CERAMICS AS A CREATIVE MEDIUM PGR

SIXTH AID SS¥SIfH GrRABE POfIM

APPROVED?

i X a j i v P r o f e s s o r

i&& P r o f e s s o r C^^AaV--- S*H.

D i r e c t o r of fcfa© D « p a r ( ^ j i f c o f ' A r t

Dean o f t h e Gradua te S c h o o l

CERAMICS AS 4 CREATIVE MEDIUM FOR

SIXES AMD mmsm &mm mmm

THESIS

Presented. to the Graduate Council of the

Horth Texas State College la Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For tho Degree of

MASKER OF ARTS

2 1 1 8 6 1

Alex L. Pickens, B, A.

Dallas, Texas

August# 1952

211861

TABXiE OF CONTESTS

Page liiSf m ILLUSTRATIONS *v

Chapter I. XHfRODUCflOU 1

fh© Importance of Clay as a Cmttrt Medium

Statement of the Problem Scope of the Problem Procedure

xx* rasTXHG OP Q m m m m f i m $ m m m m

Hand-sculpture Technique Evaluation of Hand-sculpture fechnique Thumb-press Technique Evaluation of Thumb-press Technique Coll Technique Evaluation of Coll Teohnlque Slab Technique Evaluatl on of slab Tachniqi e Sooop-out Technique Evaluation of Seoop-out Technique <Sravity«pull Technique Evaluation of Osavitjr-jmll Technique Paper-eosre Technique Evaluation of Paper-core Technique Molding and Casting Techniques Evaluation of Molding and Casting Techniques

XXX. TBSTXMG <F A M GSHAilllff TECHNIQUES . . . 23

Staaped-irapreasion Technique Svaluation of Stamped-lrapres si on Technique Incised-line Technique Evaluation of Xnclsed-llne Technique Oraffito Technique Evaluation of Graffito technique Slip-trail Technique Evaluation of Sllp»trail Technique Slip-painting Technique Svaluati on of Slip-painting Technique Wax-resist Technique Evaluation of Wax-real at Technique

ill

Chapter Pag®

I ? . M M GLAZING MT> FIRIHG TSCBIXQtOSa 31

fllagtng TfdulfWi SnlatUoB «f Experiments witb 03*slag

Techniques Kiln Evaluation. of Experimenting w£Hi Kiln Op»n&l«i

SB1IMABX ABB Q W G W M m S * . 38

S6®sti^Sso®

mMULmmf.m . . . . . . .

iv

LIST QW XLC08TSATZGV3

Figure Pag®

1. Clay far Hand Semlpttarej Seventh Grade * . • « %

2. Hand-sculptured Fi©»es| Seventh Q m M * »

Thumb-press Boirl under Construction; Seventh Ored® . . .

Thumb-press Bowl Completed! Seventh dirnde

£• Clay Rolled for Pefetery Base; Sixth Grade

6* Base Cut and Plaeed on a Bat; Sixth Grade

?• Building a Wall by th® Coil Teohniqpei Sixth Grade . .

6

6 ?

a

a

8. Pottery Made by the Coil Teohaiqaei Sixth and Seventh Grades . . . . . . . . . . . • 9

9« Sculpture by the Coil Technique; m x tt* Grade 9

10* Gutting Parts tm a Rectangular Box| Seventh

Grade 10

11* Pressing Clay into a Seam; Seventh Grad® * . . 11

It* Sqpare Bowl Made by the Slab Teehaiqu®; Seventh Grade . . . . . . . 11

13* Tile Made by the Slab Technique! Sixth Grade • 11

14* Covered Box Made by the Slab Technique! Sevan th Grade 13

15* Scoop-out Bwl under Gtmatrmtionj Sixth

Grade . . 13

16. Seoop-out Bael Completed; Sixth Grade » » * . llf.

!?• Sculpture, Solid Mae«; Seventh Grade lif

Figaro ?*g®

18. HolXowiag SoXld*4Ua« SouXpturo; Sownth, Grado . . . . . . 34

19* Gravitypull Plate vuodor Scau#feraeti<mi Sixth Ctrado . . . . . . . . 16

20* Gravity-pull ?lato« Caqplotod; Sixth Orado « . . 17

21« ?apor-ooro Soulpturo, Boginningi Sovfath Grada 17

22 • Papor imatttrt for Sculptural Soraath Ctrada . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

231 Papar-eora Soulptura* C asplotad; Sevanth

Ondt . . 18

Slip Casting Pottery* Saranth Gtoade . . . . . 20

£>• Slip*oast BcwX| Seventh. Orada . . . . . . . . 2X

26. Exterior of Kiln . . . . . . . . . . 35

27* Xatariw of KiXn %$

CHAPfSR X

IHTROWCflOS

the Importance of Clay as a Creative Medium

Clay 1ms been, recognised as an important creative medium

f » use with children sine# about 1837» Zt was M«4vioh

Froebel, founder of the kindergarten, who, observing the

delight of children in playing in mud, dough, putty, and wax,

recognized the potential value of clay modeling and s&de it

of greatest use in education.1

Although the importance of elay as a creative medium

2»s been admitted since the early part of the nineteenth

century, its use in elementary sohools has not been wide*

spread* Stela is hard to understand since clay is one of the

Must easily procured of all Materials* Often clay deposits

of excellent quality nay be found locally, this clay the

children may dig, refine, and use In the classroom* Where

clay Is locally unobtainable on creek banks or In road cuts.

