March 22nd, 2012

Continuation of Severus’ policies concerning the armies and the senate.

Caracalla remembered for two major acts: 1. Murder of Geta. 2. Constitutio Antoniniana.

Destabilized frontiers.

Rise of the Severan women.

B. Apr. 4, 188 at Lugdunum to Septimius Severus and Julia Domna as “L. Septimius Bassianus.”

189 – Brother Geta born. 195 – Name officially changed to M. Aurelius Antoninus;

Septimius Severus clearly attempting to claim connection to Antonine family; made official heir together with brother Geta.

197 – Proclaimed co-emperor with Septimius Severus. 202 – Married Publia Fulvia Plautilla, daughter of

Plautianus (praetorian prefect). 204/5 – Execution of Plautianus and divorce of Plautilla. 208 – Septimius Severus commences British campaigns;

accompanied by Caracalla, Geta, and Julia Domna; Geta proclaimed co-emperor.

Feb. 4, 211 = Severus dead; Caracalla and Geta emperors; immediate power struggle.

GETAhttp://www.livius.org/a/1/emperors/geta_louvre.jpg

Caracallahttp://www.livius.org/a/1/emperors/caracalla_montemartini.JPG

Brothers only 1 year apart; Caracalla 22 and Geta 21 at Severus’ death; both ambitious for power.

Dio places the blame mainly on Caracalla.

Herodian notes a factional struggle; blames both equally.

Julia Domna tries to broker a compromise.

212 - Caracalla murders Geta; allegations of conspiracy; massacre of anyone connected to Geta.

“Antoninus wished to murder his brother at the Saturnalia, but was unable to do so; for his evil purpose had already become too manifest to remain concealed, and so there now ensued many sharp encounters between the two, each of whom felt that the other was plotting against him, and many defensive measures were taken on both sides.” (Dio. 78.2.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“After completing this ceremony of deification for their father, the youths returned to the palace. Open hostility followed, as they nurtured their hatred and hatched their plots. Each did everything in his power to eliminate his brother and secure the empire for himself alone. The honored and respected men of the city held divided opinions. Each of the youths privately solicited their support in secret letters, trying to win them by lavish promises. The majority favored Geta, who showed some evidence of a reasonable disposition, since he conducted himself mildly and moderately toward those who visited him, and devoted his time to the more serious pursuits.” (Herodian, 4.3.1-2. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

“Since many soldiers and athletes, therefore, were guarding Geta, both abroad and at home, day and night alike, Antoninus induced his mother to summon them both, unattended, to her apartment, with a view to reconciling them. Thus Geta was persuaded, and went in with him; 3 but when they were inside, some centurions, previously instructed by Antoninus, rushed in a body and struck down Geta….” (Dio. 78.2.2-3. Trans. E, Cary, 1927).

Julia Domna brings about a political compromise.

Geta to rule the east.

Caracalla to rule the west.

Power struggle continues; Caracalla and Geta both try to kill each other.

The murder of Geta.

“As the brothers were now completely at odds in even the most trivial matters, their mother undertook to effect a reconciliation. And at that time they concluded that it was best to divide the empire, to avoid remaining in Rome and continuing their intrigues. Summoning the advisers appointed by their father, with their mother present too, they decided to partition the empire: Caracalla to have all Europe, and Geta all the lands lying opposite Europe, the region known as Asia. For, they said, the two continents were separated by the Propontic Gulf as if by divine foresight. It was agreed that Caracalla establish his headquarters at Byzantium, with Geta's at Chalcedon in Bithynia; the two stations, on opposite sides of the straits, would guard each empire and prevent any crossings at that point. They decided too that it was best that the European senators remain in Rome, and those from the Asiatic regions accompany Geta. For his capital city, Geta said that either Antioch or Alexandria would be suitable, since, in his opinion, neither city was much inferior in size to Rome. Of the Southern provinces, the lands of the Moors, the Numidians, and the adjacent Libyans were given to Caracalla, and the regions east of these peoples were allotted to Geta.” (Herodian, 4.3.4-7. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

