency requires the ability to embrace, support, and

lead change by understanding the change management process, including critical success

factors, common problems, and costs. It also requires the ability to perceive

opportunities and risks before or as they emerge.

c. Continuous Improvement: This sub-competency requires the ability to originate action

to improve existing conditions and processes by using appropriate methods to identify

opportunities, implement solutions, and measure impact. It also requires the ability to

sustain a commitment to improve processes, products, services, and people while

anticipating and meeting the needs of both internal and external stakeholders.

4. Strategic Thinking (competency)

a. Vision: This sub-competency requires the ability to take a long-term view and build a

shared vision that clearly defines and expresses a future state. It requires the ability to

demonstrate innovative and creative insights/solutions for guiding and directing

organizations to institutional needs, for formulating effective plans and strategies for

consistently achieving goals and maximizing mission accomplishment, and for

anticipating potential threats, barriers and opportunities while encouraging risk-taking.

b. Decision-making: This sub-competency requires the ability to identify, evaluate, and

assimilate data and information from multiple streams and then differentiate information

according to its utility. It also requires the ability to use information to influence actions

and decisions, to use analytic methods in solving problems and developing alternatives,

to make sound, well-informed and timely decisions despite conditions of ambiguity, risk

and uncertainty. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to analyze situations

critically to anticipate 2nd

and 3rd

order effects of proposed policies or actions and then

establish metrics to evaluate results and to adapt/implement feedback.

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c. Adaptability: This sub-competency requires the ability to maintain effectiveness when

experiencing major changes in work tasks or environment. It also requires the ability to

adjust to change within new work structures, processes, requirements and cultures, while

also responding quickly and proactively to ambiguous and emerging conditions,

opportunities, and risks.

People & Teams (broad category)

5. Leading People (competency)

a. Develops and Inspires Others: This sub-competency requires the ability to help and

motivate others to improve their skills and enhance their performance through feedback,

coaching, mentoring, and delegating. It also requires the ability to empower others and

guide them in the direction of their goals and mission accomplishment while also

inspiring them to transcend their own self-interests and embrace personal sacrifice and

risk for the good of the organization and mission.

b. Takes Care of People: This sub-competency requires the ability to put people first by

attending to the physical, mental, and ethical well-being of fellow airmen and their

families, by creating an environment where Airmen take care of Airmen 24/7, 365 days a

year, including leaders, peers and subordinates. It also requires the ability to integrate

wellness into mission accomplishment and to establish work-life balance through time

management and by setting clear expectations/priorities.

c. Diversity: This sub-competency requires the ability to leverage the value of differences

in perspectives, approaches, preferences, race, gender, background, religion, experience,

generation, thought, and other factors. It also requires the ability to leverage diversity for

mission accomplishment, to foster a tolerant environment, to show respect for others

regardless of the situation and to treat people in an equitable manner.

6. Fostering Collaborative Relationships (competency)

a. Builds Teams and Coalitions: This sub-competency requires the ability to build effective

teams for goal and mission accomplishment and improved team performance. It also

requires the ability to contribute to group identity while fostering cohesiveness,

confidence, and cooperation. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to attend

to the interests, goals, and values of other individuals and institutions while also

developing networks and alliances that span organizational, service, department, agency,

and national boundaries.

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b. Negotiating: This sub-competency requires an understanding of the underlying

principles and concepts applied before, during and after a negotiation in order to attain

desired mission outcomes while maintaining positive, long-term relationships with key

individuals/groups. It also requires the ability to use appropriate interpersonal styles and

methods to reduce tension or conflict between two or more people, to anticipate and

addresses conflict constructively, to anticipate and to prevent counter-productive

confrontations. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to persuade and

influence others while building consensus, gaining cooperation and effective

collaboration.

Personal (broad category)

7. Embodies Airman Culture (competency)

a. Ethical Leadership: This sub-competency requires the ability to promote Air Force Core

Values through goals, actions, and referent behaviors and to develop trust and

commitment through words and actions. It also requires the ability to hold others

accountable for areas of responsibility and personal actions while maintaining checks and

balances on self and others.

b. Followership: This sub-competency requires a comprehension of the essential role of

followership in mission accomplishment while providing unbiased advice. It also

requires the ability to align priorities and actions toward chain of command guidance for

mission accomplishment. Finally, it requires the ability to exercise flexibility and to

adapt quickly to the alternating role of leader/follower.

c. Warrior Ethos: This sub-competency requires the ability to demonstrate a hardiness of

spirit despite physical and mental hardships – moral and physical courage, continuously

hones their skills to support the employment of military capabilities, displays

military/executive bearing, self-discipline and self-control.

d. Develops Self: This sub-competency requires the ability to assess one’s self in order to

identify personal strengths and developmental needs. It also requires the abilities of

seeking and incorporating feedback on one’s performance, of being fully aware of one’s

personal impact on others, of continually increasing breadth and depth of knowledge and

skills, and of developing life-long learning habits.

8. Communicating (competency)

a. Speaking and Writing: This sub-competency requires the ability to articulate ideas and

intent in a clear, concise, and convincing manner through both verbal and written

communication. It also requires the ability to adjust one’s communication approach to

unique operational environments and audience needs. Finally, this sub-competency

requires the ability to effectively create communication bridges between units,

organizations, and institutions.

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b. Active listening: This sub-competency requires the ability to foster the free exchange of

ideas in an atmosphere of open exchange while actively attempting to understand others'

points of view and to clarify information as needed. Also required is the ability to solicit

feedback to insure that others understand messages as they were intended.

Airman Leadership Distance Learning Course Modules

All EPME courses consist of a certain number of hours that target specific learning outcomes.

All EPME courses have the following modules based on learning outcomes published by Air

University. (Note: Some levels of EPME use different names. For example, the ALS level uses

Expeditionary Airmen in place of Joint Warfighter used at the AF SNCO Academy.)

Course Foundation

Course Foundation chapter familiarizes you with the educational processes used to achieve

desired levels of learning. Students take charge of their own learning by reading the student

guide, completing self-awareness instruments, completing homework assignments and applying

the information to gain as much as possible from the course.

Profession of Arms

Profession of Arms is woven throughout the course, includes. In the ALDLC, the Professional

Airmen lessons address this module.

Leadership and Management

Leadership and Management includes chapters that focus on organizational management

functions and human resource management issues that all Airmen face at home station and in

deployed and joint environments. In the ALDLC, the Supervisor of Airmen lessons address this

module. This module focuses on helping NCOs solve problems, drive change, and execute

missions using effective leadership and management tools.

Joint Warfighter

Joint Warfighter includes chapters on policy, strategy and doctrine, cross-cultural competence,

and joint organization and planning. In the ALDLC, the Expeditionary Airmen volume

addresses this module. This module focuses on promoting the notion that the responsibilities of

protecting our nation, preventing future conflicts, and prevailing against adversaries require

NCOs to fully understand the joint environment and to be prepared to help leadership make

informed decisions.

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Communication

Communication includes writing and speaking assignments that focus on expressing ideas

clearly, concisely and with impact. NCOs must be able to help leaders make informed decisions

on a wide range of topics including morale, discipline, mentoring, well-being, recognition, and

the professional development of enlisted members. There are four chapters in the Supervisory

Communicator volume in set 2 to address this module. This module focuses on helping NCOs

articulate policies, decisions, and directions that motivate and inspire others to achieve a

common goal while ensuring a free flow of information up, down, and across organizations by

encouraging open expression of ideas and opinions.

Self Reflection Opportunity: How do you plan to manage your time while taking the ALDLC?

Knowledge Check

1. What are some things you can do to avoid “burnout?”

2. What are some of the benefits of good time management?

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3. Place the letter A, V, or T to identify the Auditory, Visual, or Tactile Learner Characteristics.

Difficulty following written directions

May not look speakers in the eye

Has difficulty with spoken directions

Needs to see it to learn it

Has difficulty sitting still

Learns better when involved

Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information

Discuss the material with someone else

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes

Write everything down; review often

Role play, “be the ball”

Take frequent breaks

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4. Match the description from the right column with the corresponding key to successful

learning in the left column. All answers used only once.

___ Definition of Learning A. instead of memorizing, seek to understand

___ Take Notes B. include main ideas and supporting details

___ Study C. changes the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves

___ Practice D. one indicator of how well you have learned

___ Formative Exercises E. apply information after graduation and continue learning

___ Testing F. determine if you have met learning objectives

___ Summative Evaluation G. reinforces knowledge, builds self-confidence

___ Lifelong Learning H. indicate preparedness for summative evaluation

5. Match the sub-competency description from the right column with the corresponding

competency in the left column. All answers used only once.

___ Employing Military Capabilities A. Adaptability

___ Enterprise Perspective B. Negotiating

___ Managing Organizations and

Resources

C. Global, Regional and Cultural Awareness

___ Strategic Thinking D. Diversity

___ Leading People E. Active listening

___ Fostering Collaborative

Relationships

F. Operational and Strategic Art

___ Embodies Airman Culture G. Ethical Leadership

___ Communicating H. Change Management

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Student Learning Outcomes, Objectives, and Samples of Behavior

Student Learning Outcome

Every chapter in the ALDLC starts with the expected student learning outcomes. These

statements explain the behavior students are expected to demonstrate after each lesson. Please

note that these statements outline student expectations not instructor performance. Are we

putting these in?

Objectives and Samples of Behavior

Affective Objectives/Samples of Behavior

Many EPME lessons have an affective (attitude) component. For example, you are expected to

know the Air Force Core Values, but as an Airman, you must accept and adopt them as part of

your own value system.

The curriculum utilizes Affective objectives throughout, usually at the Valuing level of learning.

Some lessons have Responding objectives and one or two utilize the Receiving level. Reaching

these affective learning objectives requires a great deal of involvement on your part. At times,

you may need to confront your own perceptions and feelings about issues.

Samples of behavior are the standards used to determine whether you have reached a particular

level of learning. Since the affective domain is internal, we can only measure learning based on

your behavior, response to questions, classroom discussion, participation and so forth. See the

example below for an Affective Objective and Samples of Behavior.

Affective Objective: Value (lesson) concepts and their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and

mission effectiveness.

Affective Cognitive Samples of Behavior:

1. Read about Successful Learning concepts with an open mind and remember new

information (receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress checks, adult learning profile, IDDP exercises, and self-

reflection), and question concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them

(responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use of Successful Learning concepts positively impacts

individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for using Successful Learning concepts to enhance


5. Commit to using Successful Learning concepts to enhance individual, unit, and mission


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Terminal Cognitive Objectives

To figure out what you must learn from each lesson cognitively, you must first understand the

cognitive objective. These statements explain cognitive learning outcomes and usually begin

with either know, comprehend, or apply.

For example:

Terminal Cognitive Objective: Comprehend Airmanship concepts and their impact on NCO,

unit, and mission effectiveness.

Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior

Terminal cognitive samples of behavior are the standards used to evaluate student learning and

performance and describe actions that demonstrate the desired level of learning. Most lessons

contain terminal cognitive samples of behavior that require students to explain, give examples,

and predict.

When formulating your study plan, concentrate on the samples of behavior. You should use

them to assess your mastery of the material in each lesson. To master a lesson, you must

respond appropriately and thoroughly for all samples of behavior in the lesson. Many EPME

chapters require you to demonstrate comprehension by explaining the relationship between two

or more concepts. To do this, you must first understand both concepts and then you can explain

how ‘Concept A’ impacts ‘Concept B.’ Students with a solid grasp of the material can explain

how ‘Concept A’ impacts ‘Concept B’ positively, negatively, both, or not at all. They can also

explain why the impact is sometimes exclusively positive.

The Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior for the Airmanship lesson are:

1. Explain Airmanship concepts and their impact on NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

2. Give examples of Airmanship concepts and their impact on NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of Airmanship concepts on NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

Finally, some samples of behavior require you to demonstrate application of lesson concepts.

This means you must be able to identify which lesson concept(s) are in play and then use your

knowledge to solve a simulated problem. You will know you are dealing with application level

of learning whenever you see a sample of behavior statement containing the phrase “apply

lesson concepts/principles to simulated situations.”

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Activity Statements

One other type of cognitive objective used in the ALDLC is the activity statement. The Student

Orientation chapter contains an excellent example of an activity statement. The activity

statement says, “Read and become familiar with all aspects of the ALDLC.” You will notice

there is not a level of learning defined within the activity statement like there is in normal

cognitive objectives. Therefore, the requirement is simple; participate in some way.

IDDP Structured Thinking Process

NCOs spend the majority of their time solving problems, but most of us never give much

thought to how we go about it. If we stop and think about it, we solve almost every problem

using the same process repeatedly. First, we identify what is going on, and then we decide

whether what we see is right or wrong and/or effective or ineffective. If we decide what we see

is effective, we usually move on to other things. On the other hand, if we decide that what we

see is inappropriate or ineffective, we determine a course of action to correct the situation and

then take said action. We take particular actions because we believe the outcome will be

positive.

Now, if you had to describe the above steps using just four words, what four words would you

choose? Dr. Hunter, Dean of EPME in the late 90s, chose the words Identify, Differentiate,

Determine, and Justify and designed curriculum around these four words, or to be more accurate,

these four steps. Later, the word Predict was added and the word Justify removed as a stand-

alone step and added as a sub-step to each primary step (see figure 17).

Dr. Hunter and his team, and deans that followed Dr. Hunter have consistently used the four

steps when designing scenarios and case studies. Over the years, it has proven to be a simple

method for helping students thinks through course material in a structured manner. Students

who use the process correctly report a much deeper understanding of lesson concepts and

principles.

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Figure 17, IDDP

Using the IDDP Structured Thinking Process

Identify

Purpose: As the first step of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process, this step allows you to

demonstrate your ability to identify concepts or principles associated with specific lessons.

This step is crucial toward solving problems correctly. Skipping this step or giving it a fleeting

look often results in wasted time and effort because either we try to solve a nonexistent problem

or we take actions that create more problems than they solve.

Once you have identified the problem, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts

and principles taught rather than on personal opinion or outside experience. This also allows

you to assess your level of understanding of the concept or principle under discussion and, when

necessary, go back over any areas that are still confusing to you.

Remember, completing only this step demonstrates a basic understanding of course content.

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Differentiate

Purpose: This second step allows you to demonstrate your ability to distinguish whether actions,

decisions, or behaviors described in the scenario are appropriate/inappropriate,

effective/ineffective, or most effective according to lesson concepts and principles.

Your successful completion of this step demonstrates a thorough understanding of the concept(s)

and principles associated with the actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the simulated

situation. There is no “degree” of appropriate/inappropriate; something is either right or wrong.

Choosing not to correct an infraction is inappropriate (wrong).

In contrast, there are degrees of effectiveness; something can be ineffective, somewhat effective,

effective, highly effective, or most effective. These degrees of effectiveness are most obvious

when applying leadership and management models. For example, using some of the steps of

performance counseling usually results in a somewhat effective counseling session whereas

using most of the steps would result in an effective or even highly effective session.

As always, justify your answers based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather than on

personal opinion or experience. This also allows you to assess your level of understanding of

the concept or principle under discussion and, when necessary, go back over any areas that are

still confusing to you.

It is important to note that if you differentiate actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the

scenario as appropriate, effective, or most effective then skip the determine step and go straight

to the predict step.

Determine

Purpose: When actions, decisions, or behaviors described in a scenario are inappropriate or

ineffective, this third step allows you to demonstrate your ability to determine an appropriate

and/or effective course of action based on your understanding of lesson concepts and principles.

Recommended course(s) of action must adhere to lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than one’s opinion or experience. Remember, you are solving problems that have single or best

answers.

A recommended course of action may include both appropriate and effective decisions, actions,

and behaviors. For example, when subordinates fall below standards it is appropriate for

supervisors to ‘choose” to provide corrective counseling and, it’s effective when supervisors use

most/all of the performance counseling steps.

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As before, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than on personal opinion or outside experience. This also allows you to assess your level of

understanding of the concept or principle under discussion and, when necessary, go back over

any areas that are still confusing to you.

Predict

Purpose: This final step allows you to demonstrate your ability to answer the question, "What

would happen if?” That is to make predictions or extensions of consequences or trends based on

the information in the scenario rather than on information brought from other experiences.

Additionally, it provides an opportunity for you to practice high-order thinking.

Your predictions must address the lesson principle (how one concept relates to or impacts

another concept). Questions you must answer at this stage normally include either of the

following:

“What can you predict will happen if the individual continues using an appropriate/effective

course of action?”

“What can you predict will happen if the individual continues using an inappropriate/ineffective

course of action?”

As before, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than on personal opinion or outside experience.

During the next section of the chapter, you will walk through the IDDP Structured Thinking

Process answering questions associated with each step of the process. The scenario below is a

simple training scenario that covers the entire IDDP process. You may refer back to figure 17 as

necessary.

SMSgt Williams, Supply Superintendent, calls SrA White’s supervisor, SSgt Browning who 1

tells him she has noticed changes in White’s behavior since his recent move to the Demand 2

Processing Unit. For example, instead of taking a break for lunch, White eats junk food at 3

his desk while taking customer calls at the same time. White works late, but never seems to 4

catch up with his paperwork. He also criticizes the unit and did not attend the last two unit 5

picnics. SSgt Browning arranges to meet with Williams to talk more about White.6

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In the IDENTIFY step, first, you should attempt to answer the five w’s of who, what, where,

when, and why, doing so will provide a brief synopsis explaining what’s going on in this

scenario. Be sure to name the main character(s) and briefly explain what you know about them.

Finally, you’ll be asked to identify which traits under the core values are evident in the scenario.

Here is an example of the IDDP process in action based on the scenario above.

Question Your Answer

What’s going on in this storyline? SrA White’s behavior has changed. He seems

overworked, talks bad about the unit, and avoids

unit functions.

Who are the main characters and what do

we know about them?

SrA White is new to the Demand Processing Unit

(DPU) of Base Supply.

SSgt Browning is SSgt White’s supervisor.

SMSgt Williams is the Superintendent of Supply.

What lesson principles are evident in this

storyline? (Identify question)

Organizational Stress (Identify answer)

Where do you see organizational stress?

(Continuation of the Identify step)

Line 2… Changes in White’s behavior New

Line 3…Instead of taking a break for lunch, he

eats junk food at his desk while taking customer

calls

Line 4…Works late, he never seems to catch up

Line 5…Criticizes the unit and he never attends

unit functions

Why is that organizational stress? (Justify

question)

Because SrA White does not take breaks, eats at

his desk while still taking calls and, although he

works late, he never catches up with his

paperwork. (Justify answer)

Table 4

At this point, you might think you did a good job of justifying your answer, but, upon closer

examination, you can see that you only repeated text from the narrative.

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The question, “Why is that organizational stress?” is asking you why/how the statements that

you identified relates to organizational stress. In this example, you failed to justify your answer

because you did not tie the statements to concepts associated with stress. Justification helps you

to assess your level of understanding of the concept or principle under discussion. It provides an

opportunity for you to practice critical thinking.

So, pick up at the question, “Why is that organizational stress?” However, this time try to justify

your answers based on lesson concepts and principles.

Question Your Answer

Why is that organizational stress? (Justify

question

In the stress management chapter, I learned about

psychological, physiological, and behavioral

symptoms associated with stress. I also learned

about overload and role ambiguity.

In this scenario, SrA White is eating junk food and

taking calls at his desk, which are behavioral

symptoms.

Because SrA White never seems to catch up his

paperwork, he could be experiencing work

overload, which may be caused by unrealistic

deadlines, insufficient training, emotional fatigue,

etc. At this point in the case study, I can’t say for

certain what’s causing SrA White to not complete

his work.