It is usually inexpensive at eeramio supply companies or at

3r90ft3»

^io wXXX ip iipcs l lo Mi# plikiitpJL# qu&Xlfcy

^ cia2T is rare. In this period of physical development,

*Kate Douglas Wlggln and Hora Archibald Smith, Froebel*s

between eleven and fourteen |®itrs of age—which seme authors

have called a "period of repression in ehil&ren** point** 2

i&g* —the natural approach to creative activity la through

the manipulation of materials*

the m & of ©lay with children approaching adolescsnoe

ia of special significance* Here* better than with any

other material* the teacher ®ay provide a gradual transition

between an unconscious and a conscious approaclx to ffaree-

dimenslonal expression.^

Statement of the Problem

In view of tee fact that elay has not been used so ex-

tensively or wisely in elenentary art education as the

generally recognized importance of the material seems to

justify* the purpose of this study is to explore the possi-

bilities of clay as a creative medium and to determine

whieh of the many ceramic techniques are most suitable for

us# by pupils in the upper elanantary pmdes*

3cope of the Problem

The observations and re@s«e«Miatlona aade in this study

are the result of experimental on carried m frora 1950 to

1$>2» with the participation of $00 sixth- and seventh-grade

pupils in five elementary schools of Dallas* Texas* Much of

%yrll Burt, Mental and Scholastic feats*, pp# 319-322*

^Viktor Lowenfeld, Creative and Mental GrmMi, p. 109.

the work described was don© at Lisbon Elementary Stiiool,

where th® writer is an art tMudur} bub in order to broaden

the scope of the study, work being done is four other Dallas

schools was Included.

Procedure

Chapter X introduces the svbjeet* states lta

and defines Hie limitation of the study.

Chapter XI presents andeiraluates th® construction

techniques used to til® experiments.

Chapter XXX records and evaluates the •xperlments in-

volving applied ornament techniques*

Chapter X? presents tba basic glaze formula which was

used in th® study and records and evaluates the methods used

for applying th© glaze to bisque-fired intra* Th© firing

teehnlipies employed are also discussed*

Chapter V suBasarizea the work and presents conclusions

gathered front th© experirontaticm completed in the course of

stu ly.

Photographs supplement th© written record.

CHAPTER II

TESTING OF COMSTRUCTIOB TECHNIQUES

In schools where clay is used as a creative medium

with pupils in the upper elementary grades* construction

techniques vary widely from the simplest method of creating

hollow form to the most Intricate casting techniques. It

seemed advisable, therefore, to perform some experiments to

determine the relative effectiveness of the techniques

commonly used* Eight construction techniques were chosen:

hand sculpture, thumb press, coil, slab, scoop out, gravity

pull, paper core, and molding and casting.

Hand-sculpture Technique

In this experiment each pupil

is given a portion of clay, with

time and freedom to explore its

plastic quality (Figure 1) •"*" The

clay is manipulated in the hands

until it assumes tactile and

visual qualities pleasing to the

child* Often the sculpture as-

sumes a familiar appearance, an

Fig. 1.—Clay for hand sculpture; seventh grade*

"Photographs by Harold Welborn, age 13.

Pig* 2.—Hand-sculptured figures; seventh grade#

animal or human figure (figure 2);

occasionally a non-objective form

emerges which pleases its creator

for personal reasons* No addi-

tional clay is added to the origi-

nal mass; however* portions are

sometimes pulled out to produce

irregular contours.

y

Evaluation of Hand-sculptur e Technique

Hand-sculpture proved to be a valuable creative ex-

perience for all sixth- and seventh-grade pupils tested.

It provided an outlet for emotional tension which accumulates

in the formal classroom, ^hile actual manipulation was

taking place, an excellent opportunity was provided for a

discussion of the properties and uses of clay and the plan-

ning of other projects. The manipulation of the material

and the emotion spent in the creation of forms seemed com-

pletely satisfactory. Little regard for the completed ob-

ject was evidenced. In most cases the clay was returned to

the clay jar to be used in another experiment. Occasionally

a pupil wished to preserve his work,and some pieces were

used later in firing and glazing experiments.

Fig. 3 • —Thumb -press bowl tinier con-struct!on; seventh grade.

Thumb-press Technique

Perhaps the simplest method

or creating hollow form from clay

Is the thumb-press technique, some-

times called the pinch method.

A lump of clay 1s wedged until it

is free of air bubbles and then

formed Into a sphere* Next a

depression is made with the thumb,

and a slow, even pressing of the

clay continues until the wall is

of the desirable thickness

(Figure 3)• It is important to continue working progress-

ively around the ball of clay, keeping the top as level as

possible at all times, until the eos$»leted form is achieved.

Evaluation of Thumb-press Technique

When the thumb-press technique

was used by pupils in the sixth and

seventh grades, very aatis fact cry

results were evident. They learned

the process quickly and discovered

that the clay wall ha4 to be about

three eights of an Inch thick to dry

without cracking. Small bowls, cups,

and ash trays were easily constructed

Fig. 4.--Thumb-press bowl completed; seventh grade.

r

Each pupil who experimented, with this technique made an

object which was well formed and functional (Figure If).

Great satisfaction was expressed by the pupils,and many

made several pieces by this method before they were ready

to experiment with another technique*

x f '

Coll Technique

The coil technique requires wedged clay and simple

equipment which is readily available. In making pottery by

the coll method, a small plaster bat, which can be made by

pouring plaster of Paris into a small pie tin and allowing

it to harden, is needed.

The wedged clay is placed on a

cloth and flanked by strips of wood

about one-half inch thick. A roll-

ing pin is used to roll the clay

into a flattened mass of even thick*

ness, controlled by the height of %

the wooden strips which serve as

runners for the rolling pin (Fig-

ure 5). Once the clay has been

rolled out, a disc is cut from it

to serve as the base for the hollow form (Figure 6). This

base is placed on a plaster bat to facilitate handling# and

a "rope'1 of clay is coiled around on the base to begin the

wall of the vessel (Figure 7)* Next, other ropes are wound

Fig. 5.—Clay rolled for pottery base; sixth grade.

