cambridge university press 0521773148 - tone moira yip
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The sounds of language can be divided into consonants, vowels and tones – theuse of pitch to convey word meaning. As many as seventy per cent of the world’slanguages may use pitch in this way.
Assuming little or no prior knowledge of the topic, this textbook provides aclearly organized introduction to tone and tonal phonology. Comprehensive inscope, it examines the main types of tonal systems found in Africa, the Americasand Asia, using examples from the widest possible range of tone languages. Itprovides students with a basic grasp of the simple phonetics of tone, and coverskey topics such as the distinctive feature systems suitable for tonal contrasts,allophonic and morphophonological tonal alterations, and how to analyse themwithin Optimality Theory. The book also examines the perception and acquisi-tion of tone, as well as the interface between tonal phonology and the mor-phosyntax.
moira yip is Professor in the Department of Phonetics and Linguistics atUniversity College London. Prior to this she was Professor of Linguistics at theUniversity of California, Irvine. She has published extensively on tone and is theauthor of The Tonal Phonology of Chinese (1991).
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General editors: s . r . anderson, p. austin, j. bresnan, b. comrie, w. dressler, c . j. ewen, r . huddleston, r . lass , d. lightfoot, i . roberts, s . romaine, n. v. smith, n. vincent
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In this series
p. h. matthews Morphology Second editionb. comrie Aspectr. m. kempson Semantic Theoryt. bynon Historical Linguisticsj. allwood, l.-g. anderson and ö. dahl Logic in Linguisticsd. b. fry The Physics of Speechr. a. hudson Sociolinguistics Second editiona. j. elliott Child Languagep. h. matthews Syntaxa. radford Transformational Syntaxl. bauer English Word-Formations. c. levinson Pragmaticsg. brown and g.yule Discourse Analysisr. huddleston Introduction to the Grammar of Englishr. lass Phonologyb. comrie Tensew. klein Second Language Acquisitiona. j. woods, p. fletcher and a. hughes Statistics in Language Studiesd. a. cruse Lexical Semanticsa. radford Transformational Grammarm. garman Psycholinguisticsw. croft Typology and Universalsg. g. corbett Genderh. j. giegerich English Phonologyr. cann Formal Semanticsp. j. hopper and e. c. traugott Grammaticalizationj. laver Principles of Phoneticsf. r. palmer Grammatical Roles and Relationsm. a. jones Foundations of French Syntaxa. radford Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: a Minimalist Approachr. d. van valin, jr, and r. j. lapolla Syntax: Structure, Meaning and
Functiona. duranti Linguistic Anthropologya. cruttenden Intonation Second editionj. k. chambers and p. trudgill Dialectology Second editionc. lyons Definitenessr. kager Optimality Theoryj. a. holm An Introduction to Pidgins and Creolesc. g. corbett Numberc. j. ewen and h. van der hulst The Phonological Structure of Wordsf. r. palmer Mood and Modality Second editionb. j. blake Case Second editione. gussman Phonology: Analysis and Theorym. yip Tone
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Tone
MOIRA YIPUniversity College London
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published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridgeThe Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
cambridge university pressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamston Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
http://www.cambridge.org
© Moira Yip 2002
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeface Times 10/13pt System QuarkXpress® [tb]
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 521 77314 8 hardbackISBN 0 521 77445 4 paperback
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This book is dedicated to the memory of my fatherBill Winsland, 1920–2001, who taught me my firstword of a tone language, Kikuyu, many, many years ago.Little did he know where it would lead.