“Thus Geta was persuaded, and went in with him; 3 but when they were inside, some centurions, previously instructed by Antoninus, rushed in a body and struck down Geta, who at sight of them had run to his mother, hung about her neck and clung to her bosom and breasts, lamenting and crying: "Mother that didst bear me, mother that didst bear me, help! I am being murdered." 4 And so she, tricked in this way, saw her son perishing in the most impious fashion in her arms, and received him at his death into the very womb, as it were, whence he had been born; for she was all covered with his blood, so that she took no note of the wound she had received on her hand. 5 But she was not permitted to mourn or weep for her son, though he had met so miserable an end before his time (he was only twenty-two years and nine months old), but, on the contrary, she was compelled to rejoice and laugh as though at some great good fortune; 6 so closely were all her words, gestures, and changes of colour observed. Thus she alone, the Augusta, wife of the emperor and mother of the emperors, was not permitted to shed tears even in private over so great a sorrow.” (Dio. 78.2.2-6. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“But the hatred and dissension between them continued to grow. If it became necessary to appoint a governor or a magistrate, each wished to select a friend for the post. If they sat as judges, they handed down dissenting opinions, often to the ruin of those on trial; for rivalry counted more than justice to these two. Even at the shows the brothers took opposite sides. They tried every sort of intrigue; each, for example, attempted to persuade the other's cooks and cupbearers to administer some deadly poison. It was not easy for either one to succeed in these attempts, however: both were exceedingly careful and took many precautions. Finally, unable to endure the situation any longer and maddened by the desire for sole power, Caracalla decided to act and advance his cause by sword or slaughter or die in a manner befitting his birth. Since his plotting was unsuccessful, he thought he must try some desperate and dangerous scheme; [so he killed his brother in the arms of their mother, and by this act really killed them both], his mother dying of grief and his brother from treachery. Mortally wounded, Geta died, drenching his mother's breast with his blood. Having succeeded in the murder, Caracalla ran from the room and rushed throughout the palace, shouting that he had escaped grave danger and had barely managed to save his life.” (Herodian, 4.4.1-3. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

“After his father's death he went to the Praetorian Camp and complained there to the soldiers that his brother was forming a conspiracy against him. And he had his brother slain in the Palace, giving orders to burn his body at once. 5 He also said in the Camp that his brother had shown disrespect to their mother. To those who had killed his brother he rendered thanks publicly, 6 and indeed he even gave them a bonus for being so loyal to him.” (HA, Caracalla, 2.4-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

The intervention of Julia Domna.

The legion at Alba.

Caracalla’s reprisals.

The treatment of Alexandria.

“Nevertheless, some of the soldiers at Alba received the news of Geta's death with anger, and all declared they had sworn allegiance to both the sons of Severus and ought to maintain it to both. 8 They then closed the gates of the camp, and the Emperor was not admitted for a long time, and then not until he had quieted their anger, not only by bitter words about Geta and by bringing charges against him, but also by enormous sums of money, by means of which, as usual, the soldiers were placated. 9 After this he returned to Rome and then attended a meeting of the senate, wearing a cuirass under his senator's robe and accompanied by an armed guard. He stationed this in a double line in the midst of the benches 10 and so made a speech, in which, with a view to accusing his brother and excusing himself, he complained in a confused and incoherent manner about his brother's treachery. 11 The senate received his speech with little favour, when he said that although he had granted his brother every indulgence and had in fact saved him from a conspiracy, yet Geta had formed a most dangerous plot against him and had made no return for his brotherly affection.” (HA, Caracalla, 2.7-11. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

Senate did not believe Caracalla; seem more inclined toward Geta.

Caracalla attempts to assuage the nervous senate; attempts to bribe the legions.

Put to death anyone who appeared connected to Geta or disloyal in any way.