8

around s p i r a l l y u n t i l a wal l of

de s i r ed he igh t I s obtained* The

c lay i s u sua l l y r o l l e d i n t o even

ropes of about t h r ee e i g h t s of

an inch i n diameter and long J . —

enough t o go around t h e base

once* These c o l l s a re Joined

by rubbing t h e i nne r and ou te r

sur faces* I n t h i s manner a

P i g . 6•—Base cut and placed on a b a t ; s i x t h grade*

seamless wal l i s b u i l t * F l a t

s t r i p s cut from the c l a y

ishich has been f l a t t e n e d i n

the manner used f o r c o n s t r u c t -

ing the base may be s u b s t i -

t u t ed f o r c lay ropes•

Sculpture i s made by the

c o l l technique In a manner

s i m i l a r t o t h a t desc r ibed f o r

making po t te ry* For scu lp tu re

a base i s unnecessary and c o i l s a r e made t h i c k e r than f o r

po t te ry*

Evaluat ion of Coi l Technique ^

The c o i l technique i s a po in t of depar tu re i n many

schools which use c l a y as a c r e a t i v e medium i n t he a r t p ro -

gram# but the w r i t e r ' s experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t most p u p i l s -

Fig* 7•—Building a wall by t h e c o i l technique; s i x t h grade*

Fig. 8.—Pottery made by the coil tech-nique! sixth and seventh grades*

even in the upper elementary

grades--are frustrated with the

coil method of constructing

pottery. Approximately 10 per

cent of the pupils who worfeed

with this method were able to

master the coll technique for

pottery construction to a degree

which was satisfying to them, /

Their pieces were well made and

of good form (Figure 8). The

remaining 90 per cent were

frustrated, and after sev-

eral attempts, threw their

clay back into the clay Jar.

In view of this high percent-

age of failure, it would seem

that the coil technique for

making pottery is unsuitable

for upper elementary pupils,

Sculpture made by the coll

technique offered considerably more freedom than did the

use of this method in making pottery. It was not necessary

to roll ropes of clay to a consistent evenness since the

Inside of the sculpture would be hidden. The ropes were

usually rolled thicker for sculpture than for pottery.

Fig. 9.—Sculpture made by the coll technique; sixth grade.

10

Sculpture built by this method grew quickly, and much spon-

taneity was evident in the finished piece (Figure 9) •

Usually, sculpture built by the coil technique was large and

uncluttered with superfluous detail*

This evidence tends to show that the coil technique

should be used, for the most part, in making sculpture

rather than pottery at the upper elementary grade level*

J Slab Technique

To create an object by the

slab technique, it is first nec-

essary to roll a mass of clay to

an even thickness (see page ?)•

Once this mass of clay has been

rolled, paper patterns of the

parts of the contemplated form

are placed oki the clay and cut

out* (Figure 10). The various

parts of the object are then joined with slip, and small

ropes of clay are pressed into the seams on the inside for

additional support (Figure 11)* This process is usually

employed in making rectangular ceramic containers* It is

suitable for boxes, ash trays, bowls, or vases (Figure 12)*

Tiles may be made by the slab technique* They are

cut from a sheet of clay as described above and ornamented

in any manner which is suitable to the material* Care must

be taken to prevent warping* This is usually done by

Fig* 10.—Cutting parts for a rectangular box; seventh grade*

x

11

Fig. 11*---Pressing clay into a seam; seventh grade#

Pig# 12.—Square bcwrl made by the slab technique; seventh grade.

scooping out part of the central area on the under side of

the tile, leaving ridges for support (Figure 13).

Pig. 13.—file made by the slab technique? seventh grade.

Evaluation of Slab Technique

The slab technique presents several problems which the

writer1s experiments proved were too difficult for pupils

12

la the upper elementary grades* The most important of

these was the comer seam which bad to be prep®*lj joined

to prevent ©racking in firings moreover* the problem of

uarplug was an ever-present mm while experiments with the

slab technique were in progress*

Aside from the technical problems which had to be

suwaounted 1a experimenting with this teehnl^pe* construct*

ing a *«pare or rectangular object from clay seemed in

opposition to the plasticity of the material* Wood or

metal weald seem to be more suitable materials for the

execution of these shapes*

In the beginning most sixth- and seventh-grade pupils

showed great interest in using the slab technique to'

ereate boxes for particular uses—for example, eigarette

or candy botes with coders* This interest seemed to stem

from a desire to duplieate boxes whieh the pwplls had at

home or whieh they had seen in shops •

Despite many ambitious beginnings# most of the projects

were abandoned before they were completed. Only about 10

per coat of the pupils completed their boxes| however,

those finished were well made and had errors whieh were

functional (Figure lit).

files were easily made by the slab technique* but few

pupils were able to recognise any value la making tiles*

Many bad never seen a tile, while others connected tile

making only with a previous study ot Holland* After

13

photographs of Egyptian brick

designs and several contemporary

tiles had been shown to the

pupils* some well-made tiles

were produced*

The results obtained in-

dicate that tiles are easily

made by pupils of upper ele-

mentary grades, but that since

it seems difficult to motivate

Pig. lif.—Covered beat made by the slab technique; seventh grade*

the activity, some other project in clay is mere desirable*

Scoop-out Technique

The scoop-out technique re-

quires a lump of wedged clay and

a simple tool which will serve

as a scoop* Either pottery or

sculpture may be made by this %

method*

To use this technique in

making pottery, the pupil must

be able to visualize the form

upside down* The object to be

created is built in this position of a solid mass of clay

(Figure 15)* Once the desired shape has been achieved, the

clay is allowed to dry to a leather hardness* The solid

Fig. 15*—Scoop-out bowl under construe tion; sixth grade*

11*

form is then turned upright

and the inside is scooped out

until the walls are of the de-

sired thickness (Figure 16).

Sculpture is produced in

a similar manner by this tech-

nique (Figure 17 )• When the

form is leather dry, it is cut

apart and scooped out (Figure

18). The cut surfaces are then

coated with slip and adjacent parts are pressed back to-

gether* The sculpture is then allowed to become bone dry

before it is fired.