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Contents
List of figures xiiList of maps xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgements xviNotation systems, symbols and abbreviations xviiGlossary of terms and abbreviations xixAlphabetical list of OT constraints xxiiMaps xxv
1 Introduction 11.1 What is a tone language? 11.2 How is tone produced? 51.3 The structure of the grammar: Phonetics and phonology 101.4 The place of phonology in the larger grammar 121.5 The organization of this book 14
2 Contrastive tone 172.1 Which languages are tonal? 172.2 Tonal notations 182.3 Field-work issues 212.4 Contrasting level tones 242.5 Location, number and types of rising and falling tones 272.6 Tone and vowel quality 312.7 Consonant types and tone 332.8 Tonogenesis: the birth of tones 35
3 Tonal features 393.1 Desiderata for a feature system 393.2 Numbers of level tones 423.3 Contours 473.4 Feature geometry 523.5 Relationship to laryngeal features 563.6 Binarity, markedness, and underspecification 61
ix
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4 The autosegmental nature of tone, and its analysis in Optimality Theory 654.1 Characteristics of tone 664.2 Autosegmental representations 724.3 The bare bones of Optimality Theory 774.4 An OT treatment of the central properties of tone 824.5 Tonal behaviour and its OT treatment 844.6 Some Bantu phenomena in OT 894.7 Initial left-to-right association 934.8 Extrametricality 964.9 Relation between tone and stress 974.10 The Obligatory Contour Principle 99
5 Tone in morphology and in syntax 1055.1 Morphology 1065.2 Syntax 1135.3 Summary 129
6 African languages 1306.1 Classification 1306.2 Common or striking characteristics of African tone languages 1306.3 An extended example: Igbo 162
7 Asian and Pacific languages 1717.1 Cantonese Chinese 1747.2 Mandarin Chinese 1787.3 Wu Chinese 1857.4 Min Chinese 1897.5 Types of tonal changes found in Chinese 1957.6 Tibeto-Burman 1967.7 Austro-Tai 2027.8 Mon-Khmer 2067.9 A coda 208
8 The Americas 2128.1 Central America 2128.2 North America 2388.3 South America 246
9 Tone, stress, accent, and intonation 2559.1 Introduction 2559.2 Tone assignment in stress languages 2579.3 Accentual languages 258
x Contents
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9.4 Intonation as phrasal-level tones: a reminder of prosodic hierarchy 2609.5 An OT account of Roermond Dutch 2799.6 Phrasing, speech rate, stylistics 2839.7 Conclusion 288
10 Perception and acquisition of tone 28910.1 Adult tone perception 28910.2 First-language acquisition 29510.3 Second-language acquisition 309
Bibliography 311
Author index 335
Subject index 339
Contents xi
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xii
Figures
1.1 The larynx, from Ohala 1978 page 61.2 Peak delay, from Xu 1999b 92.1 Syllable-tone representation compared to word-tone
representation. Data from Zee and Maddieson 1980 249.1 Phrasal boundary tones in Japanese.
From Pierrehumbert and Beckman 1988: 21 2649.2 English intonational melodies.
From Beckman and Pierrehumbert 1986: 257 2679.3 Roermond Dutch phrasal tones.
From Gussenhoven 2000: 139, 141 280
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xiii
Maps
1 Africa, from Heine and Nurse 2000: 2 page xxv2 Niger-Congo, from Heine and Nurse 2000: 12 xxvi3 Sinitic languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map VIII xxvii4 Sino-Tibetan languages, excluding Sinitic, from
Lyovin 1997, Map VII xxviii5 Thai languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map IX xxix6 Austronesian languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map VI xxx7 Meso-America, from Suarez 1983, Map 1 xxxi8 North America, from Mithun 1999, Map 1b xxxii9 South America, from Derbyshire and Pullum 1986,
vol. 1 xxxiv
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xv
Preface
This book is designed for students of linguistics who want to learn moreabout tone. It assumes a basic knowledge of phonological theory such as might beacquired in a year-long phonology course, but it does not assume any particularprior exposure to work on tone. The theoretical chapters of the book are framed inOptimality Theory (OT), but should be intelligible to students with no previousbackground in OT.
The book is suitable for a semester-long course on tonal phonology at the ad-vanced undergraduate or graduate level. The theoretical chapters include somesimple exercises, and the answers are given at the end of each chapter. It is alsohoped that the book will be a useful reference work on the fundamentals of tone,and to this end it includes extensive references to both primary fieldwork sourcesand to theoretical works. An effort has been made to give broad coverage of tonelanguages, both typologically and geographically.
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xvi
Acknowledgements
This book could not have been written without the help of a number ofpeople. My thanks go first and foremost to Neil Smith. He first suggested I shouldwrite this book, he found me office space at a time when I had no professionalhome, and he read every chapter in first draft, within days, and gave me back de-tailed and probing comments. It has been a privilege to work with him.
