carbon capture and storage an overview of options
TRANSCRIPT
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June 2010
Klaus S. LacknerColumbia University
Carbon Capture and StorageAn Overview of Options
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World needs affordable, plentiful and clean energy for all
Energy is central to human well-being
Clean energy can overcome other sustainability limits
Plentiful Sustainable EnergyPlentiful Sustainable Energy
Energy
Food Water Minerals
Environment
Atmospheric CO2 level must be stabilized
Fossil carbon is not running out
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IPCC Model Simulations of CO2 Emissions
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Growth Relative to 2000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100Year
Fra
ctio
nal C
hang
e
Constant Growth 1.6% Plus Population Growth to 10 billion Closing the Gap at 2%
Energy intensity drop 1%/yr Energy Intensity drop 1.5%/yr Energy Intensity drop 2% per year
Constant growth
Plus Population Growth
Closing the Gap
1% energy intensity reduction
1.5% energy intensity reduction2.0% energy intensity reduction
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Future Energy Demand
• 15 – 100 TW• 15 TW: Current use is a low end prediction
– Extreme increases in efficiency– Move away from production of physical goods
• 50 TW: Business as usual– Large drop in energy intensity (efficiency, and
change in activity)– No new energy drivers
• 100 TW: Past performance
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Hubbert’s Peak?
Source: Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas Newsletter
added
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Fossil Fuels Are Plentiful
• Coal resources alone could be 3000 to 5000 Gt of carbon– 400 Gt consumed since1800– annual production of 8 Gt/yr of fossil carbon
• Beware of “resource” vs. “proven reserve”
Curve fitting of past production does not make the known resources go away
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Fossil fuels are fungible …
RefiningCarbon
DieselCoal
Shale
Tar
OilNatural
Gas
Jet Fuel
HeatElectricity
Ethanol
MethanolDME
Hydrogen
SynthesisGas
… and they are not running out
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200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200
ContinuedExponential
Growth
Constant Emissionsafter 2010
100%of 2010 rate
33%
10%
0%Preindustrial Level
280 ppm
Hazardous Level450 ppm
Hazardous Level450 ppm
Stabilize CO2 concentration – not CO2 emissionsCO2(pp
m)
year
Environmental Limits – Not Resource Limits
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The Big Three Energy Options
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Cost effective options, but not at full scale
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Without Carbon Capture and Storage fossil fuels will have to be phased out
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Dividing The Fossil Carbon Pie
900 Gt Ctotal
550 ppm
PastT his de cade
1 trillion tons
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Schematic diagram of possible CCS systems
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3CO2(g) →3MgCO3 + 2SiO2 +2H2O(l)+63kJ/mol CO2
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Removing the Carbon Constraint
5000 Gt Ctotal
Past
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Net Zero Carbon EconomyNet Zero Carbon Economy
CO2 extraction from air
Permanent & safe
disposal
CO2 from concentrated
sources
Capture from power plants, cement, steel,
refineries, etc.
Geological Storage Mineral carbonate disposal
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Net Zero Carbon EconomyNet Zero Carbon Economy
CO2 extraction from air
Permanent & safe
disposal
CO2 from concentrated
sources
Capture from power plants, cement, steel,
refineries, etc.