Fig. 16 •-Scoop-out bowl couple ted; sixth grade.

Fig. 1? • —Sculpture » solid mass; seventh grade.

Fig* 18.—Hollowing solid-mass sculpture; seventh grade.

1

1$

Evaluation of S@oep*«»t Technique

Interesting results were obtained by the yrpi.fr when

this technique was used in the sixth and seventh glides*

Seolptain was produced easily and successfully by a majority

of the pupils who I the experiment. She process of

cutting a piece of semlpttwe tpu*t» hollowing it, and re-

joining the parts* provided an excellent opportunity foa?

discussing; the correct thickness of a clay mil fm satis »

factory firing, The various we® of slip were also dis*

cussed*

A free form vas more easily produced by this method

than was a symmetrical pottery form. The pleees produced

brought about an interesting discussion of functional shapes

for pottery and a better understanding of the plastio quality

of clay*

She many successful experiments with this construction

technique by pupils in the upper elementary grades indicated

that it is one of the most suitable techniques for pottery

and sculpture at Hits level.

Sravitypull technique y

Gravity pull is a siaple technique which requires a

lump of wedged day, a piece of thin curtain fabric--scrim

or net# a knife* and some thumb tacks. Shallow bowls and

plates may be made by this construction method.

16

A piece of scrim Is stretched on a flat surface, and

the lump of clay is placed thereon arid rolled fco an even

thickness of about 3/3 inch (see Page 7) . From this clay

a rectangle, circle, or free

form Is cut, dependent upon

the finished form desired.

The excess clay is removed from

the scrim# The scrim, with the

clay resting on it, is then

carefully placed over an open

box* The clay is adjusted

over the opening until it

slopes evenly and assumes the

desired depth* The scrim is

then tacked around the box with thumb tacks, and the clay

is allowed to remain in position until it is thoroughly dry

(Figure 19).

Fig* 19 •—Gravity-pull plate under construc-tion; sixth grade.

Evaluation of Gravity-pull Technique

When the gravity-pull technique was used in the sixth

and seventh grades, the pupils found it a simple way to

construct plates and shallow bowls (Figure 20). The experi-

ment required little equipment and preparation by the pupils.

Both round and rectangular objects were produced quickly

and easily, with few failures*

1?

Pig. 20.— Gravity-pull plates completed; sixth grade.

Tills experiment had several

desirable outcomes, chief among

them being the enjoyment of suc-

cess on the part of most pupils.

Also, sua opportunity was provided

to discuss the weight of clay and

the law of gravity which causes

the clay to be pulled downward

into the box.

Paper-core Technique

The paper-core technique,

suitable only for sculpture, re-

quires more preparation than do

other techniques which have been

discussed. To build a standing

figure by this method,x it is

necessary to use two l/fy inch

dowel rods about 12 inches

long. These are embedded in a

lump of clay so that they will

stand upright (Figure 21).

Around these rods an armature of newspaper is> built which

suggests the contemplated form. Upon the armature, clay

is worked until the desired fom is obtained and the walls

of the piece are approximately 3/8 inch thick (Figure 22).

Fig. 21.—Paper-core sculpture, beginning; seventh grade.

18

When the piece of sculpture

is finished and thoroughly

dry, the dowel rods are care-

fully removed* The newspaper

which is left inside the

sculpture will be burned out

during the bisque firing

without damaging the clay. Fig# 22.— Paper arma-ture for sculpture; seventh grade.

t Evaluation of Paper-core Technique

fjhe paper-core technique

seems to be suitable for sculpture

making in the tipper elementary

grades. It proved to be an in-

teresting and challenging tech-

nique to pupils engaged in the

activity. By using the dowel rods

and paper* it was possible for

the pupils to build tall pieces

of sculpture which could not

have been easily constructed

from an unsupported and solid mass of clay (Figure 23) •

Leaving the newspaper inside the completed sculpture

provoked many questions about firing techniques* which

added to the pupils* understanding of the use of the kiln.

Fig. 23•-Paper-core sculpture, com-pleted; seventh grade.

19

Fn» Obaeifatiom of the experiments involving thl#

technique* the writer observed that it was on© of the most

popular of all construction techniques introduced. It

proved to 'be a simpl© and successful way to produce ceramic

in the upper elementary gntei. fhe alia of the

sculpture gave the pupils an. a 4 M feeling of accomplish*

Molding and Casting twhnlyig

Fop this experlnent# sis le molding and easting tech*

4 f i f l l k « B , « . t m r d>*ornfc a r ^ i f e . i l g w r a ,*W n r n i r i n n iwhuTI»i j a J v i iM T i m " l i d * M J d f e ^ * * y i t I * -afrrif rftr t t r f f i r f i i

©ACIJWItEl W13XCX1 JEPIS'CI'mL 3P- ft CIsT M «yL.JUL

used. Jewelry and tiles were made in preaa adUs# and

pottery was made by alip casting in a coe-pi»oe mold,

f# make a mold for eaating or pressing clay, it is

first necessary to m&k® a clay modal of the fora to be oast*

When the modal is completed, it must be examined to aa-

eertain tim kind of mold most suitable for duplicating the

object* If the piece to b« caat bag no undercuts* a one-

piece mold will be satisfactory. More eosaplleated objects

require more caiplex molds.

Molds are made tt*m plaster of Paris which baa been

mixed with water. Tim correct proportion car piaster and

water—2 3/k pounds of plaster to a quart of water^—caaat

be need if Use mold la to be absorbent and firm. An im-

proper Mixture results in poor absorption and crumbling.

^obn B. Kenny, J ge acrolete Boole Potter? Making. p* 06.