Particular thanks also to Akin Akinlabi, Larry Hyman and Scott Myers, whotook the time to give me detailed comments on the manuscript, thereby saving mefrom numerous embarrassing mistakes.
This book has also benefited from help and comments from many other peopleover the last two years, including Mary Bradshaw, Nick Clements, Bruce Connell,Jerry Edmondson, Dan Everett, Colleen Fitzgerald, Seldron Geziben, SharonHargus, Joyce McDonough, David Odden, Stuart Rosen, Bernard Tranel, JustinWatkins, Yi Xu, and the participants in talks and seminars at University CollegeLondon and the School of Oriental and African Studies. Some of you have readparts of the manuscript and given me honest feedback, some of you have pointedme in the right directions for references or data, some of you have asked pointedquestions to which I then had to find out the answers. To all of you, my thanks.
All errors, misjudgements and misrepresentations are of course my own re-sponsibility.
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xvii
Notation systems, symbols and abbreviations
Segmental transcriptions will be those of the original source, unlessotherwise noted.
Accent marks
Acute accent: á high toneGrave accent: à low toneMacron: a mid toneIn combination: a rising tone
â falling tone[Note: occasionally accents are used to show stress instead; this will be explicitlynoted where relevant.]
Numerical systems
Asianist: 5 � high tone, 1 � low toneMeso-americanist: 1 � high tone, 5 � low toneBoth: 2 digits in sequence show starting and ending pitches, so 35
is a contour tone.
Other symbols
� foot� syllableµ mora# word-boundary; occasionally used for phrase-boundariesH% phonological phrase boundary toneH// intonational phrase boundary tone
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!H downstepped HH floating HH* accentual H, which associates to the stressed syllableF0 fundamental frequency, in Hertz
OT conventions
� winning candidate in OT tableau* constraint violation*! fatal constraint violationshading cell whose violations, if any, are now irrelevant, since a higher
ranked constraint has decided thingsC1 >> C2 C1 ranked higher than C2, shown by left-to-right placement in
tableau
xviii Notation systems, symbols, abbreviations
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xix
Glossary of terms and abbreviations
ballistic Ballistically stressed syllables have post-vocalic aspiration,and are articulated more forcefully than controlled stressed syl-lables. They often rise slightly in pitch at the end, whereas con-trolled stressed syllables show a gradual decrease. The last partof a ballistically stressed syllable shows aperiodic noise, char-acteristic of aspiration.
Bernoulli’s A high-velocity airstream passing through a narrow openingLaw exerts a sucking effect on the walls of the opening, drawing
them together.contour tone A tone that changes pitch during its duration, either rising or
falling.debuccalization Loss of all oral articulations, leaving only a laryngeal such as
[h] or [ʔ].declination An overall fall in pitch as an utterance proceeds, possibly due
to a drop in sub-glottal pressure.default tones A tone inserted on a toneless syllable at the end of the phonol-
ogy. Usually a low tone.docking The association of a floating tone to a tone-bearing unit (TBU).downdrift The lowering of a H tone after an overt L tone. Sometimes
called automatic downstep.downstep The lowering of H in the absence of an overt L tone, but usu-
ally caused by a floating L. Sometimes called non-automaticdownstep. Used in this book on occasions as a cover term forboth downdrift and downstep.
extrametricality The exclusion of a peripheral element (syllable, mora, TBU)from some process, such as tone association or stress calcula-tions.
gradient Calculation of the extent to which a constraint is violated,assessment instead of a pass/no pass approach. Used especially in assess-
ing alignment, so that the greater the misalignment, the moreviolations are counted.
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xx Glossary
iambic Right-prominent binary feet, usually weight-sensitive. LF Term used by syntacticians, short for Logical Form.modal voice Normal phonation, no breathiness or creakiness.mora A weight unit: a light syllable has one, a heavy syllable has
two. Long vowels always have two. Coda consonants may ormay not count for weight i.e. may or may not have a mora.
non-automatic See ‘downstep’ above.OCP Obligatory Contour Principle: Adjacent identical elements are
prohibited.PF Term used by syntacticians, short for Phonetic Form. Always
used in its abbreviated form. Could more appropriately becalled Phonological Form.
polarity Choice of the opposite tone to the adjacent tone, so that H rootstake L suffixes, and vice-versa.