Finally, I know SrA White recently moved to the

DPU, and he may not have enough information to

perform all duties satisfactorily, which is an

indicator of role ambiguity.

Much better! You have properly justified your answer based on lesson concepts and principles.

In some scenarios you would be finished at the end of the IDENTIFY step, but because this

scenario includes actions, decisions, and behaviors, you are required to continue through the

entire IDDP process.

What do you think about SSgt Browning’s

actions concerning SrA White?

(Differentiate step question

Her actions are ineffective. (Differentiate step

answer)

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Why do you say ineffective? (Continuation

of Differentiate step question )

Because in the stress management chapter, I

learned the first thing supervisors must do is

recognize the symptoms of stress and then take

action to reduce it or mitigate its effects.

In this scenario, we know SSgt Browning notices

SrA White’s change in behavior and all of the

other symptoms because she tells SMSgt Williams

about them. However, she took no action to help

him. It took a phone call from someone else to

prompt her to discuss the issue, and to make

matters worse, she wants to discuss White’s

behavior with Williams rather than discuss the

issue with White directly. (Justify step answers)

What should MSgt Browning do? (Determine step question)

What should SSgt Browning do? (Determine

step question)

In the stress management chapter, organizational

stress management methods such as job redesign,

subordinate involvement, personnel job

placement, and improving the work environment

were outlined. SSgt Browning should speak with

SrA White, which is subordinate involvement, to

first determine what’s causing his stress, and then

use the appropriate methods to reduce his stress.

For example, she may be able to reduce White’s

workload. (Justify step answer)

In the DETERMINE/Justify step, you were required to establish a proper course of action based

on lesson principles.

Let’s assume SSgt Browning follows your

advice. What can you Predict will be the

impact on SrA White and the DPU? (Predict

step question – positive impact)

According to stress management lesson principles,

if she takes action to reduce the organizational

stressors, SrA White’s personal situation will

improve, which will have a positive impact on his

health and morale, which, in turn, will improve

the quality and quantity of his work. Additionally,

his improved performance and morale will have a

positive impact on the DPU’s overall production

and workforce. (Predict step answer – positive

impact)

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Now, let’s assume SSgt Browning, who up to

this point has done nothing to help SrA

White, decides to ignore your advice, what

can you Predict will be the impact on SrA

White and the DPU? (Predict step question –

negative impact)

According to stress management chapter

principles, if she does not take action to reduce the

stressors causing SrA White’s stress, his personal

situation will get worse and, as his situation

deteriorates, so will his performance, which will

also negatively impact the overall production of

the DPU.

For example, unless SrA White gets some relief

from his stress, quality and quantity of work will

continue to suffer. He may experience headaches

or backaches and, he could lose sleep, experience

family problems, become depressed, end up with

high blood pressure, and even experience a heart

attack. (Predict step question answer– negative

impact

In the PREDICT/Justify step, you were expected to predict the likely outcomes of the selected

course of action. This is where the rubber met the road. NCOs who grasp the concepts taught in

ALDLC are very effective at solving problems. They are not only able to identify the true

problem; they are able to select the most effective course of action because they also fully

understand the impact (future outcome) of their decisions.

In the above example, you were required to justify every answer based on lesson principles

rather than simply repeating what’s in the scenario text. This example should give you a good

indication of what’s expected when using the IDDP Structured Thinking Process.

In order to fully understand how to use the IDDP process, you must understand its relationship

to lesson principles. A typical principle statement calls for a relationship between two or more

concepts stated in terms of a conclusion. Here an example of a principle statement:

“Comprehend team building’s impact on mission accomplishment.”

Did you notice the stated conclusion? The word impact implies a relationship exists between

team building and mission accomplishment. However, the statement does not say whether that

impact is positive or negative. This is done on purpose to encourage you to examine both sides

of an issue. By the way, the following concepts are used throughout the course to build principle

statements:

1. NCO Effectiveness

2. Mission Accomplishment

3. Unit Effectiveness

4. Subordinate Performance/Conduct

5. Team Effectiveness/Performance

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Since lesson principles describe the learning outcome, expect to see the above concepts show up

in various lessons as part of the lesson’s principle statements. For example, you just

encountered an example of the IDDP process in action using the stress management principle

statement. You were asked to “Comprehend the relationship between stress management and

subordinate performance/conduct.”

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IDDP Exercise

Answer the following questions for each scenario to demonstrate your understanding of the

IDDP structured thinking process. This simulated situation (scenario) does not include actions,

decisions, or behaviors. It contains only the information needed to identify the core value of

Integrity First. Refer to Attachment 1 for an excerpt of text from The Little Blue Book to help

you answer these questions.

Scenario #1

While looking over the special duty job advertisement, TSgt Sperrow reads, “Persons performing 1

this duty do what is right even if the personal cost is high. They promote a free flow of 2

information while consistently seeking feedback from all directions. They never act in ways that 3

would discredit the organization and they willingly invite examination of how they do business. 4

In short, they acknowledge their duties and act accordingly without fail. If you are sobered by 5

the awesome task of defending the Constitution of the United States of America and you want to 6

be part of something much bigger than yourself, apply today. 7

QUESTIONS YOUR RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario?

What core values are evident in this scenario?

(Hint: The attributes of courage, honesty,

accountability, responsibility are indicative of

which core value?)

Why do you say Integrity First?

Which moral traits do you see?

Now, take it to the next level and run through the entire IDDP process.

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Scenario #2

While reading the special duty advertisement, TSgt Sperrow notices SSgt Ware standing in his 1

doorway and asks, “What do you want?” SSgt Ware replies, “Boss, do you have a few minutes 2

to discuss an issue? TSgt Sperrow says, “I have a few minutes, come on in.” After several 3

minutes of heated discussion, TSgt Sperrow reluctantly consents to SSgt Ware submitting his 4

subordinate SrA Brown for the upcoming quarterly awards. Later that month, SSgt Ware sees 5

the quarterly award winners announced via email and is pleasantly surprised to see SrA Brown’s 6

name on the list of winners. He decides to congratulate her in person right away. As he walks 7

up to SrA Brown’s office he sees TSgt Sperrow shaking hands with SrA Brown and then hears, 8

“I’m truly surprised. I had no idea SSgt Ware was considering me.” TSgt Sperrow replies, 9

“Well, he didn’t want to be bothered but with a little arm twisting, but I finally convinced him to 10

submit you.” Since TSgt Sperrow and SrA Brown had not seen him yet, SSgt Ware turns and 11

silently walks away. 12

QUESTIONS YOUR RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario?

What core values are evident in this scenario?

Why do you say Integrity First?

Are TSgt Sperrow’s actions appropriate or

inappropriate?

Why do you say inappropriate?

What should TSgt Sperrow have done?

What can you predict will be the impact of TSgt

Sperrow’s inappropriate actions?

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Leadership Profile Measure Assessment

The Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education, Academic Affairs is presently developing

a Leadership Profile Measure to be used in the Airman Leadership School programs. Date of

release for the Leadership Profile Measure assessment is early CY 2014.

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First, the chapter covered time management’s role in Successful Learning and how it will help

you during the course. Then it explained the keys to successful learning, and you saw how they

will help you as you continue through these chapters. Next, you looked at affective learning and

explored those levels of learning and objectives. Then, you looked at cognitive learning and

discussed levels of learning, objectives, samples of behavior, criterion objectives, and activity

statements. You then examined teaching methods and learned how they link to your learner

behaviors. Next, you learned about the institutional competencies that drive all EPME

curriculums. Finally, you were introduced to the IDDP structured thinking process and

completed two case studies. Next, you learned about the institutional competencies that drive all

EPME curriculums.

Learning is obviously an essential element of the ALDLC experience. But, Successful Learning

doesn’t just happen. For some students, learning is easier than others. Whether you are a

student who finds learning easy or one who finds it difficult by using the concept and techniques

presented in this chapter, you have the opportunity to gain as much knowledge as possible to

help you prepare to become the best reporting official, leader, communicator, warrior, and

military professional possible. The degrees to which you learn will directly affect not only your

test scores, but also more importantly, help you be a better supervisor and Air Force NCO.

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Key Terms

Affective Domain, 43

Cognitive Domain, 46

Critical Thinking, 48

Institutional Competencies, 55

Learning, 29

Time Management, 25

References

Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-2236. Guidebook for Air Force Instructors, 12 November

2003.

Bloom, Benjamin S., Max D. Englehart, Edward J. Furst, Walker H. Hill, and David R.

Krathwohl. The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of Educational

Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay, 1956.

Halpern, Diane F. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. New Jersey:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.

Hopson, Barrie, and Mike Scally. Time Management: Conquering the Clock. California:

Pfeiffer & Company, 1993.

Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B. Masia. Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives, The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook II: Affective Domain. New

York: McKay, 1964.

Mayer, Jeffrey J. If You Haven’t Got The Time To Do It Right, When Will You Find The Time

To Do It Over? New York: Fireside/Simon & Schuster, 1990.

Mayer, Jeffrey J. Time Management for Dummies. California: IDG Books, 1995.

McGee-Cooper, Ann and Duane Trammel. Time Management for Unmanageable People. New

York: Bantam Books, 1994.

Kansas University. Stategic Instruction Model: Learning Strategies, April 2009

University of Northwestern Ohio, Virtual College. Learning Styles Evaluation, 14

December 2000.

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Knowledge Check Answers

1. Don’t be caught off guard

Follow a set schedule

Get organized (prioritize tasks/assignments)

Don’t procrastinate

Budget time for work and play (avoid burnout)

2. Allows me to focus on important items first

Allows time to read, study, and practice

Prevents/avoids procrastination

Prevents having to rush at the last minute to complete an assignment

Reduces / eliminates stress associated with falling behind

Allows free time to relax more

3.

Difficulty following written directions A

May not look speakers in the eye A

Has difficulty with spoken directions V

Needs to see it to learn it V

Has difficulty sitting still T

Learns better when involved T

Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information A

Discuss the material with someone else A

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes V

Write everything down; review often V

Role play, “be the ball” T

Take frequent breaks T

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4.

A Definition of Learning A. instead of memorizing, seek to understand

B Take Notes B. include main ideas and supporting details

A Study C. changes the way a person thinks, feels, or

behaves

G Practice D. one indicator of how well you have learned

H Formative Exercises E. apply information after graduation and

continue learning

D Testing F. determine if you have met learning objectives

F Summative Evaluation G. reinforces knowledge, builds self-confidence

E Lifelong Learning H. indicate preparedness for summative

evaluation

5.

F Employing Military Capabilities A. Adaptability

C Enterprise Perspective B. Negotiating

H Managing Organizations and Resources C. Global, Regional and Cultural Awareness

A Strategic Thinking D. Diversity

D Leading People E. Active listening

B Fostering Collaborative Relationships F. Operational and Strategic Art

G Embodies Airman Culture G. Ethical Leadership

E Communicating H. Change Management

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IDDP Exercise Answers

Training Scenario #1 (Identify Only)

As stated before, this simulated situation (scenario) does not include actions, decisions, or

behaviors. It contains only the information needed to identify the core value of Integrity First.

Even though the words “Integrity First” are not in the text, the inclusion of critical attributes

such as courage, honesty, accountability, responsibility, and so forth help you recognize the

concept of Integrity First.

QUESTIONS SAMPLE RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario? Your answer should center on:

TSgt Sperrow is reading a special duty job

advertisement.

What core values are evident in this scenario? Your answer should be:

Integrity First

Why do you say Integrity First? Your answer should center on:

In the Core Values (Little Blue Book) I read about

Integrity First and this text uses words and phrases

that describe the moral traits under Integrity First.

Which moral traits do you see? Your answer should center on:

Courage: Line 2: do what is right even if the

personal cost is high

Openness: Line 3: free flow of information and

seeking feedback from all directions and Line

4/5: willingly invite examination of how they do

business

Self Respect: Line 4: never act in ways that would

discredit the organization

Responsibility: Line 5/6: acknowledge their duties

and acting accordingly

Humility: Line 6: sobered by the awesome task of

defending the Constitution

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Training Scenario #2 (Entire IDDP process)

QUESTIONS SAMPLE RESPONSES

What is going on in this scenario? Your answer should center on:

SSgt Ware submits his subordinate for the

quarterly awards and the subordinate wins, but

when SSgt Ware goes to congratulate SrA Brown,

he hears TSgt Sperrow lie to SrA Brown.

What core values are evident in this scenario? Integrity First

Why do you say Integrity First? Your answer should center on:

In the Core Values (Little Blue Book) we read

about Integrity First and this text uses words and

phrases that describe the moral traits under

Integrity First.

Honesty: Line 10/11: “…he didn’t want to be

bothered but with a little arm twisting, I finally

convinced him to submit you.”

Accountability: Line 10/11: “…I finally

convinced him to submit you.”

Are TSgt Sperrow’s actions appropriate or

inappropriate?

Inappropriate

Why do you say inappropriate? Your answer should center on:

From the Core Values (Little Blue Book) we

know that honesty is the hallmark of the military

professional…we never lie, and we do not tolerate

those who do. TSgt Sperrow lied about

convincing SSgt Ware to submit the awards

package.

We learned that Accountability means never

shifting the blame to others or taking credit for the

work of others. In lying about the issue, TSgt

Sperrow is also taking credit for SSgt Ware’s

initiative to submit SrA Brown.

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What should TSgt Sperrow have done? Your answer should center on:

Rather than lie about the submission issues and

take credit for it, she should adhere to the core

value of Integrity First and demonstrate

commitment to the core values by being honest

with SrA Brown.

What can you predict will be the impact of

TSgt Sperrow’s inappropriate actions?

Your answer should center on:

Confidence in and respect for TSgt Sperrow will

decline; subordinates may no longer be willing

followers.

Her actions contribute to a breakdown of the Core

Values Continuum…when others see her act

without integrity they may soon follow suit thus

ethical erosion occurs and the ripple effect can be

devastating!

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Attachment 1

Use this excerpt from the Little Blue Book to complete the IDDP Exercise.

(1) INTEGRITY FIRST

Integrity is a character trait. It is the willingness to do what is right even when no one is looking.

It is the “moral compass”—the inner voice; the voice of self–control; the basis for the trust

imperative in today’s military.

• Integrity is the ability to hold together and properly regulate all of the elements of a

personality. A person of integrity, for example, is capable of acting on conviction. A person of

integrity can control impulses and appetites.

• But integrity also covers several other moral traits indispensable to national service.

· Courage. A person of integrity possesses moral courage and does what is right even if

the personal cost is high.

· Honesty. Honesty is the hallmark of the military professional because in the military,

our word must be our bond. We don’t pencil-whip reports, we don’t cover up tech data

violations, we don’t falsify documents, and we don’t write misleading operational

readiness messages. The bottom line is we don’t lie, and we can’t justify any deviation.

· Responsibility. No person of integrity is irresponsible; a person of true integrity

acknowledges his or her duties and acts accordingly.

· Accountability. No person of integrity tries to shift the blame to others or take credit for

the work of others; “the buck stops here” says it best.

· Justice. A person of integrity practices justice. Those who do similar things must get

similar rewards or similar punishments.

· Openness. Professionals of integrity encourage a free flow of information within the

organization. They seek feedback from all directions to ensure they are fulfilling key

responsibilities, and they are never afraid to allow anyone at any time to examine how

they do business.

· Self-respect. To have integrity also is to respect oneself as a professional and a human

being. A person of integrity does not behave in ways that would bring discredit upon

himself or the organization to which he belongs.

· Humility. A person of integrity grasps and sobered by the awesome task of defending

the Constitution of the United States of America.

Chapter Three: Critical Thinking


- THE CRITICAL THINKER

-- Characteristics that Embody a

Proficient Critical Thinker

-- Approaches for Evaluating

Information

-- Systems Thinking Approaches to

Decision Making

- HINDRANCES TO CRITICAL

THINKING

-- Basic Human Limitations

-- The Use of Language

-- Faulty Logic or Perception

-- Psychological and Sociological

Pitfalls

- QUESTIONS CRITICAL

THINKERS ASK

-- Questions Using Elements of

Thought

-- Questions Focused on

Intellectual Standards

- FACIONE’S SCORING RUBRIC

WITH EXERCISE

-- Facione’s Scoring Rubric

-- Scenario

Imagine yourself as the NCOIC in the midst of

preparing the work center for an inspection. You

have been working there for a while and feel very

comfortable with the way business is being

conducted. One day in the preparation meeting

with the key players, a new member to the unit

questions the way the shop has been operating. He

suggests a better way of doing business that has

been proven at his previous assignment. Will you

be able to have an open mind and listen to the new

ideas? Will you be able to objectively evaluate the

idea and apply it if it is better?

Figure 1

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Your critical thinking ability is a vital

component of your success. Consider the

following:

SUCCESS = Talent +Determination + Effort

+ Critical Thinking

In this equation, your talent is the natural

strengths you have, determination is the size of

your dreams and imagination, effort is how

much work you are willing to do, and critical

thinking is seeing what you need to do to see to

do your best work.

Just because you have a sharp wit or belong to

Mensa (an intellectual society that requires a

high IG to be a member) does not mean you can

claim to be a great critical thinker. There are

geniuses that have been known to have the most

irrational beliefs or the most unreasonable

opinions; for example, Dr. Ted Kaczynski, also

known as the “Unabomber,” was an intellectual

child prodigy.

Critical thinking is about how ones use

intelligence and knowledge to reach objective

and rational viewpoints. Critical thinkers are

usually better equipped to make decision and

solved problems compared to those who lack

this ability.

Upon completion of this chapter learners should be able to:


Comprehend Critical Thinking concepts and their

impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior:

1. Explain Critical Thinking concepts and their

impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

2. Give examples of Critical Thinking concepts

and their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of Critical Thinking concepts on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.


1. Define critical thinking.

2. Explain:

a. characteristics that embody a proficient

critical thinker.

b. four categories of hindrance to critical

thinking.

c. definitions of selected hindrance within each

category.

d. approaches for evaluating information.

e. system one and system two thinking.

f. questions using elements of thought.

g. questions focused on intellectual standards.

3. Give examples of critical thinking

concepts/principles and their impact on NCO,

unit, and mission effectiveness.

Affective Objective: Value Critical Thinking

concepts and their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.


1. Read about Critical Thinking concepts with an

open mind and remember new information (receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress checks, adult learning profile, IDDP exercises, and self-

reflection), and question concepts, models, etc.

in order to fully understand them (responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use of Critical

Thinking concepts positively impact individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for using Critical Thinking concepts to enhance individual, unit,

and mission effectiveness (value.)

5. Commit to using Critical Thinking concepts to


effectiveness (value). Figure 2

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Critical thinking requires you to combine your rational logic, creativity, common sense and

intuition into structured expressions of clear solutions and ideas that are useful and relevant to

the task. How many times in your career have you had to come up with new ideas or to pick

from ideas to determine the best one to accomplish the mission? Critical thinking not only helps

you become more effective in mission-related decisions; it is also useful when it comes to

reflection and life choices.

You will begin this lesson by reading about the characteristics of proficient critical thinkers, and

then you will move on to approaches for evaluating information and system approaches to

thinking and decision-making. Next, you will take a brief look at hindrances to critical

thinking—from basic human limitations to perceptions. You will then examine the questions

that critical thinkers must ask themselves internally and externally whenever he/she must process

information or make decisions. Finally you will complete Dr. Peter Facione’s rubric and discuss

how critical thinking impacts NCO, unit and mission effectiveness. Before beginning, complete

the penny exercise.

Mind-Bender Exercise

Take out 10 pennies and see if you can place 10 coins into 5 rows with each row containing 4

coins, without placing any coin on top of another coin. Answer to this exercise is located in the

back of the chapter.