20

v

Pig. 21+.— Slip casting pottery; seventh grade*

To cons timet a mold, the

clay model Is placed face down

Inside a cardboard box which is

approximately an inch larger than

the clay object an all sides#

Liquid plaster is then poured

over the clay object very slowly

to avoid bubbles, until the box

is rilled* When the plaster

hardens# the cardboard and clay

are removed. When the mold is thoroughly dry, it is ready

to be used (Figure 2if).

Ceramic tiles and jewelry may be made in molds cast

from clay models* Rather soft clay is pressed firmly into

the molds so that it takes the form of the depression.

When the clay dries thoroughly, it will shrink away from

the sides of the mold so that it can be removed easily*

Pottery may be cast by pouring slip of the consistency

of thick cream into a dry mold* The water in the clay is i

pulled into the absorbent plaster and a residual wall is

deposited and built up around the plaster mold* * When the

wall is of the desired thickness, the excess slip is poured

out* When the bowl is dry, it is removed froto. the mold*

21

Evaluation of Molding and Casting Techniques

Duplicating an original clay object was an important

experience for sixth- and seventh-grade pupils. The con-

struction of molds required careful preparation by the

teacher and pupils, but the results of the experiments in-

dicated that the preliminary planning and preparation were

not only intrinsically valuable but also assured a success-

ful outcome. These construction techniques provided ex-

cellent and logical opportunities for discussion of

commercial methods used in producing tableware, industrial

ceramics, and plumbing fixtures* Various types of ceramics

were examined, and an effort was made by the pupils to

identify the type of clay which had been used in each in-

stance*

Many pieces of jewelry pro-

duced In press molds had charm

and individuality. The tiles %

made by this method dried evenly

and showed less tendency to warp

than did the original model*

The small bowls cast made suit-

Fig* 25 • -Slip-cast bowl; seventh grade*

" - i - -glaze-test pieces (Figure 2$)*

22

Obsenrafclon® by the wj?it©f dmring fch©s® expert-

ladloatod tibsffc ob leots eould be w«»<3» in on©-x>i©e© PIwJiPTs WPP fpr Upr HP^pF w * w w a * Jfir^jpr ^Pr5, t|>F Wr SIPWIPW- JBf VSK pP- ^WF

mold* Tfirjr M t l i f f t e t e r l l j by pupi ls In th* s ix th «od seventh

grades. MoMiag end e&sfclag wmm found t o be la&evestiag

r>d vaXtublo e onstHrao ticoi Itsdtodl^pes f o r uso wlfcfe pupils •'

of t h i s grade l e v e l .

CHAPTER H I

mfuiG of applied mmmmr fscsixspis

Bt art rooms where mpper-sl«ffi^ti^y»®6hoGl pupils rait

with clay* applied tMta&qMMi are maud extensively.

These decorative treatments range from a simple incised

linear design to elaborate stssell end rubber stamp m t *

mentation* It seemed consistent witfc other experiments

recorded In this study* therefore, to select same of the

applied mastsl techniques used generally by ceramists

and teachers* and test thea for use by sixth- sad seventh-

grade pupils. Six techniques wore choseni stamped impres-

sic®,, incised lias, graffito, slip trail, slip painting,

and wax resist.

Staaped-impressi on Technique

Impressing a design into wet clay is perhaps the

simplest and most primitive of all applied ornament tech-

aiipes# It requires a slapls object with tactile quality,

sash as a twig* pebble, *bsll# m leaf. An applied design

is made by Impressing the chosen object into the wet clay

and repeating this ispresslon if a repeated pattern is

desired*

23

SiraltiatlGa of staiapad-Saipression fochnitpio

toh m'&iwt&m was evidenced fey tfeft popl la who pe*~

foraed M B ©aperiiasat. Many in t a ina t ing twigs end pobblaa

wer® f o w l on t t e playgponad* m m m t l si© l i s were brought

f *o t hcos©* and a coarso straw mat produced a w p l o t y of

t ox tu ra i af f e e t a when proaaad i n t o th© wot ©lay* teall

bowls, ash t r a y s , and t i l s® mm embellished by tt&8 teei*-

alqae with great success.

fiie atupe&»iqpro8Sifln teohnl<pe p w l W exeol leat

oppartunit ie* f o r discussing s u i t a b i l i t y of

t o fc r*» and i t promoted i n t e r e s t 1A experimenting with.

other appl ied toohaiqpea*

Xnels®d*lime Technique

To apply a s inc ised Una design t o a po t te ry ob jec t ,

i t i s mmmmfj tm the a lay t o b&emm l e a the r dry, When

i t i a £a t h i s condition# a laoe t any pointed to@l may b« used

t o out l i n e s i n t o i t * A planned design may be drawn on tta»

then 1 noised* or the ahqpe of the object may sug-

goat ornamentation ^faddb ©an be inc ised f r e e l y and d i r e c t l y .

Evaluation of Xaslaed-llne Techniquo

The inc ised- l ine technique f o r ornamenting pot tery l a

mod fre<ja«ntly i n the tipper el€s&entary grades# I t was

observed In experiments ooratiieted t ha t a major i ty of pup i l s

who created a c lay object expressed a desire t o saw® i t i n

m

1M pottery* W<M& often out with a pocket knife ,

oenpaaa point , or sa i l* TJaraally tfao dealgn waa not planned

provlouuily* bat out dii?e<5tly into th© clay. In saa© S»»

stances thin spontaneous oraaaamtaticai proved mcG&mf&l,

utiile i s others i t resulted in m^erfluoas decoration.

l a sculpture, the mse of incised Ha* m s confined fee

Hi® indication of m t u r a l l s t i c f a c i a l f ea tu res , ha i r , m

textural pattern.

Graffi to fedtoiqp#

3&® g ra f f i t o technique r e t i r e s a clay ohject to nMoti

a colored s l ip or an engobe has boast applied* and simple,

shazpaned tool# which may bo used fo r scratching or cutting

a design i a leather-hard clay. Ste s l i p or engobe covering

usually contrasts i n color with the clay fro®. which the <to-

J*@t was mde. iSkm th® clay i s leather diy# th# desired

design or pattesf* la scratelied M M% thrombi th© colored

outer surface* c l o s i n g the color of the clay body i n Hie

scratched l ines .