prosodic Relating to the phonological constituent structure in which syl-lables are grouped into feet, feet into prosodic words, prosodicwords into phonological phrases, and phrases into intonationalphrases. Domains in which prominence is assigned. Often syn-tactically conditioned.
register Three different senses:(1) Tonal range of the voice is divided into two registers,[�Upper] and [�Upper]. Refers only to pitch. Most commonusage in this book.(2) Voice quality distinctions, such as modal register vs.creaky register.(3) Frequency at which a tone is realized at that point in anutterance. In this usage, downstep lowers the register on whichH tones are realized.
rhyme The part of the syllable starting with the nuclear vowel, andincluding all post-nuclear material.
Richness of An OT term, arising from the impossibility of restricting inputsthe Base in an output-based theory. All possible inputs must thus be
considered.sandhi Phonological process which happen between words. In this
book, usually tonal changes.secret language Language disguise games used by children (or sometimes
teenagers or criminals!), in which the language is distorted in aregular way unintelligible to the outsider.
SPE Sound Pattern of English (Chomsky and Halle 1968)
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TBU Tone-Bearing Unit. Syllable or mora, and perhaps vowel. Theentity to which tones associate.
trochaic A left-headed binary foot, usually evenly weighted. May betwo moras, or two syllables.
UG Universal Grammar.ultima The final syllable/mora.UR Underlying Representation.VOT Voice onset time.
Glossary xxi
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xxii
Alphabetical list of OT constraints
Faithfulness constraints
*Associate (�*Assoc)*Delete Dep-IODep-MoraDep-T*Disassociate (�*Disassoc)Faith-BRHead-Max-T (includes FaithNuclearTone)Ident-IOIdent-TIntegrityLinearityMax-BR (Tone)Max-IOMax (Lar)Max-T (�MAX-IO (Tone))NoCrossingNoFusionOutputOutputMatch (�OO-Match)Parse-�PresWeightRealize-MorphTonalProminenceFaith
Markedness constraints
Align-LAlign-R
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*Align-L(H, Word) (�NonInitiality)Align-L (X”, PhPh) (or any other pairing of syntactic boundary and prosodic
category)Align-R-ContourAlign-R(H, PrWd) (or any other pairing of tone and prosodic or morphological
entity)Align-ToneAllFeetLeft (�All FtLeft)Anchor-R(T, Sponsor)*ClashCongruence*Contour (�NoContour�OneT/m)*FallFinalStress*FloatFtBinFtBinMax (�BinMax)FtBinMin (�BinMin)FtFormTrochee*H*Hd/L �� *Hd/M �� *Hd/HHead�H*L*LapseLicenceContourLocalMinArticEffortNoCodaNoGapNoLongTone (�NoLongT)NonFinality*NonHd/H �� *NonHd/M �� *NonHd/LNonInitiality (�NonInitial)NoStraddlingOCPOneT/µOnsetPromToneMatch*Rise*[–son][Tone]
OT constraints xxiii
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Space-100%Specify-TSpreadStress�HStressToWeightPrinciple (SWP)*Tone (�*T)*Trough*VoiceWeightToStressPrinciple (WSP)Wrap-XP
xxiv OT constraints
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Maps xxv
Nama
Zulu
Xhosa
SothoTswana
Shona
Bemba
Luba SwahiliHadzaSandawe
Makua
Luo
Dinka OromoSomali
Amharic
ZandeSango
Lingala
Kongo
IgboYorubaAkan
Ful Bambara
Songay
Hausa Kanuri
NubianBeja
B e r b e r
A r a b i c
Phyla
Afroasiatic
Nilo-Saharan