Geological Storage Mineral carbonate disposal
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Many Different Options
• Flue gas scrubbing – retrofit– MEA, ammonia, chilled ammonia, …
• Oxyfuel Combustion – retrofit and new– Naturally zero emission
• Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle – new plant– Difficult as zero emission
• AZEP Cycles – innovative design– Mixed Oxide Membranes
• Fuel Cell Cycles – innovative design– Solid Oxide Membranes
Problem needs solutions on many different timescales
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Collecting CO 2 at High Efficiency
• Integration rather than flue gas scrubbing• CO2 capture enables zero emission• Fossil fuels are energy ores• Power plants refine the ore• Cost of sequestration will drive efficiency
60% to 80% conversion efficiency
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CO2 N2
H2OSOx, NOx andother Pollutants
Carbon
Air
Zero Emission Principle …
Solid WastePower Plant
… leads to advanced power plant designs
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C + O2� CO2
no change in mole volumeentropy stays constant∆G = ∆H
2H2 + O2� 2H2Olarge reduction in mole volumeentropy decreases in reactantsmade up by heat transfer to surroundings∆G < ∆H
Carbon makes a better fuel cell
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A Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
O --
O --
O --
H2 (CO)H2O
O2 (in air)
e- e-
Membrane electrolyte
External circuit
electrodeCO2
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Advanced Zero Emission Power Plants
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Hydrogenation
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Steam Reforming
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Boudouard Reaction
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PCO2CO2O2-
CO32- CO3
2-CO32- CO3
2-
O2- O2- O2- CO2Phase I: Solid Oxide
Phase II: Molten Carbonate
CO2 Membrane
Jennifer Wade
High partial
pressure of CO2
Low partial pressure of CO2
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Net Zero Carbon EconomyNet Zero Carbon Economy
CO2 extraction from air
Permanent & safe
disposal
CO2 from concentrated
sources
Capture from power plants, cement, steel,
refineries, etc.
Geological Storage Mineral carbonate disposal
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Limited Options - Large Scale
• Geological Storage• Mineral Sequestration• Ocean Disposal• Bio-Sequestration
Disposal is the most difficult part of CCS
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Lake Michigan
21st century carbon dioxide emissions could exceed the mass of water in Lake Michigan
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StorageLife Time
5000 Gt of C
200 years at 4 times current rates of emission
Storage
Slow Leak (0.04%/yr)2 Gt/yr for 2500 years
Current Emissions: 8Gt/year
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Underground Injection
statoil
Enhanced Oil RecoveryDeep Coal Bed MethaneSaline Aquifers Storage Time
SafetyCost
VOLUME
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Standard Technology
• Conventional drilling• Based on conventional reservoir
engineering• Practical experience in enhanced oil
recovery• Well explored, successful sites:
– Sleipner, Weyburn, In Salah, West Texas …
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Issues with geological storage
• Loss rate• Safety and monitoring• Accounting and monitoring• Managing huge injection volumes
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Energy States of Carbon
Carbon
Carbon Dioxide
Carbonate
400 kJ/mole
60...180 kJ/mole
The ground state of carbon is a mineral carbonate
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Serpentine and Olivine are decomposed by acids
• Carbonic Acid - Requires Pretreatment• Chromic Acid• Sulfuric Acid, Bisulfates• Oxalic Acid• Citric Acid• …
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Peridotite and Serpentinite Ore Bodies
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Magnesium resources that far exceed world fossil fuel supplies
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Bedrock geology GIS datasets – All U.S. (Surface area)120°W130°W
110°W
110°W
100°W
100°W 90°W
90°W
80°W
80°W
70°W
25°N 25°N
30°N 30°N
35°N 35°N
40°N 40°N
45°N 45°N
$ 0 1,000,000Meters
Legend
ultramafic rock
67°W
67°W
66°W
66°W
65°W
18°N
18°N19°N
0 140,000
Meters
Puerto Rico
8733 km2
920 km2
166 km2Total = 9820 ±100 km2
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Rockville Quarry
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3CO2(g) → 3MgCO3 + 2SiO2 +2H2O(l)+63kJ/mol CO2