Evaluation of Graff i to technique

the groffit© teciwiipe prored an i n tona t i ng and

satisfactory metfeod of ornwae&tlag pottery f o r pupils with

persistence and patleneef l e ave r* mny tiio experimented

with i t war® disappointed with th© resul t s obtained*

26

fhe straining »d necessary in preparing *

satiafaetery slip prcnrea trebles®®® to * majority «* the

girl# teated* and Is® about 50 par a«*t «T the boya who

performed the experiment.

Scratching * &m%m through tbo slip wa# completed

satisfactorily, one© the slip toad been applied.

The resnlts seeued to indleate that the technical

skill neeeaaary to apply slip m engobe smoothly makes this

a dlffiemlt problem for pmpila in the tipper elementary

grades, fhis teehniqn© prorad satisfactory in tm instances

Hid same unsuitable for us# at tfcia level.

Hip-trail Technique

To apply * alip-tarailed deaiga on a piaoa of pottery*

a nail bnlb-type (aar) syringe ia needed* Slip* which

tea been mijsad to thiek cresm consietaney, ia pulled by

saotioa into the bulb of the syringe* 4 trailed lis© may

then be applied to a leather-dry pot by slight, constant

pressure on the slip-filled bulb.

Qvm arable or &m tragacanth ia often mixed with alip

to bo need for trailing. Tbis produces mora riseidity

and causes Hie alip to adhere to the leather-dry surface

more readily*

27

Evaluation of Slip«trail Technique

W » alip**trail method Is often used t>y eeramiste to

pr©<tii&» subtle ornamentation on pottery# 1% is em of the

a««t desirable of all applied m a m t teehnitnea fr<aa the

potter'e viewpoint • fhe teehni<p© is diffieult to master*

tfpper~el«aenta*y«»a©h©ol pupils who tried -Hi* slip**

tnil method of ornamentation ejEperleiieed difficulty in

squeezing tli© bulb of the syringe with a sufficiently

staat pressure to produce a smoothly flowing lint* After

srneh experimentation on brown paper* the pupils attempted

to produce linear designs set their pottery* Only about 10

per ©eat «Jf those who tested the technique were able to

control the flow of the slip fresa the springe to the degree

necessary for prodding smooth Hues.

the preparation of the slip proved troublesome and

frustrating to the pupils and vas finally completed by the

teacher.

*his evidence indicates that the elip-trail technique

is mot suitable for use in the upper elementary grades.

Slip»palnting feohnicpe

Slip «feioh has been mixed to the consistency of thick

©ream n y be painted m leatl»r«dry elsy. A soft Israeli is

repaired* and the slip oust he viscuo os if it is to alters

28

t—&LXj to IHm partially #r? svfkM* The addition of

vegetable pass will prodmee this desired viaooaity.

Svaloati ©u of yt i. TioTMa 1 nfointT Technioue

the alip-paiiiftiiig w®Wm& of oanQGoatntiiig pottery mm®&

wmf familiar t@ upper*el©iaemtary»s©hoal pupils. Chinese

brushes were used for application of the slip to the pottery

aad these proved vory interesting to the pupils #i© used

then. Basigas were brushed freely and many mm well suited

t# the' forms* Ho great difficulty was encountered to this

eaeperiment, although some of the ptipils who tested the

Method found painting with slip a m difficult than painting

with tampers,

la this experiment, as in. others recorded* the prepara-

tion of aMp'of sultablle consistency constituted the greatest

problem*

ffcia experiment provoked {jueatiomj about Chinese

bmatiaa, painting, and pottery. The pupils brought awwal

piecea of oriental porcelain to elass for examination.

She excellent results of this technique observed by

the winter se^ied to indicate that the slip-painting method

e£ applying ornament to pofctery can be used easily by sixth-

and seventh-grade pupils* provided that the slip is prepared

fcy the teacher or by oh® of the awe skillful pupils.

99

Wax-resist Technique

Tm wax-resist teobmiqa© for applying ©smatasatafeion on

pottery requires either a stick @1" eold mac or hot beeswax

«• ptxmffia and & bristle brash#

f# « pattern by this method it is neoaas&ry to

apply the wax m a place of bisqiie~fired ware* If tie ism

is to be bmshed ©is. It mmt first be heated; if bsrashwork

la not retired* a stick of oold mx» auch aa a wax erayoa*

say ba used successfully, Glass la Ite applied to the

bisque ware and the piece la gl©st~flred. fhe glaze will

not to the pattern mad# by the application of wax.

Evaluation of Wax-resist feehnicpe

Interesting results war® observed Mi®© M s technique

was used by sixth- and seventh-grad© pnplls. In the begin"*

siing it prored difficult for tins to understand that glaaa

would not flow across Unas made If wax, sine© the wax vosM

welt when fired la the Mia* When this was explained satis-

factorily* the eaqpjeriaent continued*

the first pupils aii# t as tad tMs method used melted

paraffin and brushed their pattern, am white bisque ware*

this w«hita on white" proved difficult for the pupils to

follow* Thosa wtto triad the experiment later used colored

wax crayons or added colored erayois to the melted paraffin

in order mot to lose sight of the pattern*

30

MwMmm resulting tvm th* axp®rim©mt indicated tbat

whil« th* wwc-roaiat technique sight be uaed with upp«r~ ihM» ima Mil "iii nftrtfi -Mv » jiib. ~frftr> "ninf! nl Jv JaL gifr tiiii iiMiMi iti iain i <m wtfi MM- .jh rftif ™ ftfiifhi JSk -itr-fr- nfrnate —*'- dL* «nt mm

dMisatift r pupil#* owQi1 applied. stsiMii ^ooiu<|Wf t@st©«

ar© more oenslvt^ntly successful.

