cambridge - colombia bilinguism

©UCLES 2010 – The contents of this publication may not be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Research NotesOffprint from Research Notes ISSUE 40/ MAY 2010 / PAGES 17–22 40/07

IntroductionThe Colombian educational authorities value the mastery ofa second language as an indispensable tool to succeed intoday’s world. The Government’s educational policy regardslearning foreign languages as a way of opening,internationalising and creating a positive foreign investmentclimate. The ‘Plan Colombia Bilingüe’ and the NationalStandards for English constitute outstanding efforts in thisregard. Bilingualism is acknowledged as key for academicand labour mobility and for setting the basis for capacitybuilding and competitiveness. While traditionally,Colombia’s bilingual education has been the privilege of thehigher social classes, the Government of Colombia hassought to change this situation by implementing anambitious education and language policy. The issuance ofthe General Education Law (Law 115 of 1994) and thelaunching of a National Bilingual Program, provided thegrounds for Colombia’s aspiration for a bilingual educationfor all of the population. The following article contains adescription of the collaboration between the Ministerio deEducación Nacional (MEN – the Ministry of Education), theInstituto Colombiano para la Evaluación de la Educación(ICFES – the national awarding body), Cambridge ESOL andBritish Council, Colombia. This was a 4-year project coveringthe following areas:

• initial benchmarking of student and teacher levels

• new test development and deployment

• transfer of knowledge

• developing local capabilities and quality assurance.

The project successfully delivered new English languageexaminations in Colombia; specifically for 11th gradersat the end of the State secondary education (the Stateexam, ‘Examen de Estado’) and for last-year universitystudents (ECAES).

Cambridge ESOL designed and produced the first versionof the new English component of the Colombian Stateexams. Thereafter, the project has involved transfer of skillsand localisation to improve the country’s capacity toproduce its own English tests through ICFES. As a result ofimportant efforts from the Colombian educationalauthorities, currently hundreds of thousands of students inColombia are taking these mandatory English testsannually. Training provided by Cambridge ESOL allowed

ICFES to form a team of new item writers who have alreadyproduced English test items used in the latest 2008 and2009 versions of the State exams and ECAES. The successof this initiative has allowed Colombia to both raise itsstandards for English as a second language, and accuratelymeasure progress attained against international standards.

BackgroundUp until 2000, the examination of foreign languages hadbeen optional in state exams. However after that year, withless than 2% of the population opting for the languagetests, ICFES implemented a mandatory languagecomponent for State exams. In general, schools did nothave much experience in teaching and testing foreignlanguages, consequently, a 2-year adjustment period wasgranted. ICFES began publishing the general results oflanguage exams in 2003. But after a couple of years,unsatisfactory results provoked a strong response from theColombian educational authorities. With only 1% of thecountry’s population estimated to perform in English as asecond language at an adequate level, the educationalauthorities started promoting bilingualism as an importantcomponent of the broader educational reform project.

The broader educational reform context

Colombia has established four strategies to improve thequality of education:

1.Strengthening the education quality assurance system atall levels.

2.Providing professional development for teachers andschool directors.

3. Implementing programs to develop competencies.

4.Fostering policy and programme evaluation (see WorldBank 2004).

Around the same time, in 2006, the Colombian Governmentproposed long-term goals on educational policy in thedocument Vision 2019 Educación. This policy documentcalled for the improvement of English language skills for thewhole population as a means to improve the country’scompetitiveness in the global market.

Furthermore, Colombia has engaged its people in thedevelopment of a 10-year plan to address these and other

Colombia national bilingual projectIGNACIO GÓMEZ MONTES CONSULTANT, ICFES, COLOMBIA

JULIÁN MARIÑO TECHNICAL DIRECTOR, ICFES, COLOMBIA

NIGEL PIKE ASSESSMENT AND OPERATIONS GROUP, CAMBRIDGE ESOL

HUGH MOSS ASSESSMENT AND OPERATIONS GROUP, CAMBRIDGE ESOL


2 | CAMBRIDGE ESOL : RESEARCH NOTES : ISSUE 40 / MAY 2010

benchmarks. While the main objective was to improve thelevel of English of students and teachers, it required thatICFES provided a good delivery infrastructure and improvedEnglish language assessment.