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME: Students who graduate from the Airman Leadership

Distance Learning Course will possess an improved knowledge and understanding of critical

thinking concepts.

The Critical Thinker

What does it mean to be a critical thinker? Why should the Air Force be concerned with

developing critical thinkers? Developing critical thinkers is essential to the success of our Air

Force. Critical thinking is important because of rapid and frequent changes, regular

deployments, and sometimes even dangerous operations. Critical thinking is also important in

our daily duties as supervisors and leaders.

Critical thinking is defined as the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from,

or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication as a guide to

belief and action.3

A well cultivated critical thinker:

- raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely

- gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively

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- comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria

and standards

- thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as

need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences

- communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.4

Critical thinking is more than thinking logically or analytically. It also means thinking rationally

or objectively. There is an important distinction. Logic and analysis are essentially

philosophical and mathematical concepts, whereas thinking rationally and objectively are

broader concepts that also embody the fields of psychology and sociology.

Characteristics That Embody A Proficient Critical Thinker

The first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker is to develop the proper attitude.

Specifically an attitude that embodies the following characteristics: open-mindedness, healthy

skepticism, intellectual humility, free thinking, and high motivation.

Open-mindedness and healthy skepticism

The first two characteristics may appear

contradictory, but they are not. Critical thinkers

must be willing to investigate viewpoints different

from their own view, but at the same time recognize

when to doubt claims that do not merit such

investigation. A critical thinker must be neither rigid

nor gullible. Being both open-minded and skeptical

means seeking out the facts, information sources,

and reasoning to support issues we intend to judge;

examining issues from as many sides as possible;

rationally looking for the good and bad points of the

various sides examined; accepting the fact that we

may be in error ourselves; and maintaining the goal

of getting at the truth (or close to the truth (or as

close to the truth as possible), rather than trying to

please others or find fault with their views. Too

much skepticism will lead one to doubt everything

and commit oneself to nothing, while too little will

lead one to gullibility. Figure 3

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Intellectual humility

Having intellectual humility means adhering tentatively to recently acquired

opinions; being prepared to examine new evidence and argument even if such

examination leads one to discover flaws in one’s own cherished beliefs; to

stop thinking that complex issues can be reduced to matter of ‘right & wrong’

or ‘black & white’, and to begin thinking in terms of ‘degrees of certainty’ or

‘shades of grey’. Sometimes ‘I don’t know’ can be the wisest position to take

on an issue. As Socrates noted: Arrogance does not benefit the critical

thinker.

Free thinker

A critical thinker must also have and independent mind,

i.e., is a free thinker. To think freely, one must restrain

one’s desire to believe because of social pressures to

conform. This can be quite difficult or even impossible for

some. One must be willing to ask if conformity is

motivating one’s belief or opinion, and if so, have the

strength and courage to at least temporarily abandon one’s

position until he or she can complete a more objective and

thorough evaluation.

Highly motivated

Finally, a critical thinker must have a natural curiosity to further one’s understanding and be

highly motivated to put in the necessary work sufficient to evaluate the multiples sides of

issues. The only way one can overcome the lack of essential knowledge on a subject is to do the

necessary studying to reach a sufficient level of understanding before making judgments. This

may require the critical thinker to ask many questions, which can be unsettling to those asked to

respond. A critical thinker cannot be lazy. On another note, critical thinking cannot take place

without first receiving information.

Self-Reflection Opportunity: Think of the times you had to use critical thinking in your job.

Why do you think it's important to have critical thinkers in your organization?

Critical thinking leaves no room for egotism in thought. To think critically, you must be careful

not to resort to a drone mentality or being set on remote control where we fall into a pattern of

ignoring the world around us. If you’re not careful, things can easily sneak up on you. Try the

exercise below to see if you have a drone mentality. Then, look at the approaches for evaluating

information.

Figure 4

Figure 5

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Drone Mentality Exercise

Do not look in your pockets or purses for the answer; just go from what you remember.

Figure 6

“Critical thinkers must remain careful not to fall into a drone mentality or relying on remote

control. To be critical thinkers, we must remain aware and pay attention to the world around

us!”

Self Reflection Opportunity: How many times have you heard the saying, “This is how we’ve

always done it?” How can having a critical thinking mindset increase your ability and affect the

unit and mission effectiveness?

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Approaches for Evaluating Information

Three effective approaches for evaluating information are to ensure information is credible,

unbiased, and accurate.

Credible – Information that is believable, from a trustworthy source (experts in a

particular field, subject matter experts, Air Force leadership, etc.).

Unbiased – Information that is fair, impartial rather than prejudiced.

Accurate – Information that is free from error, a correct or truthful representation of

something.

Remember to consider the source’ qualification, integrity, and reputation. Does the source have

a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased? Actively seek out trusted sources for

information.

System Thinking Approaches to Decision Making

If you look back to the days when you were a new airman just learning your job, more than

likely you had to focus carefully on the tasks that you were doing. Now through repetition, tasks

you once thought of as “complex” are nothing more than routine actions, decisions and/or

behavior. Tasks become routine after many hours of analysis, inference, and effective judgment

(decision making). As long as you can do things the same way every time, decisions seem to

come easy. However, what happens when things change? When we move to something new or

different we have to think about new ways of doing things – the “old way” or system of thinking

is reactive, instinctive, quick and holistic and the “new way” or system is deliberative, analytical

and procedural. The two types of thinking are Reactive Thinking (System – 1) and Reflective

Thinking (System – 2).

Reactive Thinking (System – 1)

Many of the judgments that you make every day are automatic or reactive, rather than reflective.

When you wake up in the morning and go to work, chances are that unless something dramatic

happens, you are on “auto pilot” until you get to work. You probably do not spend a whole lot

of time thinking about how to brush your teeth, how to eat breakfast or how to drive to work.

Many freeway accidents are often avoided because drivers are able to see and react to dangerous

situation quickly. Good decisions emerging from system -1 thinking often feel intuitive.

Decisions good drivers make in those moments of crisis, just like the decisions practiced athletes

make in the flow of the game or the decision an NCO makes in the heart of battle, are born of

expertise, training, and practice. Often the process of reactive thinking involves deciding first,

reacting, and then trying to make sense out of all of it! Many times if you make a decision based

entirely from reactive thinking you may look back and ask yourself, “What was I thinking?”

The answer – “probably not a whole lot!”

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Reflective Thinking (System – 2)

This is a broad and informed problem-solving and deliberate decision making. It is useful for

judgments in unfamiliar situations, for processing abstract concepts, and for deliberating when

there is time for planning and more comprehensive consideration. Argument making is often

part of the deliberation process when making system-2 decision. Critical thinking is considered

system-2 thinking because it is often focused on resolving the problem at hand and at the same

time monitoring and self-correcting the process of the situation or problem. The reflection part

of this process begins with a state of doubt, hesitation or perplexity and moves through the act of

searching for information that will resolve, clarify or address a situation or problem.

As you think about these two approaches to thinking, do not make the mistake the process as a

“head versus heart” or a “right brain versus left brain” approach. Human decision-making is not

this superficial or simplistic. Now that you know about the two-system approach to decision-

making, move on to hindrances to critical thinking once you complete the knowledge check.

Knowledge Check

1. What is open-mindedness?

2. What does intellectual humility mean?

3. What does it mean to be a free thinker?

4. What does it mean to have a high motivation to become a critical thinker?

5. What is system 1 and system 2 thinking?

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Hindrances To Critical Thinking

Each day there are things that hinder our ability to think

clearly, accurately, and fairly. Some of these hindrances

result from unintentional and natural limitations, while

others are clearly calculated and manipulative. Some

are obvious, but most are subtle or insidious. These

hindrances can be divided into four categories, Basic

Human Limitations, Use of Language, Faulty Logic or

Perception and Psychological or Sociological Pitfalls.

Begin by looking at the first category.

Basic Human Limitations

This applies to everyone, including the most proficient critical thinkers. These limitations

remind us that we are not perfect and that our understanding of facts, perceptions, memories,

built-in biases, etc., precludes us from ever seeing or understanding the world with total

objectivity and clarity. Basic Human Limitations include:

Confirmation Bias and Selective Thinking

This is the process whereby one tends to notice and look for what confirms one’s beliefs, and to

ignore, not look for, or undervalue what contradicts one’s beliefs. An example would be

someone making the statement, “Air traffic controllers often have difficulty making good

judgment after long hours on duty.” A critical thinking tip to help with this hindrance would be

to obtain and objectively evaluate all relevant information and sides of an issue before passing

judgment.

False Memories and Confabulation

This is being unaware that your memories are often “manufactured” to fill in the gaps in our

recollection, or that some memories of facts, over time, can be unconsciously replaced with

fantasy. Dramatic stories of Bigfoot sightings do not prove the existence of Bigfoot. To combat

this, rely more on proven facts than memory recollection or testimonies from others.

Personal Biases and Prejudices

These result from our own unique life experiences and worldview, which makes it difficult to

remain objective and think critically. For example, if one believes that more murders occur

during a full moon, then one will tend to take notice of murders that occur during a full moon

and tend not to take notice or murders that occur at other times. Resist your own biases by

focusing on the facts, their sources, and the reasoning in support of arguments.

Figure 7

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Physical and Emotional Hindrances

This can severely affect our ability to think clearly and critically. These include stress, fatigue,

drugs, and related hindrances. Police officers should not show a photo of a possible assailant to

a witness prior to a police lineup, or the actual memory of the witness may be unconsciously

replaced. We should restrain from making decisions when extremely exhausted or stressed.

Testimonial Evidence

This type of evidence can also be a hindrance to critical thinking. We should not rely on the

testimonies and vivid stories of others to substantiate one’s own beliefs, even though testimonies

are inherently subjective, inaccurate, unreliable, biased, and occasional fraudulent. Some people

are biased against claims made by scientist because their worldview appears too cold and

impersonal. So we should resist making judgments based on testimonies alone. Extraordinary

claims general require extraordinary evidence.

The Use of Language

This is highly relevant to critical thinking. The choice of words themselves can conceal the

truth, mislead, confuse, or deceive us. From ads, which guarantee easy weight loss to politicians

assuring prosperity for everyone, a critical thinker must learn to recognize when words used in

an attempt to control thought and behavior. Use of Language includes:

Figure 8

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Ambiguity

A word or expression that can be understood in more than one way. For example, the word

“light” could mean not very heavy or not very dark. Another example is the military using the

phrase “neutralizing the opposition” (less negative) rather than “killing the opposition”

(negative). If the intended meaning of an ambiguous word or expression cannot be determined,

avoid making judgments.

Assuring Expression

These expressions are those that disarm you from questioning the validity of an argument. An

ad claims a battery lasts “up to” 30% longer, but does not say it will last 30% longer, and if it

did, longer than what. Ignore assuring expressions and focus on facts and reasoning that support

arguments.

Meaningless Comparisons

These comparisons include language that implies something is superior but retreats from that

view. The dairy industry is very good at this. They cleverly express fat content as a percentage

of weight, not of calories. Therefore, 2% “low” fat milk really has 31% fat when fat is measured

as a percentage of calories. Avoid making judgments if it is not exactly clear what is being

compared.

Doublespeak Jargon

This is the use of technical language to make the simple seem complex, the trivial seem

profound, or the insignificant seem important, all done intentionally to impress others. An

example of this would be referring to a family as “a bounded plurality of role-playing

individuals” or a homeless person as a “non-goal oriented member of society.” Try to recognize

the cognitive (factual) content of jargon words and expressions to be a better critical thinker.

Emotive Content

The intentional use of words to arouse feelings about a subject to bias others positively or

negatively, in order to gain influence or power. Expressions such as “As everyone knows…and

“Common sense tells us that …” are examples of expressions laden with emotive content. Learn

to recognize and distinguish the emotive (emotional) content of language. Try to focus on

reasoning and the cognitive (factual) content of language when evaluating arguments.

False Implications

This is the use of language that is clear and accurate but misleading because it suggests

something false. From the statement “Lying experts testified at trial”…is the expert a liar or is

the person an expert on telling when someone is lying? To alleviate false implications, try to

understand not only the facts, but also their relevance and context.

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Faulty Logic or Perception

Faulty logic or perception leads to misconceptions, which are the basis of false or mistaken

ideas. This hindrance includes:

Apophenia and Superstition

It is the erroneous perception of the connections between unrelated events. An example would

be someone who irrationally believes wearing their hat while watching a football game can

influence the score. We must recognize the difference between cause and effect versus unrelated

coincidence.

Argument from Ignorance

This is a type of logical fallacy claiming something is true because it has not been proven false.

Making a claim that Printer A makes better copies than Printer B, while ignoring the important

fact that only Printer B can also fax, copy, and scan. Do not believe a proposition simply

because it cannot be proven false.

False Analogies

False analogies is making illogical analogies to support the validity of a particular claim.

Arguing that two children sharing the same bedroom is wrong because double-celling of

criminals in a penitentiary can lead to bad behavior. Learn to recognize the faulty assumptions

behind false analogies.

Irrelevant Comparison

This is when you are making a comparison that is irrelevant or inappropriate. “Because

regulators have controlled smoking in public places, their ultimate goal is to control everything

else in our lives.” Be sure to compare “apples with apples.”

Pragmatic Fallacy

This is arguing something is true because “it works,” even though the cause of this something

and the outcome are not demonstrated. After using a magnetic belt for a while, a woman notices

her back has decreased, even though there may be a dozen other reasons for the reduced back

pain. Try to identify known or possible casual mechanisms for observed effects, starting with

those that are more likely, not more emotionally appealing.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

This fallacy is an argument that assumes an adverse chain of events will occur, but offers no

proof. Believing that there must be life on Mars because no one has proved that there is not life

on Mars. Evaluate the logic supporting an alleged adverse chain of events.

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Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls

Perceptions can be misinterpreted due to psychological and sociological pitfalls. Reasoning can

be twisted to gain influence and power.

Psychological and sociological pitfalls include:

Ad Hominem Fallacy

This type of fallacy is when one is criticizing the person making an argument, not the argument

itself. An example would be someone making the statement, “Anyone who supports removing

troops from Iraq is a traitor!” You should focus on reasons and facts that support an argument,

not the person making the argument. Independently verify supporting facts if the source is in

question.

Ad Populum

This bandwagon fallacy is an appeal to the popularity of the claims as a reason for accepting the

claim. An example would be making jokes about one’s own character in order to disarm critics

and evade having to defend policy. A valid claim should be based on sound arguments, not

popularity.

Figure 9

100


Emotional Appeal

An emotional appeal is making irrelevant emotional appeals to a claim (since emotion often

influences people more effectively than logical reasoning). Advertisements that appeal to one’s

vanity, pity, guilt, fear, or desire for pleasure, while providing no logical reasons to support their

product being better than a competitor. If an argument requires a logical reason to support its

claim, do not accept emotional appeals as sufficient to support it.

Evading the Issue, Red Herring

This could happen when one has been accused of wrongdoing by diverting attention to an issue

irrelevant to the one at hand. An example would be “You should not believe a word my

opponent says because he is just bitter because I am ahead in the polls.” Learn to recognize

evasion, which implies a direct attempt to avoid facing an issue.

Fallacy of False Dilemma

Either/or Fallacy is intentionally restricting the number of alternatives, thereby omitting relevant

alternatives from consideration. An example would be someone making the statement, “You are

either with us, or with the terrorist!” Seek opposing arguments on the subject, which may reveal

the existence of other viable alternatives.

Poisoning the Well

This is when one is creating a prejudicial atmosphere against the opposition, making it difficult

for the opponent to be received fairly. Thousands of years ago the average person believed that

the world was flat simply because most people believed so. When evaluating an argument,

focus on the argument, not prejudicial remarks.

101


Knowledge Check

6. Instructions: Match the four categories of hindrances to critical thinking to the correct

subcategory to the right. The categories can be used more than once for this exercise.

A. Basic Human Limitations

B. The Use of Language

C. Faulty Logic or Perception

D. Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls

___ is arguing something is true because “it

works,” even though the cause of something

and the outcome are not demonstrated.

___ is criticizing the person making an

argument, not the argument itself.

___ is being unaware that our memories are

often “manufactured” to fill in the gaps in our

recollection.

___is making a comparison that is irrelevant or

inappropriate.

___ is a word or expression that can be

understood in more than one way.

___can severely affect our ability to think

clearly and critically.

___is making irrelevant emotional appeals to

accept a claim.

___is the intentional use of words to arouse

feelings about a subject to bias others positively

or negatively.

___is making illogical analogies to support the

validity of a particular claim.

___is the process whereby one tends to notice

and look for what confirms one’s beliefs, and to

ignore what contradicts one’s beliefs.

102


Questions Critical Thinkers Ask

Asking questions is one of the most important

things we can do on our journey to becoming

good critical thinkers. Critical thinkers ask why

and they are inquisitive. There are eight elements

of thought (Purpose, Questions, Information,

Inferences/Conclusions, Concepts, Assumptions,

Implications/Consequences, and Points of View)

that critical thinkers must use. Each of these

elements of thought have specific questions you

can use to evaluate your information before you

complete an assignment, paper, activity or any

other type of intellectual activity.5 Practice asking

yourself these questions internally before doing

anything that requires critical thinking.

Questions Using Elements of Thought

Asking questions is one of the most important things you can do on your journey to becoming a

good critical thinker. Isadore Rabbi, a Nobel-prize winning physicist, tells a story of his

childhood in the Jewish ghetto of New York.

When the children came home from school, their mothers would ask them, “What did

you learn in school today?” But Isadore's mother would ask him, “What good questions

did you ask today?” Dr. Rabbi suggests he became a physicist and won the Nobel Prize

because he was valued more for the questions he was asking than the answers he was

giving (Barell, 1988).

Now you will examine questions using elements of thought.

Purpose – What am I trying to accomplish? What is my central aim/purpose?

Questions – What question am I raising? What question am I addressing? Am I considering the

complexities in the question?

Information – What information am I using in coming to that conclusion? What experience

have I had to support this claim? What information do I need to settle the question?

Inferences/Conclusions – How did I reach this conclusion? Is there another way to interpret the

information?

Concepts – What is the main idea here? Can I explain this idea?

Figure 10

103


Assumptions – What am I taking for granted? What assumption has led me to that conclusion?

Implications/Consequences –If someone accepted my position, what would be the implications?

What am I implying?

Point of View – From what point of view am I looking at this issue? Is there another point of

view I should consider?

Slowing down your thought process and asking yourself questions using elements of thought

will assist you in becoming a more proficient critical thinker. However, it doesn’t end there.

You must get into the practice of asking questions based on certain intellectual standards.

Questions Focused on Intellectual Standards

There are several intellectual standards associated with critical thinking. Intellectual standards

should be applied to thinking its quality.6 Let’s take a look at the intellectual standards (clarity,

accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness) and the

questions that can be used to apply them. These questions are often times questions you will ask

yourself before tackling a topic, issue, etc. that requires critical thinking. Now let’s address

intellectual standards beginning with clarity.

Clarity is a gateway standard. If a statement is unclear, you cannot determine whether it is

accurate or relevant. You should ask the following questions for clarity: Could you elaborate

further? Could you give me an example? Could you illustrate what you mean?

Accuracy means checking to see if something is accurate or true. Questions should sound like:

How could you check on that? How could you find out if that is true? How could you verify or

test that?

Precision means asking for more details or specifics. Questions should be phrased like: Could

you be more specific? Could you give me more details? Could you be more exact?

Relevance is the quality of being directly connected with and important to something else. How

does that relate to the problem? How does that bear on the question? How does that help us

with the issue?

Depth encompasses finding out how your answer addresses the complexities in the question.

What factors make this a difficult problem? What are some of the complexities of this question?