CHtFTSR If

MxmimmtMa mm ah&zma mw wmim Tmmmms

X» many elementary aehoola where elay Is vmA in UM

art program# glazing and firing techniques are considered

beyond the o«pt«ity of sixth- and aeventh-grade pupils.

In suoh situations* glase is applied by the tM<dwrr the

pupil having little choice of color, ami the kiln is stacked

and fired by the teacher. As a result the pupils haw

little opportunity to experience clay as a creative medium

fran raw state to finished object.

fho nature of this study made it seem necessary* there-

faro* to @jqp®ri»©ttfc with glaring and firing techniques and

to ascertain their suitability for use in the upper ele-

mentary grades • For the experiments recorded* a basic glass©

was chosen by the writer sad compounded by the pupils.

Coloring agents wire added to the glaze to produce daairod

colors# and various laefchoda of applying glaze were tested.

She kiln m a stacked* fired* and drawn by the pupils.

(Hazing Techniques

For experimentation with glazing* a load-base glaze

was selected. This ohoio* was dependent upon simple in-

gredients, low-firing maturity* and proven i»«nlts. The

31

32

glaze, which is glossy and transparent, sutures between

Cone ©6 and 0 m 02. It is eoaposad of the following in-

gredients*

Whit# lead I42 WWBm Whiting %5 grams Feldspar o0 gnosis G3*y 22 gram®., Flint {? — *

CeBtpoundlng this glaze recipe requirad that the in*

gredtanfes to® waited is put* A seal# m a supplied t m

this purpose by th© writer end the pupila were instructed

In it# use.

•• Four coloring agents# chosen on th® basis of avail-

ability, oast* and oolor prodded, ware selected by the

writer for us© in tlia experimental fhe coloring agants

were cobalt, copper, iron oxide, and manganese dioxide.

They were added to the glass® recipe by tt» pupils, accord-

ing to the oolor desired,

fo perform this experiment, it was imperative that the

pupils weigh carefully the ingredients «f the basic glass

recipe* Zhese were then ground by hmd in a mortar with a

pestle. When the ingredients were thoroughly mixed, a oolor

was decided upon by each pupil. Sue correct percentage

«f coloring agent2 was then added t© his portion of the

mixture end the grinding continued. When me glass was

1 B. Eamiey, gqsplsto Book & fottei*r Making,

2Ibid.

33

tluroa(M7 ground, a solution of gun arabio and water wan

added to the dry mixture, and it was raady for application

to the bisque-flrod ware (see Page 36)*

Four methoda were M a d f or applying glass t# bisque-

fired war©: dipping# pouring, painting, and spraying.

Evaluation of lacperiaents with Glasing Techniques

Experiments with glaring technlqi©s proved mixtab3Ui

fro© several standpoints#

Wwm a discussion of glazes preceding actual experi-

mentation, ranch was learned about the properties of a glaze,

its ingredients$ mtd its color* Whan the recipe to be used

had been selected by the writer, it was thoroi^hly discussed

by the pupils, who wanted to know the properties of each

ingredient and how it would ha transformed in the Mia.

Whan tha compounding of the glaze began, there were

excellent ipaatiisia about welgit and measure, and gpaat

ea*® **» *afc®n hy those who were weighing the lsgredlaats

to have the aoala balanced perfectly*

Most pupils war# unable to understand why a "black

powder" such a# copper oxide would tiara green when it was

fired* After an attempt was xsade by the writer to ftypi

fchis process in simple tanas# tha oddas were labeled with

tags which Indicated the colors after firing.

Ho trouble was encountered by the pupils In grinding

glaze, although sase had trouble In applying It.

*

Dipping an object into glaze proved a siarple and satis*

factory method far use with pupil® of upper -elementary level,

ftmm glazed in this m,y were smooth end hud few irregu-

larities when gloat-fired.

Pouring glaze proved troublesome and frustrating to a

majority of the pupils tested# Pouring inside a bowl was

relatively satisfactory* tout pouring glaze over the outside

resulted in raany failures. Tim gloat-fired pie©© which had

been glased la this way was rough sad seemed unsatisfactory

to the pupil*

Fainting glaze on an object was the method used most

frequently by the pupils engaged In the activity, It was

generally satisfactory, although the tendency to spread fee

glass thin resulted in raany second firings*

Spraying glass with a hand sprayer proved very satis-

factory. It necessitated using glass that had been strained

free of partioles* flats process sewed troubles®®® to the

pupils# but ouee it had been accomplished* they found the

spraying easy* Gleaning the sprayer was a task* but the

gloat-fired piece was ample reward to the pupil.

*)rm the results observed* the writer concluded tbat

dipping* painting* and spraying glaze on bisque-fired ob-

jects are suitable techniques for use in the sixth and

seventh grades; that ccopoundlng a glaze, the most difficult

operation la "fee experiment * should be delegated to the

35

more skillful pupils; that all pupils seem capable of grind-

ing and applying glares; that many interesting and valuable

developmental experiences resulted from these experiments.

Kiln Operation

The kiln sfoieh was used for

firing the ware produced during

the experimentation recorded is

a Paragon Kiln# It is a top-

loading kiln and is made in

Dallas# Texas (Figure 26)* The

firing chamber measures 15 x

15 x 1? inches and has a

capacity of two cubic feet

(Figure 27) • It is a high-

fire kiln with a range up to Cone S# which is a temperature

of 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit* It was installed in the art

room at Lisbon Elementarj School %

in 1952.

For experiments in kiln opera-

tion* little was needed other than

a kiln, kiln furniture# cones# and

ware to be fired# ^

It was necessary to explain

the furniture and the operation csf

Fig. 27*—-Interior the kiln. The function of each of kiln.

Fig. 26.—Exterior of kiln.