“During this same time there were slain men without number, all of whom had favoured the cause of Geta,2 and even the freedmen were slain who had managed Geta's affairs. 4 Then there was a slaughtering in all manner of places. Even in the public baths there was slaughter, and some too were killed while dining, among them Sammonicus Serenus, many of whose books dealing with learned subjects are still in circulation.” (HA, Caracalla, 4.3-4. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

“Of the imperial freedmen and soldiers who had been with Geta he immediately put to death some twenty thousand, men and women alike, wherever in the palace any of them happened to be; and he slew various distinguished men also, including Papinianus…. There were many others, too, formerly friends of his, that he put to death. 6 "All could I never recite near the names number over completely" of the distinguished men that he killed without any justification. Dio, because the slain were very well known in those days, gives a list of their names; but for me it suffices to say that he made away with all the men he wished without distinction, "both guilty and guiltless alike," and he mutilated Rome, by depriving it of its good men.” (Dio. 78.4.1 and 5.5-6.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“Geta's friends and associates were immediately butchered, together with those who lived in his half of the imperial palace. All his attendants were put to death too; not a single one was spared because of his age, not even the infants. Their bodies, after first being dragged about and subjected to every form of indignity, were placed in carts and taken out of the city; there they were piled up and burned or simply thrown in the ditch. No one who had the slightest acquaintance with Geta was spared: athletes, charioteers, and singers and dancers of every type were killed. Everything that Geta kept around him to delight eye and ear was destroyed. Senators distinguished because of ancestry or wealth were put to death as friends of Geta upon the slightest unsupported charge of an unidentified accuser.” (Herodian, 4.6.1-2. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

Must be understood in terms of Herodian, 4.3.7: “For his capital city, Geta said that either Antioch or Alexandria would be suitable, since, in his opinion, neither city was much inferior in size to Rome.”

Suggestion that Alexandrians perhaps loyal to Geta.

Massacre of the urban pop.

“Then he betook himself to Alexandria, and here he called the people together into the gymnasium and heaped abuse on them; he gave orders, moreover, that those who were physically qualified should be enrolled for military service. 3 But those whom he enrolled he put to death, following the example of Ptolemy Euergetes, the eighth of those who bore the name Ptolemy. In addition to this he issued an order to his soldiers to slay their hosts and thus caused great slaughter at Alexandria.” (HA, Caracalla, 6.2-3. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

“Now Antoninus, in spite of the immense affection which he professed to cherish for Alexander, all but utterly destroyed the whole population of Alexander's city. For, hearing that he was ill-spoken of and ridiculed by them for various reasons, not the least of which was the murder of his brother, he set out for Alexandria, concealing his wrath and pretending that he longed to see them. 2 So when he reached the suburbs, whither the leading citizens had come with certain mystic and sacred symbols, he first greeted them cordially, even making him his guests at a banquet, and then put them to death. Then, having arrayed his whole army, he marched into the city, after first notifying all the inhabitants to remain at home and after occupying all the streets and all the roofs as well. 3 And, to pass over the details of the calamities that then befell the wretched city, he slaughtered so many persons that he did not even venture to say anything about their number, but wrote to the senate that it was of no interest how many of them or who had died, since all had deserved to suffer this fate. Of the money in the city, part was plundered and part destroyed.” (Dio. 78.22.Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“While he was still living in Rome, both during his brother's lifetime and after his murder, it was reported to him that the Alexandrians were making endless jokes about him. The people of that city are by nature fond of jesting at the expense of those in high places. However witty these clever remarks may seem to those who make them, they are very painful to those who are ridiculed. Particularly galling are quips that reveal one's shortcomings. Thus they made many jokes at the emperor's expense about his murdering his brother, calling his aged mother Jocasta, and mocking him because, in his insignificance, he imitated the bravest and greatest of heroes, Alexander and Achilles. But although they thought they were merely joking about these matters, in reality they were causing the naturally savage and quick-tempered Caracalla to plot their destruction.” (Herodian, 4.9.2-3. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

Dec. 211 – Geta murdered; Caracalla sole emperor.