What are some of the difficulties you need to deal with?

Breadth is having an open and tolerant view of things, other viewpoints, etc. Do you need to

look at this from another perspective? Do you need to consider another point of view? Do you

need to look at this in other ways?

104


Logic is when the combination of thoughts is mutually supporting and makes sense. The

thinking is then considered “logical.” Does all this make sense together? Does your first

paragraph fit in with your last? Does what you say follow from the evidence?

Significance is the quality of having importance or being regarded as having great meaning.

Questions like: Is this the most important problem to consider? Is this the central idea to focus

on? Which of these facts are most important?

Fairness implies the treating of all relevant viewpoints alike without reference to one’s own

feeling or interest. Do I have a vested interest in this issue? Am I sympathetically representing

the viewpoints of others?

The more you practice using these questions during guided discussions, activities, or when

discussing lesson concepts with classmates…the easier it will be to apply critical thinking as a

supervisor and leader.

Self-Reflection Opportunity: Critical thinkers are inquisitive. What does it mean to be a critical

thinker? Why should the Air Force be concerned with developing critical thinkers? As a

supervisor and a leader how will you use critical thinking in your daily duties?

105


Knowledge Check

7. Match the eight elements of thought on the left to the correct response on the right. The

categories can only be used once.

A. Purpose

B. Questions

C. Information

D. Inferences/Conclusions

E. Concepts

F. Assumptions

G. Implications/Consequences

H. Points of View

____How did I reach this conclusion? Is there

another way to interpret the information?

___What information am I using in coming to

that conclusion? What experience have I had to

support this claim? What information do I need

to settle the question?

___What question am I raising? What question

am I addressing? Am I considering the

complexities in the question?

___What am I trying to accomplish? What is

my central aim/purpose?

___From what point of view am I looking at this

issue? Is there another point of view I should

consider?

___What is the main idea here? Can I explain

this idea?

___If someone accepted my position, what

would be the implications? What am I

implying?

___What am I taking for granted? What

assumption has led me to that conclusion?

106


Facione’s Scoring Rubic With Exercise

Facione’s Scoring Rubric

Dr. Peter Facione is one of the leading international experts in developing critical thinking. He

is the author of the Military and Defense Critical Thinking inventory, one of the leading

assessments in the application of critical thinking in national defense. He and his wife, Dr.

Noreen Facione, have developed a critical thinking rubric to help you develop critical thinking

in the military. This tool is formally known as the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric

(HCTSR), it can aid you in evaluating real-life examples of critical thinking because it requires

you only to consider four evaluative definitions “strong,” “acceptable,” “unacceptable,” and

“weak.” This simple tool is sufficient to get you started evaluating critical thinking.

Naturally, as you learn more about critical thinking, you will become better at applying the

rubric. You will use the rubric (see figure 11) on the next page to evaluate the four students’

comments that follow the information in the scenario, concerning the Edward M. Kennedy

Service Act.

107


Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR)5

4 (Strong): Consistently does all or almost all of the following:

- Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

- Identifies the salient arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con.

- Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view.

- Draws warranted judicious, non-fallacious conclusions.

- Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons.

- Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

3 (Acceptable): Does most or many of the following:

- Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

- Identifies relevant arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con.

- Offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view.

- Draws warranted non-fallacious conclusions.

- Justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons.

- Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

2 (Unacceptable): Does most or many of the following:

- Misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

- Fails to identify strong, relevant counter-arguments.

- Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.

- Draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions.

- Justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons.

- Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-

interest or preconceptions.

1 (Weak): Consistently does all or almost all of the following:

- Offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics, questions, information

or the points of views of others.

- Fails to identify or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments.

- Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.

- Argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims.

- Does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons.

- Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest

or preconceptions.

- Exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason.

Figure 11

108


Edward M. Kennedy Exercise

INSTRUCTIONS

Read the scenario below and the four student responses that follow. Evaluate each student’s

statement using Facione’s scoring rubric. Base your evaluation on what the statements reveal

about the quality of reasoning, not whether you agree or disagree with the conclusion. Again,

using Dr. Facione’s scoring rubric, place a label of 1 (weak), 2 (unacceptable), 3 (acceptable),

or 4 (strong), next to each student’s statement. The results are located at the end of the

chapter.

Imagine a professor has assigned a group of four students to comment on the Edward M.

Kennedy Serve America Act. Among other things, the bill, signed into law on April 21, 2009,

designates September 11th

as a national day of service. The group of four students has access

to the information outlined below.7

Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act

“The bill encourages voluntary service. The legislation provides for gradually increasing the

size of the Clinton-era AmeriCorps to 250,000 enrollees from its current 75,000. It outlines

five broad categories where people can direct their service: 1) helping the poor, 2) improving

education, 3) encouraging energy efficiency, 4) strengthening access to health care, and 5)

assisting veterans.8

“AmeriCorps offers a range of volunteer opportunities including 1) housing construction, 2)

youth outreach, 3) disaster response and 4) caring for the elderly. Most receive an annual

stipend of slightly less than $12,000 for working 10 months to up to one year”

“The bill also ties volunteer work to money for college. People 55 and older can earn up to

$1000 education awards by getting involved in public service. Those awards can be

transferred to a child, grand-child, or even someone they mentored”

“Students from sixth grade through senior year of high school could earn $500 education

awards for helping in their neighborhoods during a new summer program.”9

109


Group Of Four Students’ Statements Label

Student #1: “My take on it is that this bill requires national service. It’s like…a churchy-

service-sorta-thing. But, you know, like run by the government and all. We all have to sign

up and do our bit before we can go to college. That’s a great idea. Think about it, how

could anyone be against this legislation? I mean, unless they are either lazy or selfish. What

excuse could a person possibly have not to serve our country? The president is right, we

need to bring back the draft so that our Army has enough soldiers, and we need to fix health

care and Social Security. I don’t want to pay into a system all my working life only to find

out that there’s no money left when it’s my time to retire.”

Student #2: “Well I think this bill is a stupid idea. Who’s going to agree to work for a

lousy $12,000 a year? That’s nuts. I can earn more working at Target or by enlisting in the

Navy. This legislation is just more foolish liberal nonsense that takes our nation one step

closer to socialism. Socialism is when the government tries to control too many things.

And now the president is trying to control volunteer service. Maybe you want to build

houses for poor people or clean up after hurricanes, but I don’t see how any of that is going

to help me pass physics or get me a better job after college.”

Student #3: “I think there are problems with the legislation, too. But you’re wrong about

people not wanting to volunteer. The number of hits on the AmeriCorps Web site keeps

going up and up each month. Retired people, students, and people who just want to make a

difference go there and to Serve.gov to see what opportunities might exist near where they

live. On the other hand, I do have issues with the government being the organizing force in

this. Volunteerism was alive and well in America before Big Brother got involved. I don’t

see why we need to spend 5.7 billion dollars getting people to do what they were already

going to do anyway. We shouldn’t pay people to be volunteers.”

Student #4: “That’s the point, some of them wanted to do volunteer service but they need a

small incentive. Nobody is going to get rich on the stipends the government is offering. I

think that people who want to keep government at arm’s length are going to have problems

with this bill. They are right that it is another way that government is worming itself into

every facet of our lives. But a lot of people feel that way about religion, too; that’s why

they do not want to volunteer in programs sponsored by religious groups, because they

don’t want to be seen as agreeing with all the beliefs of that group. The real question for me

is the effect that this legislation might have on the future politics of our nation. All these

volunteers could become, in effect, people the Administration can call on in the next

election. Organizing tens of thousands Americans who basically agree with the idea of

public service at public expense is like lining up the Democratic voters who will want to be

sure these policies are not reversed by the Republicans. I’m not talking about a vague idea

like “socialism,” I’m talking about clever politics, positioning the Democratic Party for

success in 2012. On balance, that’s OK with me. But we need to understand that this

legislation will result in more than just a lot of wonderful work by a large number of

generous Americans who are willing to give of their time to help others.”10

110


Chapter Wrap-Up Exercise

Now that you have learned about Critical Thinking, answer the following question.

How might critical thinking skills impact NCO, unit and mission effectiveness?


You began the chapter by learning about the attributes of a proficient critical thinker, such as

open-mindedness, healthy skepticism, intellectual humility, free thinking and high motivation.

You continued with the approaches for evaluating information and system thinking. Next, you

examined various hindrances to critical thinking –from basic human limitations to the use of

language. Then, finally you discussed the different questions critical thinkers musk ask.

Critical thinking requires you to combine your rationally logic, creativity, common sense, and

intuition into structured expressions of clear solutions and ideas that are useful and relevant to

the task. How many times have you had to come up with ideas or to pick from ideas to

determine the best one to accomplish the mission? Critical thinking not only helps you to

become more effective in mission-related decisions; it is also useful when it comes to reflection

and life choices.

Remember the equation you started with in this chapter, “Success = Talent + determination+

effort+ critical thinking”. In this equation, your talent is the natural strengths you have;

determination is the size of your dreams and imagination; effort is how much you are willing to

do, and, critical thinking is seeing what you need to see to do your work. How successful will

you be?

111


Formative Exercise

1. Speaking to his boss, SSgt Binder says, I’ve always been taught to spend all the funds in our

account. Otherwise, we lose that for good. Should we spend the funds left in our account on

things we do not really need? Binder’s boss responds, “you are the expert on resources…what

do you think?” Binder replies, “I don’t know.” After Binder asks questions to find the facts and

examines the issue from different viewpoints, he decides not to spend the funds. The following

year, Binder’s budget is cut by the amount he did not spend.

SSgt Binder’s final actions BEST illustrate __________ impact on mission effectiveness.

a. proficient critical thinking and its

b. critical thinking hindrance and their

c. System 1 approach to decision making and its

2. Observing how worried his subordinates looked while waiting to hear about the

organizational restructure, SSgt Steven says, “It’s a commonly known fact that a restructure is

mostly for the leadership of the organization, so I wouldn’t worry too much. We all know that

the enlisted folks are the people that do most of the work around here and they wouldn’t want to

change that!” Afterwards, his subordinates started joking about it.

Because of ______, SSgt Steven’s comments will MOST likely _____his effectiveness.

a. critical thinking hindrances; not change

b. critical thinking hindrances; decrease

c. characteristics of a critical thinker; increase

d. characteristics of a critical thinker; not change

112


Key Terms

Critical thinking, 91

Critical thinker, 91

Free thinker, 93

Healthy skepticism, 92

Highly motivated, 93

Intellectual humility, 93

Open-minded, 92

References

Barell, J. 1988, cited (p. 59) in Costa & O'Leary, Co-cognition: The cooperative

development of the intellect. In Davidson, J. and Worsham, T (Ed.) Enhancing

Thinking through Cooperative Learning. (Ed.) (1988, April). Cogitare: A Newsletter of

the ASCD Network on Teaching Thinking, 3(1).

Blass, F., Levy, D., and Parco, J., (2010). “The 52nd

Floor, Thinking Deeply About

Leadership,” second edition. Available from [email protected]

Facione, P., Think Critically. Prentice Hall, 1 Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2011)

Haskins, G. R. (2006). “A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking” available from:

http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-thkg.htm#critical

Paul, Richard Dr. and Elder, Linda Dr., (2009). A Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms and

Concepts. (pp 42) Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Available from:

www.criticalthinking.org

Paul, Richard Dr. and Elder, Linda Dr., (2008). The thinkers guide to the nature and functions

of critical & creative thinking. (pp 20) Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Available

from: www.criticalthinking.org

Paul, Richard Dr. and Elder, Linda Dr., (2008). The miniature guide to critical thinking:

concepts and tools, Fifth edition, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Available from:

www.criticalthinking.org

Resolving Ill-Defined Problems: Critical Thinking and Innovative Problem Solving, Muir

S. Fairchild Research Information Center, http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/bibs/ridp.htm

Air Force Manual 36-2236, (2003) Guidebook for Air Force instructors

Roediger, H.L., McDermotol, K.B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words

not presented in list. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and

Cognition, 21, 803-814.

The Little Brown Book, 8th ed, 2001, H. Ramsey Fowler & Jane E. Aaron, Chapter 5 –

Taking a Critical Perspective, Chapter 6 – Reading Arguments Critically, Chapter 7 -

Writing an Argument

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-thkg.htm#critical

http://www.criticalthinking.org/



http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/bibs/ridp.htm

113


Mind-Bender Exercise Answer

Drone Mentality Exercise Answer

Number 8 is the real Penny.

Edward M. Kennedy Exercise Answers

Student statement #4 is a good example of top level, “strong.”

Student statement #3 is “acceptable”.

Student statement #2 is “unacceptable” because it displays the problems listed in the

Scoring Rubric in category 2.

Student statement #1 is so far off base that is qualifies as “weak.”

Chapter Wrap-Up Exercise Answers

Your responses should center on:

- NCO

-- Analyze situations critically

-- Helps me to remain open-minded and fair-minded

- Unit

-- Allows my unit to enhance productivity and increase problem solving skills

- Successful missions, task completions, etc.

Figure 12, Solution to Mind-Bender

114



1. Willingness to investigate viewpoints different from your own and ability to recognize when

to doubt claims that do not merit such investigation.

2. Adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions; Being prepared to examine new evidence

and arguments even if such examination leads you to discover flaws in your own cherished

beliefs; Stop thinking that complex issues can be reduced to right and wrong or black and

white and look at degrees of certainty or shades of gray; Recognizing that “I don’t know”

can sometimes be the wisest position to take on an issue.

3. Having an independent mind and being able to restrain yourself from the desire to believe

because of social pressures to conform.

4. Having a natural curiosity to further your understanding; Putting in the work to evaluate the

multiple sides of an issue; reaching a sufficient level of understanding.

5. Reactive thinking involves deciding first, reacting, and then trying to make sense of it all.

Automatic (reactive) decisions that are made based on instinct, intuition based upon

expertise, training, and practice. Reflective thinking begins with a state of doubt, hesitation,

or perplexity and moves through the act of searching for information that will resolve,

clarify, or address the situation/problem.

6. C, D, A, C, B, A, D, B, C, A.

7. D, C, B, A, H, E, G, F.

115


Formative Exercises Answers

1. CORRECT ANSWER: a

RATIONALES:

a. CORRECT: SSgt Binder’s comments best illustrate proficient critical thinking, which

according to the Critical Thinking chapter, includes the characteristics of 1) open-

mindedness, 2) healthy skepticism, and 3) intellectual humility. Binder shows open-

mindedness and healthy skepticism when he asks questions to find the facts and examine

issues from different sides. He shows intellectual humility by saying, “I don’t know.”

Because of Binder’s decision, his budget is now aligned with mission requirements and the

extra money can be used for other mission priorities.

b. INCORRECT: SSgt Binder’s actions do not illustrate any hindrances, which according to

the Critical Thinking chapter, can be divided into four categories: 1) Basic Human

Limitations, 2) Use Of Language, 3) Faulty Logic or Perception, and 4) Psychological or

Sociological Pitfalls. See rationale for correct response for additional information.

c. INCORRECT: According to the Critical Thinking chapter, the System 1 approach to

decision making is a reactive approach involves deciding first, reacting, and then trying to

make sense out of all of it! Many times if you make a decision based entirely from reactive

thinking you may look back and ask yourself “what was I thinking?” Here, SSgt Binder is

taking the time to “find the facts” and “examine the issue” which is more of a System 2

approach. However, his final actions best illustrate proficient critical thinking. See rationale

for correct response for additional information.

2. CORRECT ANSWER: b

RATIONALES:

a. INCORRECT: SSgt Steven’s statements have created a false sense of security for his

subordinates. As a result, his effectiveness will decrease. See rationale for correct response

for additional information.

b. CORRECT: SSgt Steven’s effectiveness will most likely decrease because of Critical

Thinking Hindrances which, according to the Critical Thinking chapter, include 1) Basic

Human Limitations: Confirmation Bias & Selective Thinking and 2) Use of Language:

Emotive Content. SSgt Steven demonstrates both of these hindrances with his statements,

“…We all know that the enlisted folks are the people that do most of the work around here

…” and “…It’s a commonly known fact …” His statements have created a false sense of

security for his subordinates. If the reorganization ultimately affects his subordinates, he has

set them up for additional and unwarranted stress.

c. INCORRECT: SSgt Steven’s comments do not demonstrate any of the characteristics of a

critical thinker, which according to the Critical Thinking chapter, include adopting the

attitude of a critical thinker is the first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker which

requires us to embody five characteristics: 1) open-mindedness, 2) healthy skepticism, 3)

intellectual humility, 4) free thinking, and 5) high motivation. See rationale for correct

response for additional information.

d. INCORRECT: SSgt Steven’s comments do not demonstrate any of the characteristics of a

critical thinker. See rationales for ‘c’ and correct response for additional information.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank.

Chapter Four: Full Range Leadership Development


- THE EVOLUTION OF

LEADERSHIP THEORY

-- Trait Theory

-- Skills Theory

-- Situational Leadership Theory

-- Contingency Theory

- MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

-- Intrinsic Motivation

-- Extrinsic Motivation

-- Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Theory

-- McClelland’s Need Theory

-- Contemporary Motivation

- Full Range Leadership Model

-- Passive Leadership

-- Transactional Leadership

-- Transformational Leadership

- Transactional vs. Transformational

Leadership

- Leadership Profile Measure Self-

Assessment

“The task of leadership is not to put greatness

into people, but elicit it, for the greatness is

already there.”

- John Buchan

Figure 1, Transformation is Change

118


Upon completion of this chapter, learners

should be able to:


Comprehend Full Range Leadership

Development (FRLD) concepts and their

impact on NCO, subordinate, unit, and


Terminal Cognitive Samples of

Behavior:

1. Explain FRLD and its impact on NCO,

subordinate, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

2. Give examples of FRLD and their

impact on NCO, subordinate, unit, and


3. Predict the impact of FRLD on NCO,

subordinate, unit, and mission

effectiveness.


1. Describe the five FRLD leadership

behaviors

2. Explain:

a. How various historical leadership

theories contribute to the evolution

of the FRLD model.

b. The FRLD model.

c. McClelland’s Need Theory.

d. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Theory.

e. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.

f. Contemporary Motivation.

3. Give examples of:

a. how the leader’s behavior impacts

subordinate performance.

b. how the work center environment

impacts subordinate performance.

c. effective and ineffective uses of

FRLD leadership behaviors.

4. Summarize the importance of self-

assessment as it relates to a leader’s

behavior.

5. Given simulated situations:

a. Identify FRLD leadership behaviors.

b. Differentiate if the leadership behaviors were effective/ineffective.

c. Determine what leader should do (if ineffective).

d. Predict the outcome of leader actions

on NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

Affective Objective: Value FRLD

concepts and their impact on

subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.


1. Read about FRLD concepts with

an open mind and remember new

information (receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress

checks, adult learning profile,

IDDP exercises, and self-

reflection), and question concepts,

models, etc. in order to fully

understand them (responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use

of FRLD concepts positively

impacts individual, unit, and

mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for

using FRLD concepts to enhance

individual, unit, and mission


5. Commit to using FRLD concepts

to enhance individual, unit, and

mission effectiveness (value).