36

part WAS discussed by the writer and questions ware asked.

by til® pupils. The purpose of posts# shelves* and e m i

was eaplained and demonstrated.

Evaluation of Experimenting with lULln Operaticm

XUa jawed to be one ©f the most interesting

activities included in the experiment*.

Every pupil was interested in what happened inside

^e kiln sad the majority helped la some way to fire the

ware Yfolch had been made.

So difficulty was incurred in stacking fee warn in the

kiln* Care was takra la selecting ware to be bisque-fired*

tm a wet pieoe algit explode and damage the contents of an

entire kila# blazed pieces were carefully placed on stilts

and isolated froa other pieces.

Placement of pyrowtrio cones in front of the peep

holes was a sore ted Job and was performed with great car© by

the pupil chosen for the assignment.

Firing usually consumed about five hours and the kila

reached Gone {%» a temperature of about 1*9%© degrees

Fahrenheit. The heat in the kiln was brought up Slowly

by using fair switches, one for each set of colls aroond the

firing chsnber. By using these switches* there was never

wore than 100 degrees variance between the temperature at

the bottom of the kiln and that near the top.

31

Drawing the kiln was an eaceitlng activity* On the day

the kila was to fee opened after a gloat-firing, may pmpile

would be waiting at the door of the art room wtiea it was .

opened In the aoming.

The writer observed that pupils in the sixth' and

seventh' grades were vitally interested in fella operation,

they shewed an understanding el" the process and exercised

great ear# in handling the kite.

The majority of jropila tested participated In this ex-

periment and this participation motivated many additional

experiments in eonatmetlon techniques.

omifii v

SUMMAIf AID COHCI^SIONS

The purpose of this study wa® to explore til® possi-

bilities of clay as a creative meditta and to determine

which oif the may ceramic techniques are xtoet suitable fop

use by pupils la the upper elementary grades, this study

did not introduce new methods but tested some of the es-

tablished oersal© techniques which are nam being used or

i*hich might be used by pupils la the sixth and seventh

grades. Tim study la based upon experimental!cm earried

ob from 19£>Q to 1952* ifith th© participation of 500 sixth-

end seventh-grade pupils In five elementary schools of

Dallas# ferns- The study records experiments with construe-

tioaa techniques* applied arnanient techniques* and glazing

and filing techniqaes.

Conclusion

As a result of the experiasnts performed 1® the course

°f this study, the wdt»r presents the following conclusions*

1* Clay Is an interesting and valuable creative medium

for use by sixth- and seventh-grade pupils*

38

39

2* Sam of Hn» construction techniques tested proved

frustrating to a majority of the pupils engaged la the

activity? experiments with the eoll m l slab techniques

resulted 3a many failures. flu the other hand, the scoop-

out* gravity-pull* paper-core* and moldlug and casting

techniques proved to be very satisfactory for use by pupils

at this level*

3* She simplest applied ornament techniques were pre-

ferred by pupils in the sixth end seventh grades* the

stajaped-iiapression and inei sad-line techniques being em-

ployed »ost frequently. The other techniques tested—

graffito, slip feral 1* slip painting* and wax resist—were

used less succeasfully.

If* dlazing and firing techniques proved to be within

the capacity of sixth* and seventh-grade pupils# fhe

weighing of glaze Ingredients and the grinding of the glaze

was done with accuracy. three glaze application techniques—

dipping* painting, and spraying—proved satisfactory* but

pouring the glaze over bisque-fired ware resulted in many

failures* fhe pouring technique* therefore* seems unsuit-

able for use at this level* stacking a kiln for firing

proved to be an Interesting activity for sixth- and seventh-

grade pupils* and once the use of cones m d switches and the

need for accuracy In the operation of the kiln had been ex-

plained* the pupils took pride in performing each step with

care to Insure a successful firing.

mw&mnmm

Books Quoted

-? Burt # Cyril, Mental and aoholaatlo Teats, Loudon, P. 3• King and Son ffigSaPp;

; Smmu/j, Jeha B., ®g. 8mM& BOSH St 28&SEE I W l K » > « Xork» Qreenberg* 1949.

'/ Loweafeld, Viktor, Greatlya and Mental arowlflu Hew York, Tim Macralllan Company, 191}.? •"

j Wlggln, Safe# Douglas, and Smith, Horn Archibald, greebaH.a Ocoapatloaa, Caafcridge, ffc® Rlveraide freaa, 1899-

Books Consulted

\ Blima, C» F., tt» Potter's Smft. How York# ». Van Nostrand, 1%7»

, Julia BmiSii* gcw to 1lake fefefeagy y d Ceramla Sculpture. Saw YdE, The Museum of Modern Art, 19^?«

Janeway, Carole, Fottarr Making for Iverrona* I«t fork, -••-J Tudor Publishing Company,' 1$5G*

.j, Koenig» J# H „ Literature Abatraefca of Ceramic Qlazea* 1 ¥1! «f in, rf iVf nfnW <Si '"f* r?¥TiT rrn * IruX X&€l©x COii#g0 wuTflNilw JrXMMI#

Leach, Bernard, A ?ofcfcar*« Book* Arts Incorporated, 1$}B«

Leach, Bernard, 4 fetter*a Portfolio, Saw York, Fittraan,

; aifWMPMifp a«*w*b mmmmm **§r *££*£*££»* Saw York, fraaaatlaatie

< • •

&* 1951.

Leeming, Joseph, Pun with Clay» Saw York, Lippineott Ccta-fa^„ W .

Read, Herbert* Education throoigh Art, Saw York# Pantheon freaa* 19^5* . . • .

1*0

41

q Said#*, M J f t t J f t f l f t , 2t Sigma Ft&llslilmg Company, 1900 •

U*# Ida V«# Coapaay, l | j

^ i—"1Tho®l«3P# Ida W.# g t o t o g with Clxr, New York, Tha Maestillan - m.