Colombia’s educational authorities sought to evaluateand certify competencies by initiating periodic Englishlanguage evaluations, to determine the level of competenceof students and teachers. Such a certification processfor in-service and pre-service teachers provided foraccreditation of teachers’ competence at the various levelsof language and language-teaching skills. This certificationwas to be issued by fully accredited teaching institutions,and to be closely aligned with international standards. Themain goal was to attain a minimum CEFR B2 level for allteachers which required outstanding teacher training effortsat basic and intermediate levels.

The ultimate goals behind adopting new internationalstandards for foreign-language learning was targeted atachieving English language skills at CEFR level B1 for schoolleavers, level B2 for university graduates, and at least C1 forall English language teachers. These levels correspond tothe standards of the Common European Framework ofReference for Languages (CEFR). Initial objectives wereprogrammed to be completed by 2010, aiming at fullachievement (100% of the goal) by 2019. By then, thecountry’s educational authorities expect to have achieved alevel of at least B2 for 100% of the English teachers in thecountry and all last-year university students; and at least B1for 100% of final year high-school students. The targetedimprovement over time is presented in Table 1 below.

1 The National Decennial Education Plan is a social pact around a democraticplanning exercise, in which the general public determines the main features andguidelines of educational policy for the next decade. It consists of a set ofproposals, actions, and goals expressing the will of the people regardingeducation in the country.

issues critical to education, through its Plan NacionalDecenal de Educación or National Decennial Education Plan. To galvanise support for its reforms, the Ministry ofEducation has used the decennial plan as a means ofengaging the public in setting the nation’s educationpriorities for the 10-year periods of 1996–2005 and2006–2016.1

As a result of its educational policy, Colombia has beenstrengthening its quality assurance system by developingbasic competency standards; monitoring, analysing andusing evaluation data for student and teacher performance;fostering school quality through the use of self-evaluation,improvement plans and a certification process; andstrengthening sub-national agencies to support schools’improvement efforts, especially schools that are low-achieving. Furthermore, Colombia has been working toincrease the relevance of its education system from pre-primary to higher education and to increase access at thehigher levels, so as to build the human capital required toincrease general productivity and competitiveness.

The National Bilingual ProgramAs a result of the need to improve foreign languageteaching skills and student competencies, educationalinstitutions started including English language courses intheir syllabus. Bilingualism became one criterion foraccreditation of higher education programmes, while theMinistry of Education made important efforts to examinelast-year high-school students. In 2004, the Ministry ofEducation presented the National Bilingual Program2004–2019, an ambitious and unprecedented languagepolicy. The programme was very influential, not onlyamongst schools and universities, but also outside theformal education system, and completely changed the waythe education community perceives foreign languageteaching and learning in the country.

The programme consists of five targeted areas forimplementation, which include:

1.Developing standards for English teaching and learning.

2.Continuously evaluating communicative competence instudents, as well as in-service and pre-service teachers,within and outside the formal school system.

3.Providing professional development programmes forteachers in order to develop their pedagogical knowledgeas well as communicative competence in English.

4.Supporting the use of new information andcommunication technologies for the teaching of English.

5.Consolidating bilingual and trilingual models in ethniccommunities around the country.

Goals and objectives

The project’s objectives of providing a range of Englishlanguage assessment services included the definition ofstudent performance levels linked to international

Table 1: English language competence development goals for Colombia

2005 2010 2015 2019

Percentage of 11th grade students, 6.4% 30% 75% 100%state school sector in basic level

Percentage of public and private 8% 40% 70.40% 100%school last-year high-schoolstudents attaining level B1 ofcompetence in ICFES State exam

Percentage of English teachers in 6.8% 35% 75% 100%basic and intermediate levels, (50%)up to level B2 of competence

Percentage of last-year university 28% 70% 100% 100%students attaining level B2 of at B1 at B1 at B1 at B2competence (ECAES general) 30% 70%

at B2 at B2

Percentage of last-year English 58% 75% 100% 100%teacher trainees in basic and at B2 at B2 at B2 at C1intermediate levels attaining 0% 25% 50%level C1 of competence at C1 at C1 at C1

Percentage of programmes 0% 60% 75% 100%accredited by English language institutes

The Common European Framework ofReference (CEFR) for LanguagesThe levels for language skills defined for Colombiacorrespond to internationally accepted standards definedby the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)for Languages. The CEFR consists of a series of descriptionsof abilities which can be applied to any language and canbe used to set clear targets for achievements within

language learning, and has been invaluable to the project.The new international standards of testing English skills inthe Colombian State exam were based on the CambridgeESOL Preliminary English Test, which stands at level B1 ofthe CEFR. Colombia’s efforts to obtain training and supportfrom Cambridge ESOL were aimed at improving Colombia’scapacity to produce its own tests linked to the CEFR.