212 - Caracalla buys the loyalty of the legions with bribes; massacre of opponents; Constitutio Antoninia (extension of citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire).

213 – Caracalla at war with Germanic tribes (Alamani).

214 – Campaigns in Thrace and Asia Minor.215 – Massacre of the Alexandrians; debasement

of coinage.216-217 – Parthian campaigns; assassination of

Caracalla; Macrinus emperor.

Extension of citizenship not for “enlightened” reasons.

Emperor in desperate need of cash owing to: 1. Massive donative paid to troops. 2. Major public building campaigns. 3. Costly largesse.

Radical change in social and cultural demographics of empire?

“Now this great admirer of Alexander, Antoninus, was fond of spending money upon the soldiers, great numbers of whom he kept in attendance upon him, alleging one excuse after another and one war after another; but he made it his business to strip, despoil, and grind down all the rest of mankind, and the senators by no means least. In the first place, there were the gold crowns that he was repeatedly demanding, on the constant pretext that he had conquered some enemy or other; and I am not referring, either, to the actual manufacture of the crowns — for what does that amount to? — but to the vast amount of money constantly being given under that name by the cities for the customary "crowning", as it is called, of the emperors. Then there were the provisions that we were required to furnish in great quantities on all occasions, and this without receiving any remuneration and sometimes actually at additional cost to ourselves all of which supplies he either bestowed upon the soldiers or else peddled out; and there were the gifts which he demanded from the wealthy citizens and from the various communities; 4 and the taxes, but the new ones which he promulgated and the ten per cent. tax that he instituted in place of the five per cent. tax applying to the emancipation of slaves, to bequests, and to all legacies; for he abolished the right of succession and exemption from taxes which had been granted in such cases to those who were closely related to the deceased. This was the reason why he made all the people in his empire Roman citizens; nominally he was honouring them, but his real purpose was to increase his revenues by this means, inasmuch as aliens did not have to pay most of these taxes.” (Dio. 78.9.1-5. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

Styled himself after Alexander the Great.

The stereotypical tyrant.

Greedy and cruel.

Sexually depraved.

Agreement among HA, Dio, and Herodian.

Accused of all kinds of sexual irregularities.

HA - Incestuous relations with Julia Domna; Caracalla sought to marry Julia Domna; Caracalla sought to murder Julia Domna.

Herodian – The origins of the incest rumor?

“It is of interest to know the way in which they say he married his stepmother Julia. 2 She was a very beautiful woman, and once when she displayed a considerable part of her person, as it were in carelessness, Antoninus said, "I should like to, if I might," whereupon, they relate, she replied, "If you wish, you may; are you not aware that you are the emperor and that you make the laws and do not receive them?" 3 By these words his violent passion was strengthened for the perpetration of a crime, and he contracted a marriage, which, were he in truth aware that he made the laws, it were his sole duty to forbid. 4 For he took to wife his mother (by no other name should she be called), and to fratricide he added incest, for he joined to himself in marriage the woman whose son he had recently slain.” (HA, Caracalla, 10.1-4. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

“Antoninus wanted to kill Geta’s mother as well, his stepmother, because she was mourning his brother, and with her the women that he found weeping after his return from the Senate House.” (HA, Geta, 6.3.1. Trans. D. Magie, 1924).

Problems?

“Thus they made many jokes at the emperor's expense about his murdering his brother, calling his aged mother Jocasta, and mocking him because, in his insignificance, he imitated the bravest and greatest of heroes, Alexander and Achilles. But although they thought they were merely joking about these matters, in reality they were causing the naturally savage and quick-tempered Caracalla to plot their destruction.” (Herodian, 4.9.2-3. Trans. E.C. Echols, 1961).

Relevance?

Allegedly engineered by Macrinus, praetorian prefect.

Actually carried out by Martialis while on campaign in Parthia.

Macrinus proclaimed emperor; backed by the soldiers and the senate.