Figure 2, FRLD Source book

119

Chapter One: Full Range Leadership Development

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME: Students who graduate from the Airman Leadership

Distance Learning Course should be able to understand that:

1. Effective leaders influence subordinates to bring about a change in behavior

2. Leaders work at being able to provide subordinates what they need in order to motivate

them to perform

3. Effective leaders adjust their behaviors to motivate their subordinates to perform

Recognizing and developing the leadership potential of our people has become a strategic

initiative in many of today’s most successful organizations to include the U.S. military. The Air

Force uses sociocultural concepts like training and mentoring to develop leaders for today and

tomorrow’s air and space force. As NCOs, we remain committed to discovering, nurturing, and

developing greatness in our Airmen. This chapter begins with background information

pertaining to the development and evolution of leadership theory, focusing on four theories that

attempted to capture the essence of effective leadership throughout history. Next, it explains

various motivational theories and the methods we use to individually motivate others. This

chapter then focuses on Full Range Leadership Development or FRLD for short, and a model

that identifies various passive and active leadership styles. Lastly, this reading compares two

formidable leadership styles (Transactional and Transformational)

Self-Reflection Opportunity: Before you begin, how would you answer the following

questions?

Do you have a workable plan to cultivate the greatness of the people in your

organization?

How will you help them realize their potential to excel?

Are you able to carefully scrutinize and evaluate their actions?

Are you able to set goals for them and use rewards and discipline (even punishment) to

move them closer to their goals?

Can you (do you) role model in your own behavior what you expect from them?

Do you inspire them to cooperate with your organization’s internal and external

stakeholders?

Are you capable (and willing to) of challenging them to rethink their basic assumptions

and rework their ways of doing things?

Are you patient enough to coach them in a way that develops their strengths to their full

potential, while recognizing and addressing their weaknesses?

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The Evolution of Leadership Theory

When was the concept of leadership first discovered? Why have we not mastered the art and

science of leadership? What is our fascination with leadership? What is it that enables some

members of society to rise up through the ranks to leadership positions while others fail? One

could easily argue that leadership theory is as old as humanity itself. The earliest attempts to

discover the essence of leadership began with theories that were based on the actions, behaviors,

and results of historical figures who we deemed leaders. Scientific and philosophic works by

various scholars, psychologists, and sociologists not only attempted to define leadership, they

developed methods and techniques to hone the skills necessary in becoming great leaders. The

following is a list of some of the most prominent examples of leadership theory.

Trait Theory

The first studies of leadership focused on fixed personal characteristics and innate qualities one

possessed known as traits. Referred to as “The Great Man (or Woman) Theory,” one’s

leadership effectiveness was said to be influenced by their intelligence, self-confidence,

determination, integrity, and sociability.

Skills Theory

This theory focuses on leaders who are emotionally intelligent and can successfully solve

problems and make logical decisions. Emotional intelligence centers on emotional awareness

and the control people have of their emotions and how this affects their leadership effectiveness.

Situational Leadership Theory

Introduced in the 1980s, management expert, Mr. Ken Blanchard

along with professor, Dr. Paul Hersey created the acclaimed

Situational Leadership Model (see Fig. 4). This theory focused on a

follower’s competence and commitment, or development level (DL)

in completing a specific task and the use of four different leadership

styles to influence the follower’s development. These styles are

directive, coaching, supporting, or delegating. For example,

suppose the task is to make a decision. If the leader determines the

follower has little competence and commitment to accomplish this

task (DL1), the leader will use a directive style, which may include

providing the follower detailed instructions and a mandatory

deadline. Figure 3, Hersey and Blanchard

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Figure 4, Situational Leadership Model

If it is determined that the follower has a low level of competence but some commitment (DL2),

the leader should use a coaching style, presenting ideas to the follower and asking for input.

However, if the leader believes the follower is highly competent but lacks commitment (a DL3),

he or she will use a supportive style of leadership by soliciting solutions from the follower and

encouraging the follower in his or her efforts. Finally, when the follower demonstrates high

levels of competence and commitment (DL4), the leader will use a delegating style, empowering

the follower to make and implement decisions within limits set by the leader.11 The crux of the

Situational Leadership theory is that it is task specific. For instance, a follower may be at DL 4

in one task and at DL2 for another. The arc in Figure 4 with three arrows represent how a leader

should move among leadership styles by appropriately matching his or her leadership style with

the follower’s development level based on the task to effectively lead the follower.

Contingency Theory

Another popular approach to understanding leadership is Contingency Theory. To achieve the

most success, a leader is paired to a particular situation based on his or her strengths and skill

sets. Unlike Situational Leadership, Contingency Theory suggests that leaders simply cannot

change their behaviors. Therefore, they are moved into and out of various situations based on

three critical situational factors:

Leader-Member Relations. The degree to which the leader is trusted and liked by

members of the group and the groups’ willingness to follow the leader.

Leader’s Position Power. The authority the leader has to reward or punish. The leader’s

power and authority comes from the position held within the organization.

The Task Structure. This refers to how well a group’s task(s) have been described.

Highly structured means the tasks are clearly understood and easy to understand.

Unstructured means the tasks are difficult to understand and are complex or difficult to

execute.12

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FRLD is not just another theory that was “pulled from a hat.” Theory and research on FRLD is

connected to and built upon a long and interesting history. For centuries, man has considered the

concept of leadership. But it was not until the 20th

century that the disciplines of political

science, psychology, sociology, history, anthropology, and management converged to make

major contributions toward our understanding of leadership. So how does FRLD relate to the

historical leadership theories that we’ve just reviewed. We should consider a historical theory to

be a useful tool that explains how and why things happen, rather than an abstract and useless

idea. Each of these historical theories had distinct advantages and disadvantages which provided

the foundation on which the FRLD model evolved (i.e. each of them may be a useful tool at the

appropriate time). Now take a look at how each one of them relate to the FRLD.

The trait theory (innate qualities and personality characteristics are found in “great leaders):

traits and personality are not considered in the FRLD model but research indicates that positive,

adaptive, active, and developmental leader traits support the social influence process for most

effective leaders.

The skills theory (emotional awareness and control are essential to leadership effectiveness):

emotional connection and social comfort between leader and follower are key to leadership

effectiveness. Rationality and intellectual curiosity are required on the part of leaders and

followers.

The situational leadership theory (followers’ competence and confidence determines

appropriate leader behavior): most effective FRLD behaviors universal across many situations

and cultures…most effective leaders can be either directive or participative.

The contingency theory (match leaders to the appropriate situation depending upon

task/relationship orientation, relations with followers, task structure, and position power): Most

effective FRLD behaviors are universal across many situations and cultures. Some situations

may require more task-focused and less developmental behaviors.

Effective leaders vary in the extent to which they display a repertoire of leadership behaviors,

ranging from active and more effective leadership to passive and less effective leadership. To

fully develop the potential of subordinates who can achieve extraordinary levels of success

requires an understanding of a full range of leadership behaviors suitable for today’s complex

world…thus FRLD was born.

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Knowledge Check

1. The _________________Leadership Theory considers one’s ability to complete a specific

task and the use of four leadership styles to aid in his or her development.

2. The _________________ Leadership Theory states that a person’s ability to lead depends

on his or her intellect, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and social skills.

3. The _________________ Leadership Theory focuses on the argument that a person’s ability

to lead depends on his or her emotional intelligence, awareness, and control.

4. The _________________ Leadership Theory believes that pairing a leader to a specific

situation is the most effective method because leaders cannot adjust their behaviors.

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Motivational Theories

Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior,

especially human behavior. These reasons may include basic needs such as food or a desired

object, hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be

attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen,13 motivation

refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior.

Motivation refers to the reason(s) for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human

behavior influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, etc. These reasons may include

things we need (food, job, etc.) and/or things we want (new car, hobbies, etc.). They may also

be more complex reasons such as morality, concern for others, or our own state of being.

According to Geen, motivation refers to the [level of] initiation, direction, intensity, and/or

persistence by which we engage in human behavior.

There are many motivational theories:

- Drive Reduction Theories (Hull)

- Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger)

- Need Achievement Theory (McClelland)

- Interests Theory (Holland)

- Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow)

- Two-factor theory (Herzberg)

- Existence, Relatedness & Growth (ERG) theory

(Alderfer’s)

- Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan)

- Goal-setting theory (Locke)

- Unconscious motivation (Freud)

Some of these theories use the term ‘intrinsic’ motivation, others use the term ‘extrinsic’

motivation, and some use both terms. (Some of these theories label motivation in two

categories: Intrinsic and Extrinsic.

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an

outcome. It initiates from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are

rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat

of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because

it encourages the performer to win and to beat others. A cheering crowd and the desire to

win a trophy are also extrinsic motivators.

Educational psychologists have studied intrinsic motivation (motivation that initiates from inside

an individual) since the 1970s, but there is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or

elements of intrinsic motivation. Though it is thought that people are more likely to be

intrinsically motivated if they:

- Attribute their results (work, family, education, etc.) to internal factors that they can

control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in),

- Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not

determined by luck or chance),

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Culture

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Emotion

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)

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- Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just memorizing it in order to achieve

good grades or get recognition.

According to Steven Reiss (2009), emeritus professor of psychology and psychiatry at the Ohio

State University, human individuality may be too diverse to be described adequately in terms of

categories such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Reiss also states that theories supporting

intrinsic-extrinsic motivation cannot be validly defined because human motives do not divide

into just two kinds so easily (para. 3). Current research on intrinsic motivation describes it as

being more multifaceted (i.e. made up of 16 basic desires - see Table 1). Dr. Reiss14 calls this

the Theory of 16 Basic Desires or Sensitivity Theory (p. 7).

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Motive Name Motive Animal Behavior Intrinsic Feeling

Curiosity

1. Desire to influence

(including leadership;

related to mastery)

Dominant animal eats more food

Efficacy

2. Desire for knowledge Animal learns to find food more

efficiently and learns to avoid prey Wonder

Independence 3. Desire to be

autonomous

Motivates animal to leave nest,

searching for food over larger area Freedom

Status 4. Desire for social

standing (including

desire for attention)

Attention in nest leads to better

feedings Self-importance

Social contact 5. Desire for peer

companionship (desire

to play)

Safety in numbers for animals in wild

Fun

Vengeance

6. Desire to get even

(including desire to

compete, to win)

Animal fights when threatened

Vindication

7. Desire to obey a

traditional moral code Animal runs back to herd when

stared at by prey Loyalty

Idealism 8. Desire to improve

society (including

altruism, justice)

Unclear: Do animals show true

altruism? Compassion

Physical Exercise 9. Desire to exercise

muscles

Strong animals eat more and are less

vulnerable to prey Vitality

Romance 10. Desire for sex

(including courting)

Reproduction essential for species

survival Lust

Family

11. Desire to raise own

children

Protection of young facilitates

survival Love

12. Desire to organize

(including desire for

ritual)

Cleanliness rituals promote health

Stability

13. Desire to eat Nutrition essential for survival Satiation (avoidance

of hunger)

Acceptance 14. Desire for approval

Unclear: animal self-concept? Self-confidence

Tranquility 15. Desire to avoid

anxiety, fear

Animal runs away from danger Safe, relaxed

Saving 16. Desire to collect, value

of frugality

Animal hoards food and other

materials Ownership

Table 1, 16 Basic Desires

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Dr. Reiss goes on to say:

All 16 basic motives have been validated against criterion behavior outside laboratories

and experiments (see Havercamp & Reiss, 2003). Concurrent validity and social

desirability studies also support the multifaceted model. The sensitivity model holds that

16 genetically distinct desires combine to determine many psychologically significant

motives. The model supports numerous predictions about behavior and provides

standardized measures (such as the Reiss Profile self-report version) needed to test the

validity of the predictions (p. 191).

As a leader, it is important know about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and to know that at

least 10 theories try explain both concepts. However, it is more important to recognize that

“motivation” is more complicated than simply categorizing it as intrinsic or extrinsic. It should

be obvious from looking at Table 1, that many things play a role in determining motivation and

that, as Dr. Reiss points out, “Even though external factors have influence, the motivation for

our actions, decisions, and behaviors comes from within us.” Understanding this concept is the

key to your ability to apply Full Range Leadership most effectively.

The next few paragraphs expand on a few of the motivational theories referenced earlier.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

Figure 7, B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Model

Renowned behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, believed that one’s internal thoughts and motivations could

not be validated to explain their behavior. Rather, he suggested that only external (extrinsic),

observable influences lead to one’s behavior. Therefore, Skinner developed a theory that

considers a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Operant conditioning associates a specific behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Skinner coined the term operant that refers to any "active behavior that operates upon the

environment to generate consequences" (1953).15

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Reinforcement

Reinforcement rewards a specific behavior and increases the likelihood the behavior will

continue. There are two types of reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement involves favorable actions, results, or outcomes that a leader

presents to a follower after the follower demonstrates a desired behavior. In other words,

adding something the follower thinks is good in order to ‘reinforce’ a desired behavior.

Examples of positive reinforcement include public recognition, praise, or awards.

Negative Reinforcement includes the removal of unpleasant, unfavorable actions or

events the follower is currently experiencing that occurs after they have displayed a

desirable behavior, or taking something away that the follower thinks is ‘bad’ in order to

‘reinforce’ a behavior. Examples of this include removing member’s unfavorable

information file (UIF) and removing restrictions placed on a member.

Punishment

Punishment is where the leader presents an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in

undesirable behavior. There are two kinds of punishment:

Positive punishment occurs when the leader applies or presents an unfavorable action or

result to a follower who has demonstrated an undesirable behavior…adding something to

stop a behavior from occurring. Examples of positive punishment include applying

restrictions to a member, issuing a UIF, and implementing additional duties.

Negative punishment occurs when a leader removes something valued by the follower

after they have demonstrated an undesirable or unacceptable behavior...taking something

away to stop a behavior from occurring. Examples of this include taking or withholding

a member’s freedoms and liberties, revoking a promotion, and taking away one’s

position and/or responsibilities.

McClelland’s Need Theory

This theory argues that for a reward to be appropriate, accepted, and effective; it must fulfill a

member’s needs. David McClelland, a well-known psychologist, has been studying the

relationship between needs and behavior since the late 1940s. Based on his theory, there are

three primary needs a person must satisfy to be motivated:

The need for achievement is a desire where one accomplishes something difficult or

masters particular objects, ideas, or tasks independently or with little help. The Army

considered this need with their slogan “Be All You Can Be.”

People with a high need for affiliation prefer to spend more time maintaining social

relationships and wanting to be accepted and cared for. Being part of a prominent or

successful organization is another example of the need for affiliation. This need is the

focal point for various organizations like the Marine Corps’ “The Few, The Proud, the

Marines”.

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The need for power reflects an individual’s desire to influence, coach, teach, or

encourage others to achieve. People with this need prefer to work and consider

discipline and self-respect as priorities.16 People who are motivated by power prefer

positions where they can influence outcomes. For instance, corporate leaders pursue

upper-echelon positions within their organizations to control the direction in which their

business is going.

Contemporary Motivation

Figure 8, Contemporary Motivation Model

Contemporary motivation categorizes a member’s commitment to the organization into three

levels. These levels are membership (lowest level), performance (moderate level), and

involvement (highest level) of commitment. People’s motivation and productivity indicate their

level of commitment. Intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivation play a key role in

one’s commitment level. The more committed a member is to the organization; the more

involved they are in accomplishing the mission. Most people tend to start at the membership

level and, with the right rewards, move up to the performance level. In time, providing the right

environment exists, some people will reach the highest level of commitment, the involvement

level.

Membership Level

Individuals at the membership level only give the required time and effort to the organization.

Since they depend on the organization for an income, they merely meet the set standards and

nothing more. For instance, a subordinate is required to work eight hours a day, five days a

week and nothing more. Individuals at this level avoid getting too involved in their jobs and

often complain about their work but never take action to improve the situation (extrinsic

motivation).

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Performance Level

Individuals at this level understand and appreciate the rewards and benefits of doing more than

those at the membership level. Here, their basic needs are still being satisfied; however, they

tend to be more involved in the work center and contribute as long as leadership recognizes their

contributions. They bring their complaints and problems to leadership’s attention and may offer

solutions. They also demonstrate initiative and actually solve problem so long as their efforts

are recognized and rewarded by leadership (extrinsic motivation).

Involvement Level

Individuals at this level are personally satisfied with their work and feel their personal needs and

desires are being met. Their motivation comes from within which enables them to produce high-

quality products and services. They truly enjoy what they do and believe that their job is worth

doing and doing well. People operating at this level identify problems, offer solutions, and

usually take action to correct problems. They strive for personal and organizational success

(intrinsic motivation).

Effective leaders know their Airmen’s temperaments and strengths and create an environment in

which their Airmen can use both. Creating such a work environment allows people to reach

their maximum potential and when they do, they reward themselves for jobs well done.

Knowing your people is a big part of contemporary motivation. Each Airman has an internal

switch that triggers his or her motivation. When leaders create the right environment, as

described above, individuals “switch on” their own motivation and begin operating at the

involvement level of commitment. Just imagine how effective your work center would be if

every member operated at the involvement level (see Figure 8). Below are three types of

rewards that are an integral part of contemporary motivation.

System Level Rewards - We receive system level rewards just for being a member of

the organization. System level rewards are things the organization provides such as pay,

training, annual leave, medical and dental benefits, etc., whether operating at the

membership, performance, or involvement level of commitment, everyone receives these

rewards.

Supervisory Rewards - Given to those who go beyond the standard, they include such

things as praise, public recognition, time-off, bonus pay, promotions, special

assignments, greater roles and responsibilities, etc. People who depend on these rewards

generally operate at the performance level of commitment.

Personal Rewards - These rewards come from within us. When we fully enjoy our

work, we strive to exceed every standard and reward ourselves for a job well done.

Because we are personally satisfied with our own work, we do not need or rely on

anyone else to reward our efforts. People capable of this type of reward operate at the

involvement level of commitment.

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Supervisor’s Responsibilities for Rewards

A supervisor’s ultimate goal is to create an environment where workers can thrive. One method

used to motivate and move our people from the membership level of commitment to the

performance level is with rewards. Everyone is entitled to receive system level rewards (see

Figure 8). However, it is a supervisor’s responsibility to ensure their subordinates meet all

standards and receive all system level rewards. Supervisors must strive to move their people

from the membership level of commitment to the performance level by appropriately rewarding

those who perform above the standard. However, supervisors cannot motivate people to move to

the involvement level since this commitment comes from within, intrinsically. However, what

supervisors can do (and should do) is create an environment where people can thrive. An

environment where they thoroughly enjoy what they do and realize the importance of their

efforts.

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Knowledge Check

Figure 9, Motivational Theory Crossword Puzzle

5. Down: This theory categorizes one’s commitment level into three categories. The answer

key appears to be answers to Johari’s Window?

6. Across: In this type of motivation, people their results to factors they can control.

7. Across: ______________ theory posits that people are motivated by how well they

perform, what social group(s) they are associated with, and the position and authority they

hold.

8. Across: This type of motivation comes from recognition, pay raises, and other tangible

rewards.

9. Up: ____________ theory is based on the belief that one is motivated by favorable and

unfavorable results.

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Full Range Leadership Model

Figure 10, Full Range Leadership Model

The many dramatic changes and challenges we face today such as shifting demographics,

workforce diversity, international relations, geographic political power, innovations in

technology, threats to the environment, economic (global and national), and collaborative

business practices calls for a more proactive leader who motivates subordinates to perform

beyond expectations. The Full Range Leadership Model is a leadership training system that

suggests leaders perform throughout a gamut of leadership behaviors ranging from active and

effective behavior to a more passive and less effective behavior. Having the ability to use a full

range of leadership behaviors is essential in today’s complex world.