Language educational policy actionsICFES has designed and implemented certain strategies tomeet the objectives of a bilingual education policy. Themain one was the adoption of standards in Englishlanguage as the common basis for fixing goals, designingcurricula and evaluating competences, as well as certifyinga person’s level of competence. English language standardsadopted by the Ministry of Education, based on the CEFR,determined the competences that students are expected todevelop, in order to attain a level of English that allowsthem to understand and be understood in that language.

After launching the National Bilingual Program, theGovernment issued legislation to regulate the new policy.With Decree 3870 of 28 October 2005, the ColombianGovernment formally adopted the CEFR for languages;regulated the organisation and functioning of foreignlanguage programmes; provided for accreditation oflanguage programmes in universities; and eliminated thecertification requirement for programmes offered byinternational co-operation organisations.

The adoption of Cambridge ESOL exams was fundamentalfor policy advancement. Between 2005 and 2009, theNational Bilingual Program made important progress with alarge-scale collaboration between ICFES, Cambridge ESOL,British Council and the Colombian academic community. Thepartnership with Cambridge ESOL was aimed at developingan internationally benchmarked English languageassessment in the State school-leaving exams and universityECAES exams in Colombia, and made up part of theMinistry’s efforts to equip the population of Colombia withEnglish skills for work and higher study. It consisted of acomprehensive programme designed by Cambridge ESOL,which involved benchmarking specific student populationsto establish existing levels of language ability, subsequentdesign of new tests for two test populations, building localcapacity by training a Colombian team to write tests in linewith international standards, and collaborating on statisticalanalysis techniques and the development of a measurementscale in order to tie student performance to CEFR levels. Thiswas a 4-phase project implemented in the following phases:

1.Benchmarking of student and teacher levels(Nov 05–Feb 06).

2.Test development and deployment (Mar 06–Dec 06).

3.Transfer of knowledge (May 07–Dec 09).

4.Localisation and quality assurance (Jan 08–Dec 09).

Phase 1: Benchmarking of student and teacher levels withCambridge tests

In November 2005, the first pilot for the new language testswas carried out in various territorial entities around thecountry. To provide a benchmark by which to plot progress

of the National Bilingual Program, a sample population of3,759 students in 8th and 10th grades in public schools in11 departments, and 3,422 teachers, was selected to takepart in a benchmarking activity designed by CambridgeESOL. This exercise showed that only 6.4% of the studentsin the year prior to leaving school were at B1 level inEnglish, while only 10.5% of the teachers had the necessarylevel of English to teach at this standard. A second studytested pedagogical and content knowledge of 243 teachersby using the Teaching Knowledge Test (TKT) administered byCambridge ESOL; while a third study tested 2,467 studentsin public schools and 1,293 in private schools, notincluding bilingual schools.

The TKT study showed satisfactory results regardingteachers’ pedagogical knowledge. However, only 1.8% ofthe teachers were at an advanced level in English languageability, 32.8% at intermediate level, and 65.4% attainedonly a basic level.

Additionally, the First Certificate in English exam wasapplied to a sample of 300 final-year trainee Englishlanguage teachers, fully sponsored by the Ministry ofEducation. This survey showed that over 50% of traineeEnglish teachers were below B2 level.

In total, this illustrates that Colombia’s ambitious policyfor bilingualism has a lack of qualified English teachers,with an estimated 40,000 extra at the appropriate languagelevel still needed. This is one of the largest challenges facedtoday by the country’s educational system.

Phase 2: Strategic alliances for Cambridge ESOL testdevelopment and deployment

Cambridge ESOL presented new test designs for the Englishcomponent of the State school-leaving exam and for theEnglish test for final year university students. These designswere accepted by ICFES and MEN. The first of these tests wasadministered between July and September 2006. CambridgeESOL also processed and delivered the results in this period.These tests contained items from Pre-A1 level up to B2 levelin order to measure performance up to B2 on the CEFR.