•Safe and permanent storage option•High storage capacity•Permanence on a geological time scale•Closure of the natural carbon cycle
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Belvidere Mountain, VermontSerpentine Tailings
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Oman Peridotite
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Issues with Mineral Sequestration
• Cost• Mining Scale• Mining Impacts and mined materials
– Trace elements– Mined materials can be hazardous
• Complex chemistry
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Mineral OreMining and Preparation
Disposal
Acid Leaching
Acid Recovery Acid Recovery
Mg-Precipitationwith NH3 Base
Direct Carbonation
Mineral Pretreatment
Mg- ore Mg-ore
SiO2, Fe(OH)3
SiO2, Fe(OH)3
Mg-salt
Mg-salt
acid
NH3-saltNH3
acid
Mg (OH)2
Mg (OH)2
Mg CO3
CO2
CO2
activated Mg-rich material
Mg CO3
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Ocean Disposal
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Ocean Floor Engineered Sites• Clathrates• Covers, bags etc.• Trenches• Inclusion in Ocean Sediments
– Nuclear waste legacy
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In situ Mineral Sequestration• Changing 30 minutes into 30 years
– Move from serpentine to basalt– Aqueous formations– Mineral Trapping
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Gravitational TrappingSubocean Floor Disposal
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CO2 extraction from air
Permanent & safe
disposal
CO2 from concentrated
sources
Net Zero Carbon EconomyNet Zero Carbon Economy
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After Initial Work atLos Alamos and ColumbiaGRT is to demonstrate air capture in Tucson
Allen WrightGary Comer
Deliver proof of principle
�KSL joined the company
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�Air Extraction can compensate for CO2emissions anywhere
�Art courtesy Stonehaven CCS, Montreal
Separate Sources from SinksSeparate Sources from Sinks
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Wind energy – Air capture
artist’s rendering
Air collector reduces net CO2emissions much more than equally sized windmill
Wind energy ~20 J/m3
CO2 combustion equivalent in air10,000 J/m3
Passive contacting of the air is inexpensive
Wikipedia picture
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CO2
1 m3of Air40 moles of gas, 1.16 kg
wind speed 6 m/s
0.015 moles of CO2
produced by 10,000 J of gasoline
2
20 J2
mv=
Volumes are drawn to scale
CO2 Capture from Air
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Flue Gas Scrubbing – Air Capture
artist’s rendering
Sorbent regeneration slightly more difficult for air capture than for flue gas scrubbers
Dominant costs are similar for air capture and flue gas scrubbing
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depends logarithmically on CO2 concentration at collector exit
Sorbent Strength
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
100 1000 10000 100000
CO2 Partial Pressure (ppm)
Fre
e E
nerg
y (k
J/m
ole)
350K300KAir Power plant
∆G = RT log P
Sorbent regeneration is expensive
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Anionic Exchange ResinsSolid carbonate “solution”
Quaternary amines form strong-base resin
GRT photo
• Positive ions fixed to polymer matrix○ Negative ions are free to move○ Negative ions are hydroxides, OH-
• Dry resin loads up to bicarbonate○ OH- + CO2 � HCO3
- (hydroxide � bicarbonate)
• Wet resin releases CO2 to carbonate○ 2HCO3
- � CO3-- + CO2 + H2O
Moisture driven CO2 swing
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Novel Regenerator Chemistry
Low absolute humidityin ambient air
High absolute humiditywithout air
Resin collects CO2Carbonate � BicarbonateResin releases CO2Bicarbonate � Carbonate
REGENERATOR BOX COMPRESSION TRAIN
Water vapor condenses out with compression (< 2.5 kJ/mol of CO2)CO2 is compressed to liquid conditions (22 kJ/mol of CO2)Heat release is harnessed for raising temperature of regenerator (45°C)
AirCO2+H2O
Moisture Swing AbsorptionOPEN AIR COLLECTOR
• Moisture swing consumes water and electric power• 50 kJ/mol of CO2• 10 liter of saline water per kg of CO2
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CO2 polishing and storage
Air Capture Material and Energy Flow
Vacuum System – Regenerator Train
Air collectorconveyor system
Air Collector
Compression Train
Pump
Power PlantAir – 75 kg/s Air – 75 kg/s385 ppm CO2 280 ppm CO2
Resin Filters
Resin Filters residual air
0.0 – 3.5 g/s of CO2Re-emitted
11.5 g/sof CO2
6 – 12 g/sof H2O
5 kW of low grade heat 10 kPa
H2O + CO2
Total Electricity< 12 kW
Brackish Water ~ 100 g/s