FRLD is unique in that it requires us to view leadership as a system. Its success relies on not

only the leader’s actions but also the follower and the situation. Together, these three elements

working in concert with one another, like gears in a mechanical system, creating the core of the

leadership system (see Figure 11). These three elements affect each other differently and in

different ways. What’s more, this core is surrounded by less-obvious components like resources,

peers and associates, evaluations, rewards and punishments, developmental relationships,

opportunities, and challenges, which affect the three elements of the core. Holistically,

everything (the core elements and the other components) are susceptible to change over time and

are limited by existing boundaries and constraints.17

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Figure 11, The Leadership System

Leader

A leader is someone who influences others to achieve a goal. They are typical men and women

who, though not perfect, strive to display ethical behavior, virtues, and character strengths in

their actions as they battle their own vices and idiosyncrasies. They possess certain personality

traits like confidence as well as a personal set of values, beliefs, and ideas regarding how things

are and how they should be.18

Follower

A follower is someone who chooses to follow a leader because of the leader’s character,

abilities, and vision. Like leaders, followers are not perfect and are usually not selected by the

leaders, but are inherited based on the situation. Great followers possess a love of learning and a

passion to apply what they have learned. They are motivated, creative, and possess a high level

of commitment to each other, the leader, and the organization.

Situation

There are many ways to describe a situation. Merriam-Webster describes situation as a “relative

position or combination of circumstances at a certain moment” or a “critical, trying, or unusual

state of affairs.”19 According to FRLD principles, a situation describes the relative

circumstances, position, or context that surrounds the leader and followers.

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FRLD, like other complex systems, is comprised of several parts that are interdependent of one

another. Throughout this system, energy (effort and motivation), resources, and information

“flows” exist between the components. The amounts of these flows depend on the leader

behaviors, follower actions, and the situation, which can either contribute or detract from the

system’s performance. FRLD requires today’s leaders to consider all the components of the

leadership system and be willing to work with all the other components like:

Developing relationships with leadership, peers, and subordinates;

Taking advantage of opportunities as they come available;

Efficiently using available resources;

Properly evaluating situations and the performance of followers;

Rewarding appropriately (and disciplining accordingly); and

Identifying areas for improvement (self, followers, and work place).

The FRLD model consists of a range of leadership behaviors that describe different styles of

leadership. According to the model (see Fig. 10), leaders display behaviors of leadership styles

that range from passive in nature, to more active. The more active the behavior, the more

effective the leader becomes. Below is a breakout of the full range of behaviors, beginning with

the most passive and ineffective.

Passive Leadership

Laissez-Faire (the “non-leadership”)

Those who exercise laissez-faire leadership:

View the development of their subordinates as someone else’s problem;

Abandon or pass on their responsibilities to others;

Fail to respond urgently to critical situations;

Remain indifferent toward important issues; and

Are hesitant to make decisions or deal with chronic problems.

Since these leaders are usually absent from their duties and place of work, relationships with

subordinates suffers. Subordinates are less likely to consider those who use this laissez-faire

behavior as their leader. You could say that this behavior of leadership is missing something:

the leadership.

Management by Exception-Passive (MBE-P)

Considered slightly effective, MBE-P is the “if it isn’t broke, don’t fix it” leadership approach.

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An MBE-P leader:

Elects to sit back and wait for things to go wrong before taking action;

Intervenes only if standards are not being met based on in-place control measures; and

Will hold subordinates accountable if they fail to meet standards.

Due to these behaviors, followers will pay close attention to what is important to the leader.

However, followers tend to not trust those who do not take a more active leadership approach

and will demonstrate little commitment and motivation to this person and the organization. The

passive leadership behavior produces passive subordinate compliance.

Transactional Leadership

Transactional Leadership centers on the ‘transaction’ between the leader and the follower. If can

be corrective (“If you don’t adhere to the standards, you will get a LOC!”) or constructive (“If

we get an Excellent rating on the inspection, you will get a day off!”). Both of these statements

highlight a typical transaction and, depending on the type of Airman, should result in the

behavior the leader expects to see.

There are two types of Transactional Leadership behaviors: the corrective Management By

Exception-Active and the constructive Contingent Reward.

Management by Exception-Active (MBE-A)

MBE-A is the corrective transaction between the leader and the follower. It exists in structured

systems with detailed instructions, careful observation, and active supervision.

The MBE-A leader:

Controls followers through forced compliance with rules, regulations, and expectations;

Is more concerned with identifying problems and correcting them than trends in

performance;

Closely monitors performance for errors;

Focuses attention on errors or deviations from the standards; and

Wants to know if and when problems occur.

MBE-A can be effective if used appropriately in the right situation (high stakes or critical). It

reduces organizational uncertainties, avoids unnecessary risks, and ensures important goals are

being achieved. It also reduces the temptation for subordinates to shirk their duties or act

unethically and aids members in meeting defined performance objectives. Followers appreciate

the MBE-A leadership behavior as it reduces followers’ uncertainties regarding their purpose.

This leadership style is inappropriate for all situations and becomes very ineffective if it is they

only style used. Followers may have a hard time identifying with and trusting a leader that

constantly focuses on the negative or micromanages every aspect of the job.

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Contingent Rewards

Contingent Rewards involves the constructive transaction between the leader and the follower.

This transaction becomes a ‘contract’ or goal between the leader and the follower.

A leader using Contingent Rewards:

Sets goals, clarifies roles, and explains expectations;

Uses extrinsic motivation to get followers to achieve goals. When the follower fulfills

the leader’s expectations, a reward is provided to reinforce the demonstrated positive

behavior;20 and

Actively monitors progress and provides supportive feedback.

The leader tends to establish a constructive transaction with followers by:

1. Setting Goals For and With Followers. Setting goals directs your followers’ attention

to what needs to be achieved. Goals motivate followers by increasing their persistence

and persuades them to strategize ways to best achieve the objective or develop action

plans to meet their target.21

2. Suggest Pathways to Meet Performance Expectations. Aside from setting goals,

followers often need ideas on how to attain these goals. Here the leader can assist by

clarifying expectations and suggesting ways to accomplish the task(s). By offering ways

to achieve their goals and providing the necessary resources to do so, leaders are able to

provide a well-defined pathway allowing followers to reach desired performance

expectations.

3. Actively Monitor Followers’ Progress and Provide Supportive Feedback. Like

parenting, leaders must proactively monitor each follower’s progress and provide

resources that empower them physically, psychologically, and intellectually. Supporting

your followers is imperative to their success.

4. Provide Rewards when Goals are Attained. Successes need to be rewarded which

become “stepping stones” to a stronger self-image and greater achievements. Providing

extrinsic rewards and recognition for meeting performance expectations and achieving

goals is the hallmark of contingent reward leadership.22

Transformational Leadership

Have you ever had a person in your life that changed you for the better? One who helped you

recognize the greatness that existed within you and encouraged you to become the person you

are today? It is leaders like this that enable us, that help transform us into our best possible

selves.

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The transformational leader:

Offers followers a vision and inspires them to complete their mission;

Inspires followers to exceed their goals;

Promote positive and meaningful changes; and

Uses the “4 Is” to influence and “transform” others.

There are four components of transformational leadership, the “4 Is”:

Individualized Consideration (Nurturing)

A transformational leader’s ultimate aim is to develop followers into leaders themselves. Using

Individualized Consideration, leaders:

Treat others as individuals with different needs, abilities, and aspirations and not just a

part of a group of subordinates;23

‘Nurture’ followers by acting as mentors or coaches, listening to their concerns; and

Empathizes with and supports each follower and keeps channels of communication open.

Intellectual Stimulation(Thinking)

This is the degree to which leaders value their subordinates’ rationality and intellect, seeking

different perspectives and considering opposing points of view. Using Intellectual Stimulations,

leaders:

Value learning and use unexpected situations as opportunities to learn and grow;

Stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers;

Advocate rational thinking and use systematic analysis as a means to creatively solve

problems;

Are not afraid to takes risks and solicit ideas from their followers; and

Encourage followers to be independent thinkers.

Inspirational Motivation (Charming)

This leader behavior involves developing and articulating visions that paint an optimistic and

enthusiastic picture of the future that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Using Inspirational

Motivation, leaders:

Present their vision as a shared vision…the “must achieve future.” These visions elevate

performance expectations and inspire followers to put forth extra effort to achieve the

leader’s vision;

Help followers develop a strong sense of purpose. This purpose provides the energy that

drives a person, team, and/or organization forward;

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Express confidence in their followers;

Presents the vision in an understandable, precise, powerful, and engaging manner using

expert communication skills; and

Require followers to work together as a team in order to achieve the vision.

Idealized Influence (Influencing)

Transformational leaders are charismatic and act as positive role models that “walk the walk”.

In other words, they hold themselves to the highest standards, personally and professionally;

thus followers tend to trust and respect the leader and will emulate the leader’s behavior. Using

Idealized Influence, leaders:

Display high levels of moral behavior, virtues, and character strengths, as well as a

strong work ethic;

Represent the organizational values, beliefs, purpose in words and actions and encourage

the same in their followers;

Champion trusting one another; and

Set aside their self-interests for the good of the group.

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Knowledge Check

Match the descriptions from the left column to their respective concepts in the right column.

Responses may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Description Concept

10. _____This leadership is missing something…the

leader.

a. Management by Exception-

Active

11. _____With this behavior, a ‘contract’ is

established between the leader and the follower.

b. Management by Exception-

Passive

12. _____This leader is reactive rather than proactive

and waits for things to go wrong.

c. Idealized Influence

13. _____Followers trust and respect leaders who

demonstrate this behavior because they “walks

the walk.”

d. Contingent Rewards

14. _____This behavior can be very effective if used

appropriately and counterproductive if used

excessively.

e. Intellectual Stimulation

15. _____This attribute refers to a leader’s ability to

visualize an achievable future and assist followers

in developing a sense of purpose.

f. Laissez-Faire

16. _____Leaders demonstrate this by treating their

followers as individuals and supporting each

one’s specific, developmental needs.

g. Individualized Consideration

17. _____This is what transformational leaders use to

stimulate and encourage creativity and critical

thought.

h. Inspirational Motivation

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Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership

According to AFI 36-2618, NCOs must “take an active leadership and supervisory role by

staying involved with subordinates on a daily basis.” As a supervisor and leader, you will

“guide and instruct subordinates to ensure they are prepared to accept increased levels of

authority and responsibility while assisting them in reaching their full potential.” The FRLD

model helps NCOs meet these responsibilities by providing a set of tools to use in developing

more effective Airmen: Transactional and Transformational Leadership--is one better than the

other?

Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership

Characteristic Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership

Leader’s source of power is: Rank, position, authority Character, credibility,

competence

Follower reaction is mostly: Compliance Commitment

Duration of results: Short-term Long-term

Rewards are typically: Extrinsic (i.e. pay, promotion) Intrinsic (i.e. pride, self-esteem)

Leader’s focus is on: Performance evaluation Personal development

Effects are on the: Follower’s behavior Follower’s attitude

This style targets the: Follower’s actions Follower’s heart

Table 2. Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership24

When thinking about Transactional and Transformational Leadership, you may be asking

yourself, “Which one is best?” Well, the answer is simply, “It depends…” Each has its

advantages and its limitations (see Table 2). In choosing the appropriate style for a given

situation, you must consider the time you have to accomplish your task, your abilities, and those

of your followers, and the nature of the situation. Transactional leadership tends to have a “here

and now,” task related focus. Transformational leadership runs deeper and focuses on a

fundamental change in your followers’ professional character. However, transactional and

transformational leadership are not opposing approaches to getting things done. Rather, think of

transformational leadership as growing from the foundation of transactional leadership. It

produces levels of effort and performance on your subordinates’ part that go beyond what you

can help them achieve using the transactional approach. The two styles can even complement

each other—and frequently do. For example, when using the MBE-A style, the result might be

enhanced by using Inspirational Motivation in order to motivate your subordinates to perform

better. Alternatively, when using Contingent Reward, you could also use Intellectual

Stimulation to get subordinates more involved in processes. This could evolve into less of a

reliance on external rewards and more of a personal commitment to the organization.

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Leadership Profile Measure Self-Assessment

The Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education, Academic Affairs is presently developing

a Leadership Profile Measure to be used in the Airman Leadership School programs. Date of

release for the Leadership Profile Measure assessment is early CY 2014.

Self-Reflection Opportunity: Considering the material provided in this chapter about Full

Range Leadership Development, how will you use this information to enhance your

effectiveness as a leader?

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Now that you have learned about Full Range Leadership Development concepts, answer the

following questions.

1. How might your understanding of FRLD impact your interaction with subordinates,

peers, and/or supervisors?

2. How might your understanding of FRLD impact mission effectiveness?


This chapter began by examining the evolution of leadership study and the many theories

developed to answer the million-dollar question: What is leadership? The reading continued

with a study of several motivational concepts and theories that able us to motivate others. All

this led to the creation of Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD) and why it is so

important for today’s leaders to operate from a full range of leadership styles instead of just one

and the four components that make up FRLD.

As noncommissioned officers and enlisted leaders, we are responsible for providing our Airmen

the leadership and encouragement they need to successfully meet and complete the mission.

Full Range Leadership Development is the latest in leadership theory that explains various active

and passive leader behaviors that, depending on the leader, follower, and situation; can help

change, or transform, each Airman into becoming their best possible self.

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Formative Exercise

1. During the staff meeting, MSgt Long says, “We are facing an extremely important and

challenging mission. Since the recent budget cuts, our unit has been tasked to find more

efficient ways to operate. To accomplish this, we must set aside our individual differences and

approach this task with optimism and enthusiasm. I am confident that with a team effort, we

will exceed the unacceptable status quo and find new and innovative ways to operate with this

reduced budget.” Immediately after the meeting, several subordinates approach MSgt Long with

their ideas and concerns.

MSgt Long’s actions BEST illustrate _________ and its impact on NCO effectiveness.

a. Individualized Consideration

b. Inspirational Motivation

c. Intellectual Stimulation

2. SSgt Cox tells SrA Green, his newest instructor, “Since you’ve never instructed before, let’s

begin an intensive training program. Your goal is to teach 18 of the 30 lessons during this next

class. I will help you prepare to teach each lesson, as well as monitor your performance

throughout the course to ensure compliance with standards.” After graduation, Cox says to

Green, “Congratulations on meeting your goal! During the next class, you will be required to

teach all 30 lessons. In the meantime, let’s work together on a plan for you to win Instructor of

the Quarter.” Feeling a bit overwhelmed but excited about the opportunity, Green replies,

“Okay.”

SSgt Cox’s _______ will MOST likely ________ his and SrA Green’s effectiveness.

a. use of Transformational Leadership; enhance

b. misuse of Transformational Leadership; hinder

c. use of Transactional Leadership; enhance

d. misuse of Transactional Leadership; hinder

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Key Terms

Contemporary Motivation, 131

Contingent Rewards, 139

Contingency Theory, 123

Extrinsic Motivation, 126

Full Range Leadership Model, 135

Idealized Influence, 141

Individualized Consideration, 140

Inspirational Motivation, 141

Intellectual Stimulation, 141

Intrinsic Motivation, 126

Involvement Level, 132

Laissez-Faire, 137

Management by Exception-Active, 137

Management by Exception-Passive, 138

Membership Level, 131

Need Theory, 130

Negative Punishment, 130

Negative Reinforcement, 130

Operant Conditioning Theory, 129

Performance Level, 132

Personal Rewards, 132

Positive Punishment, 130

Positive Reinforcement, 130

Situational Leadership Theory, 122

Skills Theory, 122

System Level Rewards, 132

Supervisory Rewards, 132

Trait Theory, 122

Transactional Leadership, 138

Transformational Leadership, 139

References

BusinessDictionary.com website. Management by Exception (MBE)

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management-by-exception-MBE.html (accessed

17 Jun 11).

Cherry, Kendra. Psychology: Introduction to Operant Conditioning.

http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm (accessed 23 Jun

11).

Jung, Don I. and Sosik, John J. The Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People,

Profit, and Planet. Taylor & Francis Group, New York and London (2010).

Kinicki-Kreitner. Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills, and Best Practices, Fourth

Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies (2009).

Management Study Guide website. Fiedler’s Contingency Model.

http://www.managementstudyguide.com/fiedlers-contingency-model.htm (accessed 29 Jun

11).

Merriam-Webster website. “Situation.” http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/situation?show=0&t=1308773258 (accessed 22 Jun 11).

Stafford, Mathew C., The Full Range Leadership Model: A Brief Primer (Air University, 2010).

Tornado Chaser website. Where is Tornado Alley? http://www.tornadochaser.net/tornado.html

(accessed 29 Jun 11).

Wright State University website. Motivating Others Through Goals and Rewards.

http://www.wright.edu/~scott.williams/LeaderLetter/motivating.htm (accessed 17 Jun

146



1. Your responses should have centered on:

- I can use this newfound understanding of FRLD and the various leadership

behaviors I can choose from to effectively interact with others

- I can choose the appropriate motivational theory to effectively encourage others

accomplish their part of the mission

- With this understanding, I can be more effective as a NCO for my Airmen, peers,

and supervision

2. Your responses should have centered on:

- Realizing each individual prefers to be led and motivated differently will enable me

to communicate better with everyone

- By effectively leading and motivating others, I will be able to meet mission

requirements in a timely manner, while conserving resources

- Understanding each leadership behavior of FRLD will allow me to match the

appropriate behavior with the individual and situation


1. The Situational Leadership Theory considers a one’s ability to complete a specific task

and the use of four leadership styles to aid in his or her development.

2. The Trait Leadership Theory states that a person’s ability to lead depends on their

intellect, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and social skills.

3. The Skills Leadership Theory focuses on the argument that a person’s ability to lead

depends on their emotional intelligence, awareness, and control.

4. The Contingency Leadership Theory believes that pairing a leader to a specific situation

is the most effective method because leaders cannot adjust their behaviors.

5. Down: Contemporary

6. Across: Intrinsic

7. Across: McClelland’s

8. Across: Extrinsic

9. Up: Skinner’s

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Figure 12, Motivational Theory Crossword Puzzle Answer Key

Match the descriptions from the left column to their respective concepts in the right column.

Responses may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Description Concept

10. f. This leadership is missing something…the

leader.

a. Management by Exception-

Active

11. _d. With this behavior, a ‘contract’ is

established between the leader and the follower. b. Management by Exception-

Passive

12. _b._This leader is reactive rather than proactive

and waits for things to go wrong.

c. Idealized Influence

13. _c._Followers trust and respect leaders who

demonstrate this behavior because they “walks

the walk.”

d. Contingent Rewards

14. _a._This behavior can be very effective if used

appropriately and counterproductive if used

excessively.

e. Intellectual Stimulation

15. _h._This attribute refers to a leader’s ability to

visualize an achievable future and assist followers

in developing a sense of purpose.

f. Laissez-Faire

16. _g._Leaders demonstrate this by treating their

followers as individuals and supporting each

one’s specific, developmental needs.

g. Individualized Consideration

17. _e._This is what transformational leaders use to

stimulate and encourage creativity and critical

thought.

h. Inspirational Motivation

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1. CORRECT ANSWER: b

RATIONALES:

a. INCORRECT: Nothing in MSgt Long’s comments or actions address Individualized Consideration

which, according to the FRLD chapter, includes the elements of “treating others as individuals with

different needs, abilities, and aspirations and not just a part of a group of subordinates; mentor or

coach followers; listen to follower concerns; empathizes and support each follower; and keep channels

of communication open.” See rationale for correct response for additional information.

b. CORRECT: The statements that MSgt Long makes to his team represent Inspirational Motivation,

which according to the FRLD chapter, involves developing and articulating visions that paint an

optimistic and enthusiastic picture of the future that is appealing and inspiring to followers. The

transformational leader presents their vision as a shared vision…the “must achieve future. Helps

followers develop a strong sense of purpose; expresses confidence in their followers; presents the

vision in an understandable, precise, powerful, and engaging manner; requires followers to work

together as a team.”

c. INCORRECT: Nothing in this scenario addresses Intellectual Stimulation, which, according to the

FRLD chapter, is seeking different perspectives and considering opposing points of view. Here,

leaders consider learning a value and unexpected situations as opportunities to learn and grow,

stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers, advocate rational thinking and uses systematic

analysis as a means to creatively solve problems and innovation, are not afraid to takes risks and

solicit ideas from their followers, and encourage followers to be independent thinkers. See rationale

for correct response for additional information.