Cambridge ESOL Colombia Test Structure

The new foreign language tests designed to replace the oldelective tests focused on evaluating students’communicative competences. The exam relied on adistinction between different levels of competence, wherethe knowledge of grammatical rules and semantic aspectsof the language are only meaningful when used in specificcontexts.

In terms of overall general ability, the English examdeveloped by Cambridge ESOL and implemented by ICFESevaluates skills in the following areas:

• can understand straightforward instructions or publicmessages

• can understand dictionary-style definitions for commonobjects

• can understand routine information

• can follow routine interactions covering a wide range offunctional language

• can understand factual articles in newspapers, books andletters


CAMBRIDGE ESOL : RESEARCH NOTES : ISSUE 40 / MAY 2010 | 3

• can understand the general meaning of non-routinearticles, including writer purpose, overall intention andwriter opinion

• can appreciate cohesion in a written passage and selectappropriate vocabulary from options.

The English language exams implemented in the annualtests for last-year high-school and university students,consist of 45 multiple-choice items (the previous languageexams used to have 24 items). The test has been developedto assess across several levels of proficiency (from Pre-A1to ‘B1 or Above’ on the CEFR). All 45 items are distributedamongst seven parts or sections of increasing difficulty. Thebasic and independent user levels of the CommonEuropean Framework of Reference for Languages define theassessment levels.

A simultaneous alliance between ICFES and BritishCouncil worked to promote the basic standards for Englishcompetences. As a result in 2006, the Governmentintroduced the Estándares Básicos de Competencias enLenguas Extranjeras: Inglés, a set of basic standards thatEnglish teachers should follow to guarantee the levels ofproficiency the CEFR presents for Europe. The Minister ofEducation, Cecilia Maria Velez White, in an open letterintroducing the standards (2006) made the followingstatement:

‘The National Government has the fundamental commitment tocreate the conditions for Colombians to develop communicativecompetences in another language. Having a good proficiency levelin English facilitates the access to job and education opportunitiesthat help ensure quality of life. To be competent in anotherlanguage is essential in a globalized world, which demands bettercommunication, to open frontiers, to understand other contexts, tomake knowledge your own and make it circulate, to understand andmake yourself understood, to enrich your being and play a decisiverole in the development of the country. Being bilingual broadensthe opportunities to be more competent and competitive.’

Phase 3: Local capacity-building

The new English language tests that were developed underthe ICFES–Cambridge ESOL alliance made possible theapplication of national English exams to more than 800,000students a year, in line with new international standards.

The first step in enabling test production to take placelocally was for Cambridge ESOL and ICFES to recruit andtrain a team of locally based item writers to produce theirown materials for the English components of the State examand ECAES test. The British Council played an important roleby facilitating and mediating this process, whichcommenced with the appointment of two Team Leaders,responsible for training and managing teams of locallybased item writers, as well as other duties including theproduction of item writer guidelines.

Having agreed upon a detailed schedule for local capacitybuilding covering a period of two years, the first activity inMay 2007 was for the Team Leaders to attend an intensive 5-day training course specifically designed by Cambridge ESOLand held at its offices. The training was delivered by stafffrom Assessment and Operations, Research and Validation,and one of its leading external consultants. The purpose of

the training was to provide the Team Leaders with all thenecessary knowledge and skills they would require toperform their role, and covered the following aspects:familiarisation with the levels of the newly designed Examende Estado (State exam) and ECAES tests and how they arerelated to the CEFR; a detailed consideration of the test partsand issues involved in producing successful test materials;the aims of editing and pretest review meetings; and how toeffectively train and support item writers.

Immediately after returning to Colombia, the TeamLeaders drafted a set of item writer guidelines for theExamen de Estado and ECAES tests detailing the testspecifications and providing advice on producing the testitems. Once the guidelines had been drafted with supportfrom Cambridge ESOL, the Team Leaders went on to devisea training session for the newly recruited team of 15 itemwriters (eight from Bogotá and seven from other cities). Thecontent of the session largely mirrored the content of theTeam Leader training, except there was less focus on theTeam Leader’s role. The training was delivered at the BritishCouncil in Bogotá, and attended by the Cambridge ESOLconsultant who had previously trained the Team Leaders.The alliance with Cambridge ESOL was a key factor inenabling test production to take place locally. Furthermore,to support these efforts, British Council, the Ministry ofEducation, ICFES, Cambridge ESOL and other educationalauthorities were involved in devising teacher trainingprogrammes for in-service teachers, to strengthen theprovision of English language teaching for students.

