carbohydrates, nucleotides, amino acids, now lipids lipids exhibit diverse biological function...
TRANSCRIPT
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Carbohydrates, nucleotides, amino acids, now lipids
• Lipids exhibit diverse biological function– Energy storage– Biological membranes– Enzyme cofactors– Hormones– Intracellular signals– Etc.
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Storage lipids
• Fatty acids are highly reduced carbon storage forms that can be oxidized to generate energy
• Common lipids derived from fatty acids include– Triacylglycerols– waxes
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Fatty acids
• Carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon chains ranging from 4 to 36 carbons
• Can be saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds)
• Nomenclature specifies the chain length and number of double bonds separated by a colon (position of double bond noted with a and superscript numbers)– Palmitic acid is abbreviated 16:0– Oleic acid is abbreviated 18:1
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Patterns in commonly occurring fatty acids
• Even number of carbon atoms (result of using acetate as building blocks)
• Location of double bonds (in most monounsaturated fatty acids the double bond is between C9 and C10; in polyunsaturated fatty acids additional double bonds at C12 and C15 (some exceptions)
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Physical properties of fatty acids
• Determined by length and degree of unsaturation– The longer the acyl chain and fewer the double
bonds, the lower the solubility in water
– Melting points lower for shorter/unsaturated fatty acids
• The carboxylic acid group is polar (ionized at neutral pH) and helps slightly in solubility
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Storage to structural
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Triacylglycerols
• Ester linked fatty acids with
a glycerol backbone
Can be “simple” where all
fatty acids are the same, but
often mixed
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Triacylglycerols provide insulation and storage for energy • Hibernating animals generate a lot of
triacyglycerols under their skin
• Store carbon as triacylglycerols instead of glycogen and starch– A more reduced form of carbon, get more energy
(about twice) from oxidation– Hydrophobic character does not necessitate
carrying water weight (water used to hydrate carbohydrates)
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Membrane lipids
• Are amphipathic, pack into bilayers
• Include:– Glycerophospholipids– Sphingolipids– Sterols
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Glycerophospholipids
• Use glycerol 3-phosphate as backbone
• Two fatty acids attached via ester linkage to first and second carbons, a polar or charged group is attached via a phosphodiester linkage at the third carbon
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Ether lipids
• Includes membrane structural lipids of the Archaea domain
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Sphingolipids
• Have a polar head group and two nonpolar tails but contain sphingosine, not glycerol
• Carbons 1, 2, and 3 of sphingosine are analogous to glycerol carbons
• When a fatty acid is attached to the –NH2 group on C2, this compound is called ceramide
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Subclasses of sphingolipids
• Sphingomyelins– Contain phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine as
polar head group, prominent in myelin (hence the name)
• Glycosphingolipids– Modified with sugars; found in plasma membrane
(recall lectins)
• Gangliosides– Distinct carbohydrate pattern
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Roles for sphingolipids
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Phospholipases breakdown phospholipids
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Sterols• Structural lipids found in most eukaryotic
membranes
• Also serve as precursors for various biomolecules
• Cholesterol
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Other roles for lipids• Phosphatidylinositol regulates cell structure
and metabolism
• Serves as a binding site for specific proteins, and a source of extracellular messenger molecules
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• Prostaglandins regulated synthesis of intracellular messenger cAMP
• Oxidized sterols (steroids) serve as hormones
• Quinones and vitamins E and K are oxidation-reduction cofactors
• Fat soluble vitamins serve as cofactors, and hormone precursors– Vitamin A (retinol) was discussed before in the context
of bacteriorhodopsin, and serves as a visual pigment
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Getting energy from fat
• Oxidation of long-chain fatty acids to acetyl-CoA is another central energy generating pathway
• Electrons from this process pass to the respiratory chain, while acetyl-CoA produced during this process is further oxidized by the citric acid cycle
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Fatty acids are activated and transported into the mitochondria
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Distinct acyl-CoA synthetase
• Different enzymes have different substrate specificities for longer or shorter fatty acids
• All catalyze the formation of the thioester linkage between the fatty acid carboxyl group and thiol of Co-A coupled to ATP hydrolysis
• The reaction occurs in two steps as shown on previous slide
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Carnitine as a carrier
• The fatty acyl group is transferred from CoA to carnitine, the resulting product is brought into the matrix via the acyl-carnitine/carnitine transporter
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Linking pools of CoA
• The next step is transfer of the fatty acyl group from carnitine to mitochondrial CoA
• CoA in the mitochondrial is primarily used in oxidative degradation of pyruvate, fatty acids, and some amino acids
• Cytosolic CoA is also used in the biosynthesis of fatty acids
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Transfer is rate-limiting
• The carnitine-mediated fatty acyl transfer is the rate-limiting step for oxidation of fatty acids and is a key regulatory point
• Once in the mitochondria, fatty-acyl CoA is quickly acted upon