2. CORRECT ANSWER: c

RATIONALES:

a. INCORRECT: Although some of Cox’s actions hint at one part of Transformational Leadership,

Individualized Consideration, none of his actions are the actual use of Individualized Consideration,

where leaders treat others as individuals with different needs/abilities/aspirations and not just part of a

group. They keep channels of communication open. See rationale for correct response for additional

information.

b. INCORRECT: None of Cox’s actions show the actual use of Individualized Consideration. See

rationales for ‘a’ and correct response for additional information.

c. CORRECT: According to the Full Range Leadership Development chapter, SSgt Cox uses

Transactional Leadership [MBE-A] to train SrA Green by keeping him and the processes in control,

monitoring and controlling Green’s compliance with performance standards. MBE-A exists in

structured system with detailed instructions, careful observation, and active supervision. SSgt Cox

also implements contingent rewards (transactional behaviors that involve the constructive transaction

between the leader and the follower. These transactions formulate a sort of “contract” where the

leader sets goals, identifies ways for the subordinate to reach these goals, and supports the follower in

meeting these expectations. The follower is required to perform assigned tasks to a specified

performance level. When the follower fulfills the leader’s expectations, a reward is provided to

reinforce the demonstrated positive behavior) by congratulating Green on meeting his goal and

prepares to nominate him for Instructor of the Quarter. If he continues this behavior, SSgt Cox will

most likely enhance his own effectiveness as well as SrA Green’s.

d. INCORRECT: SSgt Cox used transactional leadership correctly, which will enhance (not hinder) his

and Green’s effectiveness. See rationale for correct response.

Chapter Five: Four Lenses


- INTRODUCTION:

THE FOUR LENSES

- THE FOUR TEMPERMENTS

-- Green

-- Blue

-- Gold

-- Orange

- BLIND SPOTS

- COMMUNICATING THROUGH

THE “LENSES”

- MATURITY

- REAL-LIFE GUIDELINES AND

STRATEGIES OF COLORS

“All of us think we see the world as it is: when in

reality we see it as we are.”

- Stephen Covey

Figure 1, Perspective

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This chapter marks the beginning of your

journey into self-awareness. As you already

know, we all have our own preferences,

mannerisms, and methods as to how we

approach life, its challenges, and one another.

These variances make life creative, innovative,

and intriguing. However, they can also be the

root cause of conflict, misunderstandings, and

heartache. Therefore, the more we learn about

our own personality and temperaments, the

more effective we will be when interacting with

one another.

It is no secret that our individual happiness and

success often depends on our ability to

positively interact with others. After all,

practically everything we need, want, and

expect from life is usually provided through the

aid and assistance of others. For instance, we

constantly rely on the support of our parents,

teachers, siblings, neighbors, co-workers,

subordinates, mentors, customer service

employees, resource advisors, etc. to either

reach personal, mutual, and organizational

goals. With the clashes of differing views and

personalities, you may wonder, How did we

ever survive? Taking the steps toward a higher

understanding of others and ourselves enables

us to better interact with one another, thus

improving our effectiveness and ultimately,

success.

This chapter begins by introducing a

revolutionary theory that identifies four specific

personality temperaments known as the Four

Lenses. Next, it offers an in-depth explanation

of each temperament and another element of our

social construct known as blind spots. It

continues by explaining how we can

communicate “through the Lenses” to achieve

desired results and examines the role maturity

plays in social interaction. Finally, it provides

some strategies to assist you in effectively

putting the Four Lenses into practice.

Upon completion of this chapter, learners should

be able to:


Comprehend Four Lenses concepts and their

impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

Terminal Cognitive Samples of

Behavior:

1. Explain Four Lenses concepts and/or their

impact on subordinate NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

2. Give examples of Four Lenses concepts

and/or their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of Four Lenses concepts

on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.


1. Explain:

a. traits/characteristics associated with each of the four temperaments.

b. importance of adjusting one’s

communication style when dealing with temperaments different from one’s own.

c. maturity as it relates to the Four Lenses.

2. Summarize the four basic personality temperaments.

3. Give examples of adjusting one’s

communication style when dealing with temperaments different from one’s own.

4. Describe how Four Lenses concepts can impact leading others and teams.

Affective Objective: Value Four Lenses.


1. Read about Four Lenses concepts with an

open mind and remember new information (receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress checks,

adult learning profile, IDDP exercises, and

self-reflection), and question concepts,

models, etc. in order to fully understand them (responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use of Four

Lenses concepts positively impacts


4. Willingly develop a preference for using

Four Lenses concepts to enhance

individual, unit, and mission effectiveness

(value).

5. Commit to using Four Lenses concepts to



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STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME: Students who graduate from Airman Leadership

Distance Learning Course will possess an improved knowledge and understanding of Four

Lenses concepts.

Introduction: The Four Lenses

The Four Lenses is a practical theory that identifies the four distinct personality temperament

types that exist within each of us and throughout society. It is intended to assist us in

recognizing the temperament we prefer to operate from the most as well as the preferred

temperaments of others so that we may, regardless of existing personality differences, interact

more effectively.

The Four Lenses is a product of the research conducted by Swiss

psychologist, Dr. Carl Jung who believed that observation of the

habitual exercise of individual choice, consistent with certain shared

preferences, could be used to help identify fundamental differences in

people. According to Jung, each person is

born with a specific predisposition toward

a particular preference. In the 1940’s,

Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs

combined the works of Jung with their own

findings to create an instrument we know

as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

(MBTI).25

Today, it is one of the most widely used personality

surveys in the world. Dr. David Keirsey, a renowned clinical

psychologist also used some of Jung’s research to develop the

Keirsey Temperament Theory.26 Both of these instruments are

foundational to the Four Lenses assessment.

Special Note:

As you examine the Four Lenses theory, keep in mind that the terms preferences, colors, and

temperaments are synonymous. Every person you meet or interact with is a unique individual,

each with his or her own personality traits, characteristics, and mannerisms, all expressed in

different ways.

What one likes and dislikes, where and how they were raised, what their beliefs and values are,

and their unique life experiences all contribute to making each of us different.

Figure 2, Dr. Carl Jung

Figure 3, Dr. David Keirsey

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As you learn about the Four Lenses, remember that even

though we all have a preferred temperament that we

behave from and view the world through the most, each

of us is a compilation of all four temperaments.

The Four Lenses identifies four rather different “approaches” to life, known as temperaments. In

the Four Lenses, these temperament styles are categorized using and easy-to-remember color

code of Gold, Green, Blue, and Orange. It is easy for people who share the same temperament

style to relate, communicate, and get along because they “see” each other through the same lens.

However, by learning about each temperament, we are better able to understand everyone rather

than only those who are most like us. According to research conducted by the experts at Shipley

Communications, today’s society is a compilation of the four temperaments with 44 percent of

the population preferring Gold, followed closely by the Orange (40 percent), Green (10 percent),

and lastly the Blue temperament (only 6 percent)27.

The Four Temperaments

As previously noted, there are four different temperament styles represented by colors: Gold,

Green, Blue, and Orange. It is important to remember that each of us is a compilation of all four

temperaments. However, we choose to view and approach life through a most preferred “lens”

or temperament.

Green

Logical thought and analytical evaluation are at the core of the

Green. One who prefers this temperament values competence in

themselves and others and can quickly develop contempt for

individuals they consider incompetent. Greens often like to work in

solitude and have a hard time with rules and routine. They are

reasonable and inquisitive, always inclined to ask endless “why”

questions. Because of their never-ending search for better or

improved ways to accomplish things, they require sufficient time to

complete tasks. For the Green temperament, all assignments need

to be meaningful and are most valued when they realize that the

experience will enhance their competence, knowledge, and credibility as an intellectual.

Figure 5, Green Temperament

Figure 4, Temperament percentages

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Greens are most interested in expanding their own knowledge and abilities rather than tending to

the needs of others. It is not usually important for those who prefer this temperament to feel like

they fit in. In fact, many of them relish the fact that they are different and may go to great

lengths to ensure they do not follow the societal “herd.” Often they will follow a belief that

takes the moral or intellectual high ground, even if it causes disharmony with others. They are

usually not afraid to engage in heated debate, as long the discussion focuses on ideas and

concepts and not feelings or emotions. Greens feel the need to challenge the status quo in

pursuit of innovation for the betterment of the process rather than the people. You could say

their motto is, “If it isn’t broke, there is still a better way.” The Green temperament does not

require ample amounts of social and emotional support, but they do desire support and

encouragement when it comes to their ideas and cognitive abilities.28

Below are some tips for motivating Greens:

Be competent

Avoid defending black-and-white positions that rely on feelings or conjecture

Value them as individuals

Value intelligence, facts, and research

Create assignments that are thought-provoking and meaningful

Recognize them for their ability to think and work with new ideas

Explore and entertain the “what-if” questions as well as theories

Allow them to work in their area of interest and expertise

Provide multiple and continuous access to resources

Help them to understand the significance and impact of their assignments

Provide opportunities for them to share what their knowledge

Provide opportunities for them to develop alternative approaches

Be personally inquisitive and reward their inquisitive nature

Let them experiment

Be flexible and reasonable

Focus on facts, theories, and proper analysis of data, information, and knowledge

Allow them to work with like-minded people

People with Green as their preferred temperament include Aristotle, President Abraham Lincoln,

Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Steven Spielberg, Steven Hawking, and Steve Jobs.

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Figure 6, Examples of the Green Temperament

Blue

Feelings and people are at the crux of the Blue temperament.

When these individuals receive emotional support and

understanding from others, there is no limit to what they can

accomplish. Interpersonal interaction and relationships are

essential components of this temperament. Blues strive to please

others, offer encouragement, and will oftentimes go out of their

way to help everyone fit in to the group. Harmony and peace are

very important to those who prefer the Blue temperament and will

sacrifice their wants just to maintain group cohesion.

Blues want to be a positive and productive part of the group and respond well to diplomatic team

settings. To increase and maintain their personal energy levels, they desire considerable

amounts of emotional support and constructive feedback from their peers. For example,

compliments are more effective when correcting substandard performance than criticism.

Therefore, a good rule of thumb when working with a Blue is offering five compliments to one

criticism. The five compliments will somewhat cushion the blow before and/or after giving the

constructive criticism. They must believe that your criticism is given out of genuine concern for

their well being. As mentioned, those of the Blue

temperament follow through on their assignments if for no

other reason to avoid disappointing others. However, they

have to choose between meeting a deadline and tending to

the needs of another, the person will almost always become

the Blues top priority. A good rule of thumb for

understanding the Blue temperament is that people and

cohesion is the absolute and not the exception.29

Below are some tips for motivating Blues:

Make sure they know you care about them personally

Focus on feeling, not just on facts

Create a pleasant, inviting, and harmonious environment

Create ways for them to use their creative abilities

Figure 7, Blue Temperament

Figure 7, Blues are Caring

155


Reward them with small personal interactions such as notes, smiles, approving looks, etc.

Utilize principles, not facts

Engage them in group projects or activities

Be enthusiastic, happy, and upbeat

Smile and laugh a lot

Draw on their values and interests

Be whimsical and allow them to do the same

Show concern for their needs

Downplay competition

Focus on subjects at the feeling level as well as the intellectual level

Use open-ended questions

Make sure people come before any other consideration

Examples of famous people who prefer the Blue temperament include Oprah Winfrey, Eleanor

Roosevelt, Martin Luther King Jr., President Jimmy Carter, Mahatma Gandhi, and Dranafile

Bojaxhiu (you may know her as Mother Theresa).

Figure 8, Examples of the Blue Temperament

156


Gold

Structure, security, and order are at the core of the Gold temperament.

Golds thrive well in environments that are deliberate and well

organized. Confusion, chaos, and disorder are very unsettling and

frustrating to those who prefer the Gold temperament. They are

typically obedient, law-abiding, and respectful of rules and authority.

Golds pride themselves on hard work and dedication and appreciate

detailed instruction with well-defined details. Once they know precisely

what is expected of them, Golds are goal oriented, ready to complete any

task requiring little prompting or encouragement. You can usually

rely on those who prefer the Gold temperament to do the right thing

because they truly believe that rule following and law-abiding is the best and only way to be.

They have a strong sense of loyalty and duty, and they excel in positions of leadership and

authority. Golds often expect all things to be fair, morally right, and just and work best in

environments where everyone “pulls their own weight” and respond well to verbal praise and

acknowledgement of their efforts. A good rule of thumb for when understanding this

temperament is that a Gold’s real happiness is achieving established goals on time while keeping

everything in order and in its proper and rightful place.30

Below are some tips for motivating the Gold temperament:

Treat them professionally

Focus on traditional approaches

Make sure all expectations are clearly explained and outlined

Reward them in tangible ways

Lay out things in a step-by-step fashion

Be highly organized and establish a predictable routine

Follow and enforce the rules

Be fair

Clearly explain acceptable behaviors and expect them to do the right thing

Maintain an orderly work environment

Develop assignments focused and organized with specific goals and objectives

Create clearly identifiable tasks and responsibilities

Help them see there is more than one right way to do something

Provide opportunities to fix mistakes

Be prompt in providing feedback

Figure 9, Gold Temperament

157


Give them enough time to do an assignment well

Let them work in leadership or service positions

Examples of the Gold temperament include Julius Caesar, President Harry S. Truman, John D.

Rockefeller, Sandra Day O’Connor, and retired U.S. Army General, former Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff and Secretary of State, Colin Powell.

Figure 10, Examples of the Gold Temperament

Orange

Fun and excitement are staples of the Orange temperament.

They thrive on competition and the adrenaline rush from doing

things others are typically afraid to try. Oranges prefer to

surround themselves with people who are willing to laugh,

explore, play hard, take risks, and work hard. At times, they

may be viewed as renegades and free spirits, challenging

authority and the status quo when in reality Oranges believe that

there respect is something that is earned, not expected and that

taking chances leads to innovation and improvement.

Though many people mistake their tireless optimism and

happy-go-lucky spirit as something less than a serious

approach to life, those who prefer the Orange

temperament are upbeat, fun, inspiring to be around and

are relentless when they are involved in pursuits that are

valuable to them. They possess a tireless ability and

stamina and work as hard as they play. Oranges are

proud of their competitive drive, which makes them

highly ambitious and successful. Although Oranges

may appear unorganized and unprepared, they have their

own sense of order and an impressive ability to think

under pressure. They desire the ability to accomplish

tasks and issues in a very practical way.

Figure 11, Orange Temperament

Figure 12, Orange Temperament

158


If they cannot see the immediate reason for doing something, they will often dismiss it as stupid

or boring. Oranges typically allow their gut instincts to determine their actions without fully

considering the possible consequences. A good rule of thumb for understanding an Orange is

they love fun, excitement, and being in the center of the action.31

Below are some tips for motivating Oranges:

Keep life engaging, fun, and exciting by using non-traditional approaches

Make sure all expectations are clearly explained and understood

Help them find some joy in doing thing Gold things

Be flexible

Be willing to negotiate

Be willing to overlook certain behaviors

Make sure to remind them continually concerning due dates and assignments

Use humor

Establish a non-obtrusive routine

Make things more hands-on

Help them stay on task

Provide opportunities for alternative assignments

Utilize their boundless energy

Allow them to learn by doing

Develop the use of healthy competition

Provide immediate and tangible rewards

Figure 13, Examples of the Orange Temperament

Examples of the Orange temperament include Johnny Carson, General George S. Patton, Laila

Ali, Donald Trump, and Olympic gold medalist and snowboarder, Shaun White.

159


Knowledge Check

1. The __________ temperament values Interpersonal interaction and close relationships.

2. The _______________ temperament values competitiveness, hands on work, and people

who prefer this temperament work as hard as they play.

3. The ______________ temperament values competence in themselves and others and can

quickly develop contempt for individuals they consider incompetent.

4. People who prefer the _______________ temperament are goal oriented, ready to complete

any task requiring little prompting or encouragement.

Self Reflection Opportunity: How can understanding the preferred temperaments of yourself

and others help you understand the motives of other people, improve lines of communication,

and reduce personal misunderstandings?

160


Blind Spots

A well-known model that illustrates one’s self-awareness is the Johari Window Model (see

Figure 14). Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (hence its name, Johari), the model is

essentially a pattern of four quadrants used to determine a person’s four areas or panes of self-

awareness to include how others see or perceive that person.

Counter-clockwise and beginning in the upper left-hand corner of the model, the Open

windowpane refers to characteristics and traits that you and others know about yourself. For

example, you and others may realize that you do not care for sitting through long meetings,

eating chocolate, or that you have a habit for playing with your hair when you are nervous. The

next windowpane, Hidden, (or façade) regards aspects about yourself that you refuse to share

with others. Sometimes referred to as the “skeletons within our closet,” these may include fears,

traumatic past experiences, etc. However, sharing information about these characteristics moves

this awareness from the hidden to the open pane. The next windowpane, Unknown, refers to

aspects about ourselves that no one knows, to include ourselves. For instance, you will never

know if you like or despise broccoli unless you try it. Neither you nor anyone else knows for

sure whether you like (or despise) broccoli. On the other hand, once you try broccoli and share

your opinion of it with others, your love, (or hatred) for broccoli moves from the Unknown to the

Open pane.

Figure 14, The Johari Window

161


The last pane in Johari’s Window, known as the Blind windowpane, refers to aspects about us

that we are not aware of, but others are. For example, others may notice that you avoid eye

contact when talking with them; something you did not know about yourself. It is through

receiving feedback from others about your lack of eye contact that you will reduce this blind

spot. The more others identify and share what they notice about us, the more we will know

about ourselves, thus increasing self-awareness.32

Consider the following example that relates the Johari Window to the Four Lenses.

Suppose you meet a person whose primary temperament is Gold but possesses a very low

level of Blue (remember, we are all a composition of all four temperaments). As we

know, the Gold temperament is task-oriented and prefers structure, discipline,

organization, schedules, timelines, and deadlines. They have difficulty expressing

emotions or being sensitive to others and they may not realize that they appear cold,

insensitive, or heartless to those whose preferred temperament is Blue. This

temperamental “blindness” could have a devastating effect on Gold’s relationships at

work and at home! Blind spots like this can lead to misunderstandings, unhealthy

relationships, conflict, which can create unhealthy communication and hostile

environments.

The first step to reducing temperament-related blind spot(s) is simply being aware of them.

Once you realize and accept that they exist, you can explore ways to remedy and reduce them.

Some ways to minimize blind spots include:

requesting feedback from others about yourself, your personality, and mannerisms;

becoming more familiar and comfortable with the other temperaments by learning about

and interacting with them; and

balancing your blind spot “shortfalls” by capitalizing on the strengths of the other

temperaments.

Self reflection Opportunity: Why is it important to become aware of our blind spots? How

might you go about reducing your own blind spots? How can you help others reduce their blind

spots?

162


Knowledge Check

Complete the crossword puzzle using concepts associated with the Johari Window Model.

5. Down: These are aspects about ourselves that we are unaware of, but those around us are.

6. Across: This windowpane refers to those aspects about ourselves that we wish to keep

private.

7. Across: These are the characteristics about ourselves that everyone is aware of.

8. Down: This windowpane refers to information about ourselves that no one is aware of, not

even ourselves.

Figure 15, Crossword Puzzle

163


Communicating Through the “Lenses”

Do not expect people to change the way they interact with you just because they recognize your

preferred temperament. Instead, try adjusting the way you interpret, interact, and respond to

others by keeping the Four Lenses concepts in mind, especially the traits associated with each

temperament.