Niger-Congo
Khoisan
Map 1. Africa, from Heine and Nurse 2000: 2
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xxvi Maps
BA
NT
U
Teke
Niger-Congo
Branch
Major languages
Isolated languages
Lingala
Kongo
Umbundu
LubaBemba
Shona
Makua
Swahili
TswanaHerero
Zulu
Xhosa
Tsonga
Sotho
Laal
Sango Zande
Nya-mwezi
Kikuyu
ADAMAWA-UBANGI
Ewondo
IgboBANTOID
BENUE-
CONGO
DEFAKAIJOID
Ewe
MandeMbre
Akan
KWAKRU
KRUATLANTIC
MANDE
FulWolof
MANDE
DOGONGUR
GUR
BambaraATLANTIC
Yoruba
MANDE
Mbre
Bambara
Ganda
Map 2. Niger-Congo, from Heine and Nurse 2000: 12
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Maps xxvii
Chóngqìng
GUÌZHOU-
GUANGXI-ˇGUANGDONG-ˇ
Léizhou Peninsula-
HAINÁNˇ
Hong Kong
Guangzhòuˇ
HÚNÁN
JIANGXI- -
FÚJIÀN
TAIWAN
VIETNAM
YÚNNÁN
25°
30°
35°
40°
20°
25°
30°
35°
40°
105° 110° 115° 120° 125°
105° 110° 115°
Yángze Riverˇ
Yello
wRive
r
Xi’an--
HENÁN
C H I N A
SHANXI- -
GANSU- -
NÍNGXIÀ
INNER MONGOLIA
Beijingˇ
LIÁONÍNG
YELLOW SEA
HÉBEIˇ
SHANDONG- -
JIANGSU- -
Shànghái
ANHUI- -
HÚBEIˇ
ZHÈJIANG-
SHAANXÌˇ
Mandarin
Gàn
Xiang
Wú
-
SÌCHUAN-
Min
Yuè
Kèjia
ˇ
-
Map 3. Sinitic languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map VIII
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xxviii Maps
Note: Areas designated Lolo-Burmese, Rung andKachinic also include communities speakingTai, Chinese, and Mon-Khmer languages, aswell as other Tibeto-Burman languages.
PAKISTAN
I N D I A
C H I N A
TIBET
BHUTAN
NEPAL
BANGLADESH
BURMA
THAILAND
LAOS
VIETNAMBodish and Eastern Himalayish
Mirish
Bodo-Garo
Konyak
Kuki-Chin-Naga
Kachinic
Rung
Lolo-Burmese
Karen
20°
30°
60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110°
30°
20°
10°
100°
Map 4. Sino-Tibetan languages, excluding Sinitic, from Lyovin 1997, Map VII
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Maps xxix
20°
BANGLADESH
INDIABrahmaputra River
4
1
2
3
3
4
4
Mandalay
BURMAIrrawaddy
River
Bangkok
45
5
6
9
10
10
17
99
MekongR
iver98
8
8
8
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
VIETNAM
Gulf ofThailand
Gulf ofTonkin
LAOS
ANDAMAN SEA
1112
13
12
15
14
16
C H I N A
8
7
100°
(A) Southwestern branch1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.
10.11.
AhomPhake, AitonKhamtiShanLueLannaSouthern TaiCentral TaiLaoBlack Tai, Red Tai, Phu TaiWhite Tai
(B) Central and Northern branches
12.13.14.
NungTho, CaolanSouthern Zhuang
Central branch:
15.16.17.
Northern ZhuangBuyiSaek
Northern branch:
Hanoi
GUANGXI
GUIZHOU
YUNNAN
110°100°90°
10°
Rangoon
20°
Map 5. Thai languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map IX
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xxx Maps
100°
Bulang
CH I N A
LametKhmu
Khmu
Khmu
Nyahkur
Lawa
Mal-PhraiVientiane
THAILAND
Bangkok
Mon
Sa-och
ChongPear
Phnom Penh
Gulf of Thailand
ANDAMAN SEA
ANDAMANISLANDS
NICOBARISLANDS
SUMATRA
KintaqLanoh
TemiarSemai
Cheq Wong
Mah Meri
100°
Jah Hut
Semaq Beri
TemoqSemelai
SINGAPORE
INDONESIA
MALAYSIA
KensiwJahal
Menriq
BatekSOUTH CHINA
SEA
Bay of Bengal
WaBURMA
Mandalay
Palaung
INDIA
90°
BANGLADESH SyntengWar
KhasiLyng-ngamSantallI N D I A
Ho
Ho
Mundari
Kharia
Mundari
Juang
Sora
Gutob
20°
90°
10°
20°
Hanoi
Muong
LAOS
Calcutta
BhumijGulf
of Tonkin
Katuic
Nya-heuny
Samre
CAMBODIAPear
Ho Chi Minh City
Stieng
Mnong
BraoVIETNAM
m
bfd ae
c
ij npkoqrl
h
g
SrêChrau
a.b.c.d.