8 kW< 1 kW< 1 kW
2 kW
< 1 kW
One ton per day unit
Inputs are salt water, air and mechanical energy
CO2
H2O
Outputs areliquid CO2andfresh H2O
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Collecting CO2 with Synthetic Trees
Advancing the Resin Technology
Mass-Manufactured Air Capture Units
Prototypes of Capture Modules
From Technology Validation to Products
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Setting the scale for 1 ton/day• 2 × 30 panels○ 2.5m × 1m × 0.3m
• 2 × 2500 kg of resin○ 10,000m2 of surface
• 6 × Chambers○ 4m3 each
• One Container○ 86m3
○ can hold all panels
Assembly line based automation
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Air Capture Economics
Launch: Single Mobile UnitsNo innovation, catalog prices for parts• Unit cost: ~$200k / unit• Operating Costs*: ~$125 / ton of CO2• CO2 Delivery Price: ~$250 / ton of CO2• CO2 Output: ~ 1 ton / day / unit• Units can be mass-manufactured• Delivered in standard shipping containers
Maturity: Air Capture ParksLearning and streamliningImprovements in resins• Unit cost: < $20k / unit• Operating Costs*: < $20 / ton of CO2• CO2 Delivery Price: ~ $30 / ton of CO2• CO2 Output: ~ 1-3 tons / day / unit• Range of collector styles, recovery systems
* Operating costs include all electrical, water, labor and material inputs
Cost Items Cost ImpactsRaw materials LowEnergy LowManufacturing HighMaintenance HighCO2 Storage Initially None
Move to mass manufacturingInitial cost are high – but less than local market prices
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EnergySource
H2O H2O
O2O2
Closing the Cycle - Synthetic Fuels
Power ConsumerPower generator
H2 CH2
CO2
Carbon Cycle
H2
Hydrogen Cycle
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Going to Scale (Mass Production)• 10 million units @ 1/tonne per day○ capture 3.6 Gt CO2 per year (12% of emissions)○ Require annual production of 10 million
• Assume 10 year life time• Compared to 70 million cars and light trucks
• 100 million units would lower CO2 in the air
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Monitoring and VerificationSafety and environmental issuesEfficacy and accounting issues
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Safety• Good choice of reservoir○ Safe, well understood cap rock sealing the formation
• Build in escape valve to relieve pressure○Most concerns are removed, if CO2 is released○However, resulting emission must be counted○ Air capture can compensate
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Hutchinson, Kansas January 17, 2001
3 days & 15 km away, 1000 tons of natural gas
M. Lee Allison, Geotimes, October 2001
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Storage involves a public good
• Who owns the pore space?• Who monitors the pore space?• How do we know storage is safe?• How do we know we accomplished anything?
By Contrast:Capture and transport only require a carbon price or performance standards
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Principles of Underground Storage• Storage must be safe○ Capability of an emergency release is important○ Continuous safety monitoring is important
• Storage must be effective○ Even harmless leakage negates CCS
• Storage must be verifiable○ System must be transparent, not require trust○ Need technologies for monitoring○ Positive inventory techniques are necessary
• Storage must last○ Life time of storage has to be thousands of years
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Manage Underground Storage
• CO2 injection creates three distinct problems○ Volume addition
• By far biggest problem• Can be solved by removing water (desalination)
○ Buoyancy• Can be solved by going very deep• Requires careful monitoring
○ Chemical Change• Must be managed, anticipated and understood• Small problem for most reservoirs• Usually irreversible, sometimes severe
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Volume Increase• Pressure management○ Fluids are nearly incompressible○ Volume injections are large○ Pressure field provides tele-connection to distant reservoirs
• water quality from aquifer intrusions• artesian wells• seismic stability
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Buoyancy of CO2
• Finding and opening fractures• Long term return to the atmosphere
Solutions:Continuous monitoring or sub-ocean floor injection
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Irreversible Chemistry
• Minimize negative impacts of unintended reactions
• Rely on chemistry being slow or well planned
Volume increase and buoyancy problems can be fixed simply by removing CO2.However, chemistry changes are irreversible.