For example, if your preferred temperament is Blue and a coworker’s preferred temperament is

Green, communication with this person may be short and bland. In fact, you may even label

your coworker as rude, quiet, condescending, and uncaring because she does not seem interested

in what you have to say. However, with your newfound knowledge of the Four Lenses, and a

comprehension of the Green temperament, you now know that your coworker may actually care

about you very much, but seldom shows you because, as a critical thinker who values

competence, she is almost always concentrating on the task at hand rather than feelings or

emotions.

Anti-Tobacco Poster Activity

Look at the following anti-tobacco posters (Figures 16 – 19) and then decide which temperament

finds which poster most appealing. Next, determine what the poster designers got right, what

they might have missed, and what they could have done better.

164


Figure 16, Anti-Smoking Ad33

Did you think this poster in Figure 16 appealed to the Green temperment? The poster designers

used facts rather than abstract ideas to attract the fact-finding reader. Remember, Green

temperments are analytical and like facts and substantiated data. To make this more appealling,

designers could have incorporated a graph or timeline and a website link that captures the results

of the conducted health studies. Try this next advertisement:

165


Figure 17, Anti-Dip and Smoking Ad34

Did you think this advertisement (Figure 17) appeals to males whose preferred temperament is

Orange? This poster is full of life, happiness, and colors. The playful and fun image appeals to

the wild nature of Orange temperments. To make this more appealling to the Orange

temperment, the designers may have used more colors, placed the women in a party setting, or

added wild font to make the image more exciting and fun.

Tel

l it Like it is

We like our men dip and smoke free!

166



Did you think the image in Figure 18 appeals to the Gold temperament? The poster is simple

and straightforward without any excitement and emotional appeals. However, this image is of a

national military cemetery that represents organization, heritage, and dedication to duty, all of

which are valued by the Gold temperament.

http://dailydesigninspiration.com/diverse/adv/tbwa/World-No-Tobacco-Day---Non-Smoking-Area.jpg

167



Did you think this image (Figure 19) appeals to the Blue, Orange, and Gold temperments? Here,

the designers used words that center on words that represent what we value. Family, kids, and

friends all appeal to the Blue temperament’s need for close and meaningful relationships.

Health, readiness, and strength may target the Orange temperament who is more physically

active and competitive, whereas budget, unit, and country may lean more toward the Gold

temperamant who values (financial) security and remains loyal and dedicated to what upholds

and defends our rights and freedoms as a free nation. To make this poster more appealing to all

readers, the the desingers could have incorporated some facts that represent the impact smoking

has on all these subjects (for the Green temperament) and more colors and exciting imaging (to

attract the Orange temperament).

Keep the following tips in mind when interacting with the four temperaments.

168


When communicating with those of the:

Green temperament; be civil, composed, emotionally balanced, concise, and factual.

Give them time to process information. Do not take confrontation personally. Support

your points with proof, studies, or research. Do not expect immediate results.

Blue temperament do not attack them personally. Encourage them to express their point

of view, and give them time to reflect on their feelings. Validate the helpful parts of

what they say before critiquing the rest. Expect emotional reactions. Respond and

conclude with a positive gesture.

Gold temperament, be courteous and polite. Clearly define the issue at hand and the

goals to be accomplished. Be factual, set goals, and benchmark time frames. Put the final

resolution in writing and stick to it unless you meet again to revise your plan.

Orange temperament lighten the mood with some humor. Do something active like

walking or moving around the area to release some physical tension. Expect to be

challenged or debated. Be flexible and adaptable. Do not back them into a corner. Stress

the importance of a collaborative solution that can work well for both of you.

169


Maturity

Maturity

9

D

e

v

e

l

o

p

m

e

n

t

humility

pride

The spine/backbone

Figure 20, Maturity Model

Maturity is the ability to express one’s own strengths, feelings, and beliefs in a manner that is

considerate toward the abilities, thoughts, values, and feelings of others. In reference to the Four

Lenses, it is the ability to remove your primary lens (temperament) and instead, see others and

the world through someone else’s lens (color). One’s maturity can be viewed as a continuum of

low maturity to high maturity (see Figure 20).

A person with a high level of maturity is often considered humble, modest, and discreet. It can

be very difficult to determine the preferred temperament of a mature person because they

function from the nexus (or center) of the four lenses. A person with a high level of maturity can

be compared to a temperamental chameleon, meaning he or she is able to adapt to the colors of

those they are interacting with. A person with a high level of maturity will not “force” their

temperament on others. Instead, they apply what they know of the other temperaments and

modify their own behaviors accordingly in order to effectively communicate with others.

Maturity is a product, and the proverbial “face” of, our overall character and it develops as

character develops. A low level of maturity doesn’t necessarily mean a person is immature or

juvenile; it simply means the person requires development in their maturity and character. To

develop maturity, one should expand his knowledge of the four temperaments, recognize the

differences of each, and seek enrichment opportunities to experience each temperament first-

hand to complement the learning (maturation) process.

170


One should also be willing to make personal behavioral changes to better empathize, relate, and

communicate with those with different temperament preferences. As maturity develops, your

ability to operate in all your non-primary colors improves. The result is a person who, regardless

of primary temperament, is capable of genuinely connecting with each person they interact with

so naturally that their primary color is difficult to determine. Others often view a person with a

high-level of maturity as an influential member of society. As a person develops her maturity,

she may start out with a low-level, firmly believing that her way (or color) is the best or most

appropriate one. She may even “force” her preference on others. However, as she matures, she

gains knowledge and experience (such as learning about the Four Lenses) and realizes that each

temperament is different. As maturing continues, she discovers that change is not the goal, it is

one’s behavior. For example, an Orange would never become a Blue, but perhaps could learn to

‘act’ more like a Blue when with those of the Blue temperament. As she moves along the

continuum toward higher maturity, she gradually increases her ability to operate in her non-

primary color. Eventually, she would reach a high-level of maturity, with the ability to ‘do’ the

attributes and mannerisms of the other temperaments with little effort, selecting the most

appropriate behaviors for the people and situation. She could accomplish this without

advertising it and with humility.37

Self Reflection Opportunity: What kind of behaviors would you expect to see in people with a

“low maturity” as it relates to Four Lenses? Why should we strive to reach a high level of

maturity?

Real-life Guidelines and Strategies of Colors

With all of the information you have learned about yourself and others in this lesson, you now

have enough information to be dangerous to yourself and others. Inappropriate use of this

information (whether out of good intentions or not) can potentially damage relationships and

jeopardize healthy communication. To help you avoid this, the creators of the Four Lenses have

developed a list of real-life guidelines and strategies for you to follow.

1. Don’t stereotype others – Everyone is their own unique blend of the four temperaments.

Something that is true for a person of a certain color may not be true for another person of

the same color.

2. Don’t try to change people – When we look at others, we are using our own preferred lens to

view them and eventually try to compare others to ourselves. You might have a tendency to

believe that because someone is different from you, that person is flawed and you may want

to try to help them to become more like you. This is counterproductive and virtually

impossible.

3. Don’t negate the values of others – Refrain from judging color characteristics as right or

wrong. Each temperament has its own set of values and standards that differ (often greatly)

from the others.

171


4. Don’t let strengths become liabilities – Sometimes, when people are down and/or stressed,

they tend to minimize or maximize certain traits to the point that the traits that were once

strengths become liabilities. For example, a Gold being so obsessed with cleanliness to the

point that he or she frustrates and drives others away.

5. Don’t use colors as an excuse – Our preferred temperament does not completely reflect our

capabilities and limitations. It is counterproductive to blame characteristics of your

personality for behaviors.

6. Keep your observations private – People tend to react negatively to being ‘figured out’ or

‘diagnosed’ by others. Even if you recognize someone as having a Gold preference, refrain

from pointing it out. Instead, use this information to improve your communication and

relationship with that person.

7. Give good gifts – Give people what they value, not what you value. This applies to

communication as well. Instead of addressing or relating to someone in a way that you

prefer, you should consider doing it in a way they would prefer.

8. Carry all the color lenses with you – Try adopting another perspective if one is not working

for you. If communicating in one style fails, try a different colored lens.

9. Validate the strengths of each color – Each temperament has a unique set of strengths that

the others don’t have. Recognizing, accepting, and validating them is important to the

success of any organization. It also encourages growth and development in others.

10. Learn from others – By becoming familiar with the skills and strengths that other

temperaments possess, you are able to potentially develop new skills or possibly compensate

for ones you are unable to develop. By surrounding yourself with friends or coworkers of

other temperaments, allows you to successfully adapt to various challenges that life brings.38

Self Reflection Opportunity: How can you use the information you have learned to be a more

effective NCO?

172


Knowledge Check

Match the descriptions from the left column with the concepts from the right column. All

concepts are used only once.

Description Concept

9. ___A personal characteristic where one imposes their

preferred temperament on others.

a. Maturity

10. ___A personal quality where one can modify his or

her behaviors to effectively interact with all

temperaments.

b. Humility

11. ___Simply because Greens are known to prefer their

independence does not mean all who prefer this

temperament wish to be alone.

c. Pride

12. ___This is the ability to ‘see’ others, situation, and

environment through the other lenses.

d. Validate each colors strengths

13. ___Do not label others as a Gold or Blue, even though

you may have correctly identified their preferred

temperament.

e. Give good gifts

14. ___Treat others the way they want to be treated, not

the way you prefer to treat them.

f. Keep your observations private

15. ___Validate each colors strengths: successful

organizations and leaders acknowledge the unique

capabilities of each temperament.

g. Don’t stereotype others

173



Given what you have learned about the Four Lenses, how will you use the information to

enhance your effectiveness?

174



The Four Lenses chapter marks the beginning of your journey into self-awareness. You learned

basic information about The Four Lenses as well as the characteristics of each of the four

temperaments. You also learned about how to motivate each temperament as well as how

recognizing your blind spots can improve your self-awareness and interactions with others. You

then examined the ways we can adjust our behaviors to better interact and communicate with

others who prefer temperaments that differ from our own preferred style. The last part of the

lesson concentrated on the concept of maturity and how it relates to not only the Four Lenses,

but also how maturity and the Four Lenses apply to you…the noncommissioned officer.

This chapter was specifically designed to teach you about yourself and others in a way that

improves your ability to effectively interact with others, regardless of their preferred

temperament. The knowledge you gained from this experience, if used appropriately, will

improve your communication and relationships with others in a way that fosters mutual

understanding and acceptance, thus enhancing your effectiveness as a NCO. Opportunities to

apply the concepts of the Four Lenses will be evident throughout your Air Force experience and

life…you’ll see!

175


Formative Exercise

1. During her mid-term feedback with SrA Duck, TSgt Wilson says, “I am very impressed

with how you completed that last big project. It was extremely demanding both physically and

mentally and you completed it with a bold and fearless attitude.” Embarrassed Duck admits,

“I’ve never thought of myself as bold and fearless. I just like to be challenged.” TSgt Wilson

replies, “In that case, I have another assignment that requires someone with your competitive

spirit. Interested?” Duck responds, “Absolutely!”

TSgt Wilson’s comments BEST illustrate her understanding of ____________ impact on

NCO effectiveness.

a. temperaments and their

b. blind spots and their

c. maturity and its

2. SrA Staples is frustrated because his supervisor, TSgt Stevenson, never gives him or any of

his coworkers any positive feedback, even when they put in extra effort. Trying to open a line of

communication, Staples asks Stevenson for a moment of his time. He says, “Sir, sometimes

we’d like to hear that we’re doing a good job or at least get a thank you.” Stevenson replies, “I

don’t see how that matters, but I do appreciate how hard all of you work, especially considering

how well everyone follows procedures and adheres to the rules around here.”

TSgt Stevenson’s _______ will MOST likely ________his effectiveness.

a. acknowledgment of his Blue temperament; increase

b. failure to acknowledge his Orange temperament; decrease

c. acceptance of feedback about his blind spot; increase

d. failure to acknowledge feedback about his blind spot; decrease

176


Key Terms

Blind Spots,162

Johari’s Window Model, 162

Maturity, 171

The Four Lenses Theory, 153

References

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded. North Orem, UT: Insight Learning Foundation, 2002.

Covey, Stephen R., The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Simon & Schuster, 1989.

Four Lenses Facilitator’s Guide, Shipley Communication, 2005.

Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 2009.

Fraser, George C., Ten Truths for Building Extraordinary Relationships, The McGraw-Hill

Companies, 2007.

Keirsey, David, and Marilyn Bates. Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament Types,

Del Mar, CA: Gnosology Books, Ltd., 1984.

Luft, J. and Ingham, H. The Johari Window, A Graphic Model of Interpersonal Awareness,

Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development, Los Angeles:

UCLA, 1955.

Shipley Communication official website: http://www.shipleycommunication.com /assessments/

(accessed 13 February 2013).

Wellness Proposals website: http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-

cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/ (accessed 13 February 2013).

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/

177



Your responses should center on how understanding and using the Four Lenses will improve

their performance fulfilling NCO responsibilities IAW AFI 36-2618.

- Increases understanding of my temperament and how my behavior could affect others

- Helps anticipate how different temperaments interact so I can adapt my management style

while leading diverse teams

- Match airmen to tasks that are compatible with their personality and strengths

- Helps supervisors understand subordinates’ needs, joys, strengths, and values based on their

temperament

- Helps supervisors adjust motivation techniques (e.g. rewards) based on temperament

- Improves communication techniques, which enhances personal and professional

relationships


1. The Blue temperament values Interpersonal interaction and close relationships.

2. The Orange temperament values competitiveness, hands on work, and people who prefer

this temperament work as hard as they play.

3. The Green temperament values competence in themselves and others and can quickly

develop contempt for individuals they consider incompetent.

4. People who prefer the Gold temperament are goal oriented, ready to complete any task

requiring little prompting or encouragement.

178


5. Down: Blind

6. Across: Hidden

7. Across: Open

8. Down: Unknown

Figure 21, Crossword Puzzle Answer Key (Fig. 15)

Match the descriptions from the left column with the concepts from the right column. All

concepts are used only once.

Description Concept

9. c A personal characteristic where one imposes their

preferred temperament on others.

a. Maturity

10. b A personal quality where one can modify his or

her behaviors to effectively interact with all

temperaments.

b. Humility

11. _g_Simply because Greens are known to prefer their

independence does not mean all who prefer this

temperament wish to be alone.

c. Pride

12. _a_This is the ability to ‘see’ others, situation, and

environment through the other lenses.

d. Validate each colors strengths

13. _f_Do not label others as a Gold or Blue, even though

you may have correctly identified their preferred

temperament.

e. Give good gifts

14. _e_Treat others the way they want to be treated, not

the way you prefer to treat them.

f. Keep your observations private

15. _d_Validate each colors strengths: successful

organizations and leaders acknowledge the unique

capabilities of each temperament.

g. Don’t stereotype others

179



1. CORRECT ANSWER: a

RATIONALES:

a. CORRECT: The scenario shows that TSgt Wilson understands SrA Duck’s need for work that is

exciting and physically challenging, which are attributes of an Orange temperament. According to the

Four Lenses chapter, the orange represents those that prefer excitement.

b. INCORRECT: According to the Four Lenses chapter, blind spot refers to an aspect of our personality

that is not known to self, but is apparent to others. There is no indication of blind spots in the scenario.

Therefore, there is not enough information to determine whether she understands blind spots. See

rationale for correct response for additional information.

c. INCORRECT: According to the Four Lenses chapter, maturity is the ability to express one’s own

strengths, feelings, and beliefs in a manner that is considerate to the abilities, thoughts, and feelings of

others. With the Four Lenses, it is the ability to take off your primary ‘lens’ (or color) and put on

someone else’s. There is no indication in the scenario of TSgt Wilson is showing any attributes of

maturity; therefore, there is not enough information to determine whether she understands maturity. See

rationale for correct response for additional information.

2. CORRECT ANSWER: d

RATIONALES:

a. INCORRECT: There is no evidence in the scenario to demonstrate that TSgt Stevenson has a Blue

Temperament, which according to the Four Lenses Chapter, feelings and people are at the crux of the

Blue temperament.. Stevenson’s comment (…everyone adheres to the processes we’ve always had

around here) alludes to a Gold preference. Stevenson is failing to see the point Staples is trying to make

with him. Staples is asking for positive feedback, something Stevenson fails to provide to his workers

(blind spot). Furthermore, Stevenson’s comments to Staples are definitely not going to increase his

effectiveness. See rationale for correct response for additional information.

b. INCORRECT: There is no evidence in the scenario to demonstrate that TSgt Stevenson has an Orange

Temperament, which according the Four Lenses chapter, fun and excitement are staples of the Orange

temperament. His comment (…everyone adheres to the processes we’ve always had around here)

alludes to a Gold preference. Stevenson is failing to see the point Staples is trying to make with him.

Staples is asking for positive feedback, something Stevenson fails to provide to his workers (blind spot).

See rationale for correct response for additional information.

c. INCORRECT: TSgt Stevenson’s effectiveness will most likely decrease because he failed to accept the

feedback on his blind spot. See rationale for correct response for additional information.

d. CORRECT: TSgt Stevenson’s effectiveness will most likely decrease because he failed to accept the

feedback on his blind spot. According to the Four Lenses chapter, the blind spot refers to an aspect of

our personality that is not known to self, but is apparent to others. It is only through the process of

receiving feedback that the blind spot can be addressed. Staples informs Stevenson of the blind spot

(we’d like to hear that we’re doing a good job or at least get a thank you.) However, Stevenson doesn’t

accept it (I don’t see how that matters, but I do appreciate how hard all of you work, especially

considering how well everyone follows procedures and adheres to the rules around here).

180


NOTES

1 General Swartz, Chief of Staff of the Air Force (address, Senior Enlisted Leader Summit 2010, Maxwell AFB, AL,

August 2011). http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123203113 2 Halpern, Diane F. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. New Jersey: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, 1996. 3 www.criticalthinking.org accessed 15 Nov 12.

4 Ibid.

5 Paul, Richard Dr., and Elder, Linda Dr., The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking, Concepts and Tools, 2008

Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. 6 Ibid.

7 Facione, Peter A. Think Critically, 2011, Pearson Education, Inc., Saddle River, NJ.

8 Ibid

9 Ibid

10 Ibid

11 Ibid. Ch. 1 p 26-27.

12 Stafford, Mathew C., The Full Range Leadership Model: A Brief Primer.

13 Geen, R. (1994). Human motivation: A psychological approach. Wadsworth Publishing.

14 Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires. Review Of General

Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.179 15

Cherry, Kendra. About.com website. Psychology: Introduction to Operant Conditioning. 16

Kinicki-Kreitner, Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills, and Best Practices, Fourth Edition. Ch. 6, p

146-147. 17

Ibid. Ch. 2, p 47-49. 18

Ibid. Ch. 2, p 50. 19

Merriam-Webster website. “Situation.” 20

Ibid. Ch. 7, p 230. 21

Jung, Don I. and Sosik, John J. The Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People, Profit, and

Planet. Ch 7, p 234. 22

Ibid. Ch 7, p 236. 23

Ibid. Ch 1, p 18. 24

United States Army. Transformational Leadership, p.31 25

Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 24-25 26

Keirsey, David, and Marilyn Bates. Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament Types, 1-6 27

Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 25 28

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded, 39-48 29

Ibid, 23-30 30

Ibid, 30-39 31

Ibid, 48-56 32

Luft, J. and Ingham, H. The Johari Window, A Graphic Model of Interpersonal Awareness 33

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/ 34

Ibid 35

Ibid

181


36

Ibid 37

http://www.shipleycommunication.com/assessments/ 38

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded, 373-375

http://www.shipleycommunication.com/assessments/

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