KatuBruPacohTa-oih
e.f.
g.h.
NgeqKatangKuySô
Bahnarici.j.
k.l.
m.
BahnarRengaoSedangJehHalang
n.o.p.q.r.
MonomKayongHrêCuaTakua
Khasian
Palaungic
Monic
Khmuic
Viet-Muong
Katulc
Bahnaric
Pearic
Khmer
North Aslian
Senoic
South Aslian
Munda
(Munda speakers are alsolocated in the south-central partof Madhya Pradesh in India.)
Nicobarese
(1) South(2) West(3) North
Mon Khmer
Map 6. Austronesian languages, from Lyovin 1997, Map VI
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Maps xxxi
Uto Aztecan
Otomanguean
Mayan
S. Tepehuan
Chatino MAYA
N
HU
AVE
Mazatec
Trique ZapotecMixtec
Map 7. Meso-America, from Suarez 1983, Map 1
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xxxii Maps
B E A V E R
C H I P E W Y A N
C R E ESARCEE
BLACKFOOT
C R O W
G RO SV E N T R E
A S S I N I B O I N E
ARAPAHO
U T E
KIOWA
CH
EY
EN
NE
LA
KH
OT
A
P
ONCA
LIPAN
COAHUILTECO
ME
SC
A
L E R O
CO
MA
N
CH
E
HA
IDA
CA
R
R I E R
SEKANI
1
TSIMSHIAN
NASS-GITKSAN
HAISLA
BELLA BELLAKWAK'WALA
23
4
CHILCOTIN
SHU
SW
AP
56 7
8
10
O K A N A
GA
NK
UT
EN
AI
FL
AT
HE
ADNEZ
PERCE
SAHAP-
TIN11
12
13 14
16 1517 S H O S H O N E
NO
RT
HE
RN
PA
IUT
E
20
NISENAN
WIN
TU
N
COSTANOAN
SALINAN 21
YO
KU
TS
CHUMASH
POMOANYUKI
MIWO
K
ALSEA
CALIFORNIANATHAPASKAN
WIYOTYUROK
TOLOWAROGUE RIVER
COOSSIUSLAW
TILLAMOOKCHINOOKAN
NOOTKAN
SALISHAN
LUSHOOTSEED
MAKAH
QUINAULTCHEHALIS
23
2425
SOUTHERNPAIUTE
NAVAJO26 30
31 32
292827
YAVAPAI
O'ODHAM
W. APACH
E
PI
MA
SERRANOGABRIELINO
LUISENO TIPAI
CH
IRIC
AH
UA
JIC
AR
ILLA
SERI
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 km
1. Bella Coola2. Lillooet3. Thompson4. Nicola5. Columbia6. Colville7. Kalispel8. Coeur d'Alene9. Spokane10. Cayuse11. Upper Chinook12. Kalapuya13. Takelma14. Klamath15. Modoc16. Shasta17. Achomawi18. Yana19. Atsugewi20. Washo21. Tubatulabal22. Kawaiisu23. Cahuilla24. Mojave25. Hualapai26. Havasupai
27. Cocopa28. Yuma29. Maricopa30. Hopi31. Zuni32. Keres33. Toas34. Picuris35. Tewa36. Southern Tiwa37. Jemez38. Hidatsa39. Mandan40. Arikara41. Sauk-Fox-Kickapoo42. Winnebago
43. Tobacco44. Neutral45. Wenro46. Seneca47. Cayuga48. Onondoga49. Oneida50. Mohawk
3839
40
PAW
NE
E
22
CUPEÑO
IPAI
18 19
3334
3536
37
STONEY
CHEMEHUEVI
KUMEYAAY
PAIPAIKILIWA
MO
NO
PANA-MINT
KONKOW
MAIDU
KARUK
MOLALA
QUILEUTE
9
Map 8. North America, from Mithun 1999, Map 1b
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Maps xxxiii
ALA-BAMA
MICMAC
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521773148 - ToneMoira YipFrontmatterMore information