Phase 4: Localisation and quality assurance

This stage focused on quality assurance, with the aim ofensuring that ICFES and the new Colombian item writingteam were supported by Cambridge ESOL so that the locallyproduced tests continued to measure candidates’ Englishlanguage ability according to the new Colombian Standardsand the CEFR.

Cambridge ESOL supported ICFES in achieving this aim byenabling them to calibrate tasks and by providing anchoritems for inclusion in pretests and live tests. Thedevelopment of a successful pretesting system was crucialto ensure that test items were at the right level for the livetests, and this was another area in which Cambridge ESOLgave significant support and advice to ICFES, besidesproviding feedback and editing comments on locallyproduced test materials via videoconference, teleconferenceand email. In addition to this, analysis of live results wasundertaken by Cambridge ESOL Research and ValidationGroup to help ICFES with grading and to help refine themapping of test items to the CEFR.

Via this means and by developing a network of itemwriters, ICFES has continued to build up its bank of testmaterials and was able to anchor test items to previoustests, and this was seen as the turning point for the Ministry of Education in guaranteeing the country’s owncapacity to implement locally produced English languagetests. The first tests produced locally were piloted inNovember 2007. Currently the State exam is a pre-requisitefor the admission of 11th grade students to enter intohigher education.



Test anchoring and comparisonAnchor items are a set of common items that a certain testshares with another in order to enable comparison of testresults on a common scale of measurement. Anchor itemsare also used in the creation and expansion of an itembank; the known properties of anchor items inform theanalysis of new items and enable their calibration to acommon scale. Both of these types of anchoring have beenemployed to ensure that the ICFES tests are aligned to aninternational standard – in this case the CEFR – and tobuild a psychometrically sound item bank.

Cambridge ESOL provided ICFES with a set of anchortasks which had been calibrated to the CEFR. These anchortasks were incorporated in pretesting and liveadministrations of the new ICFES tests and were used (i) tocalibrate new ICFES test items during pretesting and thusbuild an item bank, and (ii) to analyse results from the livetests in order to provide grading information based on theCEFR levels.

In 2009, ICFES decided to analyse together the results ofits 2007, 2008 and 2009 English tests. In order to achievethis, ICFES, with the support of Cambridge ESOL, identifiedsuitable anchoring items among the tests that linked the2007–2009 tests to the English Benchmarking Testadministered in 2005. Working together Cambridge ESOLand ICFES also established a set of guidelines for theselection of anchor items and/or tasks for future ICFES teststhat will ensure the successful linking of new test versionsto the existing ones.

Findings from the new ICFES testsadministered from 2007 to 2009Figures 1 and 2 below display CEFR performance in ECAESand Examen de Estado examinations from 2007 to 2008. Inthe ECAES exam, the percentage of candidates at A1 level ishigher than at pre-A1 level in ECAES 2008–1 in comparisonto the ECAES 2007–1 or 2007–2. The same is true at B1and B2 or above CEFR levels – on average the percentage ofcandidates falling at these two levels increases in the lateradministrations of the test (with the exception of 2007–2and 2008–1 at B1). These first results indicate a tentativeimprovement of proficiency for the ECAES cohort in thelower (pre-A1, A1) and higher (B1, B2 or above) CEFRspectrum of the exam. The Examen de Estado resultspresent a steady picture across all three administrations ofthe exam in 2007 and 2008. It should be noted here thatthese results are preliminary and more longitudinal data isneeded in order to better monitor progress.