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Dealing with Rare Events
• Prior Definition of Off-Ramps○Unexpected seismic events○ Salt water intrusions○ Artesian Wells○ CO2 appears outside the formation
If these events happen, the injection must be reversed
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Demand Positive and Quantitative Accounting
• Measure how much CO2 is injected• Watch it distribute underground• Develop generally accepted standards for measuring the amount of carbon stored
• Inventory measurements are critical
Current techniques are all qualitative
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Use C-14 for tagging for positive accounting
• Surface carbon is C-14 live○ 1.3 parts per trillion
• Fossil fuel carbon is C-14 free○ Add C-14, 1 microgram per ton○ Air captured CO2 is naturally tagged○ C-14 content never exceeds natural levels
• Not suitable for leak detection○ Inventory tool○ Resolves disputes○ Does not fractionate
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C-14 Monitoring• Why C-14○ It will not fractionate from the carbon○ It is unique in most underground formations○ It is harmless (C-14 content is like that on the surface)
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What Happens if CO2 is released?• Site becomes an emitter○Damage equals the price of CO2○ Air capture can set the price
• Liability is indefinite○Owners of the site are treated as potential emitters
• Buying certificates of sequestration
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guidance
Private SectorCarbon Extraction
CarbonCarbonCarbonCarbonSequestrationSequestrationSequestrationSequestration
Farming, Manufacturing, Service, Farming, Manufacturing, Service, Farming, Manufacturing, Service, Farming, Manufacturing, Service, etc.etc.etc.etc.
Certified Carbon AccountingCertified Carbon AccountingCertified Carbon AccountingCertified Carbon Accounting
certificatescertificatescertificatescertificates
certification
Public Institutionsand Government Carbon Board
P e r m i t s & C r e d i t s
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Price carbon at the well• Mobilizing and demobilizing carbon○ Trade carbon mobilization against carbon fixation○ Accounting is easiest upstream
• Rational design with minimal exceptions○Once mobilized carbon need not be tracked○ Create certificates of sequestration
• Carbon leakage becomes emission○ Remobilization is the same as mobilization○Only one flavor of “certificate of sequestration.”
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Steps toward a sustainable future• Public buy-in• R&D support• Equitable regulations○ International fairness○ Social fairness○ Intergenerational fairness
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Options• Regulating Sectors○ Performance Standards○ Portfolio requirements○ Technology Choices
• E.g. nuclear or renewable portfolios• Carbon Price and Carbon Limits○ Cap and Trade○ Taxes○ Pricing at the well
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Immediate Options• Increased Efficiency○ driven by price
• Reduction in Consumption○ driven by price
• Fuel Switching (Coal to methane)○ Sporadically discouraged by price
Best achieved by performance standards
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For every ton of carbon extracted from under the groundanother ton of carbonmust be returned
Carbon Capture and Storage
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How to get started?• Regulatory and institutional frameworks○ Carbon Price○ Regulatory oversight
• Public Engagement and Public Trust○ Transparency○ Accountability○ Reversibility
• Emphasis on ready technologies and minimum infrastructure change○ Geological storage○ Air Capture
• Research and Development○ This is not business as usual
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Placing big bets on the big three• Renewable (particularly solar)• Nuclear (first fission then fusion)• Fossil Carbon with CCS
Without CCS, the transition to zero carbon is very difficult
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200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1900 2000 2100 2200
ContinuedExponential Growth
Constant Emissionsafter 2010
100%of 2010 rate
33%
10%0%
Preindustrial Level280 ppm
Hazardous Level450 ppm
Hazardous Level450 ppm
Coming back downCO2(pp
m)
year
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