Measuring teachers’ English skills

Throughout the 4-phase project, over 13,000 state Englishteachers were tested and 6,500 teachers at different levelsparticipated in development programmes. The same Englishtest used for ECAES was implemented for measuringteachers’ language ability. Four different forms of the testfor teachers were produced based on the ECAES test for2008 (EK2008–1 and EK2008–2). The following are theresults obtained for each of the forms applied:


CAMBRIDGE ESOL : RESEARCH NOTES : ISSUE 40 / MAY 2010 | 5

Figure 1: English test result comparisons between ECAES 2007 and2008

50%

40%

60%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Pre-A1 A1 A2 B1 B2+

2007–1 2007–2 2008–1

ECAES

Perc

enta

ge

Figure 2: English test result comparisons between State exams 2007and 2008

50%

40%

60%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Pre-A1 A1 A2 B1 B2+

2007–1 2007–2 2008–1

Examen de Estado

Perc

enta

ge

Table 2: Teacher language level baseline by form applied

Level Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4

Pre -A 5.4 4.8 6.7 2.8

A1 6 9.5 8.3 9.5

A2 16.6 15.1 11.3 15.1

B1 46.3 43 47.5 46.7

B1+ 25.7 27.6 26.2 25.9

Table 3: Overall Teacher Language Level Baseline

Level Number of % teachers

A1 3.288 24%

A2 3.911 30%

B1 4.069 31%

B2+ 1.966 15%

Total 13.234 100%

Conclusion The first pilot tests of English as foreign language inColombia, aligned to the CEFR, were taken in November2005 and February 2006 involving more than 5,000students. Cambridge ESOL conducted the analysis ofperformance and the results have been used by MEN andICFES to inform on standards, to benchmark theperformance of foreign language education againstinternational standards and to adapt policy so as toprogress towards the achievement of those standards. In2007, new national English examinations were introducedin Colombia in line with the new CEFR standard. CambridgeESOL designed the English component of the Colombianstate sector exams and developed the early test versions.These are now produced locally following capacity-buildingin Colombia. Today, Colombia has its own capacity andknow-how with a team of Colombian item writers to build itsown tests, under the Cambridge ESOL format, totally linkedto the CEFR standards. These tests are delivered toapproaching a million students annually.

This case study illustrates a highly successfulcollaboration with mutual benefits for ICFES and CambridgeESOL. Both organisations view the 4-year project as a majorlearning and development opportunity that has spanned awide area of activity, enabling ICFES to produce tests withresults linked to the CEFR, and Cambridge ESOL to furtherdevelop expertise that can be utilised for other stateprojects into the future.

References and further reading

ALTE (2002) The ALTE Can Do Project (English version), availableonline http://www.alte.org/cando/alte_cando.pdf

Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Referencefor Languages: learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, available online http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf

Ministerio de Educación Nacional (2008) Plan Sectorial de Educación2006–2010: Revolución Educativa, Documento No. 8, Bogotá,available online http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/cvn/1665/articles-152036_archivo_pdf.pdf

— (2006a) Visión 2019 Educación: Propuesta para Discusión, Bogotá,available online http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/cvn/1665/articles-110603_archivo_pdf.pdf

— (2006b) Estándares Básicos de Competencias en LenguasExtranjeras: Inglés, Serie Guías No. 22, Bogotá, available online http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/cvn/1665/articles-115174_archivo_pdf.pdf

— (unknown) Plan Nacional Decenal de Educación 2006–2016,available online http://www.plandecenal.edu.co/html/1726/articles-166057_archivo_pdf.pdf

Peña, M (2006) Educación: Visión 2019, Ministerio de EducaciónNacional, República de Colombia, Octubre de 2006, availableonline http://www.uis.edu.co/portal/doc_interes/documentos/VISION2019_EDUCACION.pdf

Robinson, N, Warwick, L, Stirling, J, Thaine, C and Naylor, H (2009)Face2Face Advanced Teacher’s Book, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, available online http://cambridge.org/elt/face2face/maps/cef/F2F_LALL_ART_WhatIsCEF.pdf

Van Ek, J and Trim, J L M (1998a) Threshold 1990, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Van Ek, J and Trim, J L M (1998b) Waystage 1990, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Van Ek, J and Trim, J L M (2001) Vantage, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

World Bank (2004) The Quality of Education in Colombia: An Analysisand Options for a Policy Agenda, available online http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/12/15/000333038_20081215233713/Rendered/PDF/439060ESW0P10610Box334108B01PUBLIC1.pdf



This is an extract from Research Notes, published quarterly by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations.

Previous issues are available online from www.CambridgeESOL.org

cambridge - colombia bilinguism

Documents